Tour objectives. Educational: note various examples hereditary and non-hereditary variability; on a number of examples of the variability of plants and animals, their adaptability to environmental conditions, to consolidate the understanding of the essence and significance of natural selection and to get acquainted with various forms of the struggle for existence in nature; be convinced of the variety of adaptations of living organisms to environmental conditions; to get acquainted with the ways of the emergence of protective colors and forms in plants and animals; verify the presence of divergence in plants and animals. Educational: on the basis of the material of the excursion, to develop in students a dialectical-materialistic understanding of the doctrine of natural selection and its results.
Teacher preparation. The best time for the excursion is May, June, after studying the course general biology in ninth grade.
If the route of the excursion passes through such biotopes as a mixed or pine forest, a floodplain meadow with lakes and swamps, the teacher has the full opportunity to "reveal" this topic with specific examples. The study of special literature will allow the teacher to distinguish from the whole variety of adaptations of living organisms the most interesting objects, develop tasks for independent work students on excursions, to think over the forms of using the material of the excursion for atheistic and environmental education. The tour is best done with a group of 12-15 people; more participants will drastically reduce its learning opportunities.
Preparing students for field trips. Encourage students to review the material on natural selection from the textbook and non-fiction literature and to bring comfortable shoes, clothing, binoculars, a camera, a notepad, and a pencil on the field trip.
Conducting an excursion. At the beginning of the excursion, remind students of the definition of variability (the emergence of differences between individuals of the same species) and the fact that variability is a common property of every living organism, and in a conversation, find out students' knowledge about non-hereditary and hereditary (modifications and mutations) forms of variability.
Even in the city or in the village you will certainly see semi-domestic rock pigeons (one species). Comparison of individuals of this species among themselves, even without binoculars, will convince you of the fact of indefinite variability: you will never see two birds that are completely identical. All individuals differ from each other in one way or another. Random crossing of rock pigeons with domestic breeds of this species sharply increases the manifestation of mutational variability.
From a city or village, your route goes to a mixed forest (birch, oak, linden, maple grow in the second tier) or to an oak forest. Collect 40-50 oak leaves, try to find two leaves among them that are completely identical. Do the same with birch, linden, maple leaves. In a series of one species, you will not find two leaves whose size and structure would be exactly the same.
These are examples of uncertain variability. And now pay attention to the lilies of the valley, abundantly blooming at this time of the year under the canopy of a mixed forest. Each pair of leaves, covering the flowering stems of lilies of the valley, has a different size. leaf blades and petioles. Despite the fact that many of the plants develop on the same rhizomes, on the shoots you will find a different number of flowers (or buds): from 3 to 8. Thus, in lily of the valley, intraspecific variability is manifested in the size and shape of the leaf blades, the length of the petiole, in the features of the flowering stem (height, number of flowers, their size). Similar phenomena can be observed in the double-leaved mink, round-leaved wintergreen, wild strawberry, and double-leaved love.
It is helpful for students to give individual or group homework while collecting leaves. Each group receives approximately the following tasks: collect 40-50 leaves of any one type of tree; measure their length and width; make a variation series according to the length of the leaves; calculate the arithmetic mean length of the sheet; make a graphic drawing of a variation series of leaves.
If there is a patch of even-aged pine forest along the way (for example, plantings of one year), take advantage of this and show students an example of intraspecific struggle. First, recall the essence of the struggle for existence and the forms of its manifestation in nature (three forms of struggle). In a pine forest, it is easy to observe trees of various heights and thicknesses, of varying degrees of development, from the smallest, thin, semi-dry to large and tall. The well-developed root system of the latter ensures the delivery of water with dissolved minerals from the soil to the crowns. The developed crown of tall trees absorbs the bulk of the sun's rays; other trees with smaller canopies receive less sunlight. Higher powerful trees, being in better microconditions, suppress the growth and development of neighboring individuals until they are completely exhausted and die.
Even earlier, without leaving the mixed forest, on the site of an old clearing occupied by a young deciduous forest (mainly birch and aspen), you can show an example of interspecific struggle. Clearcut areas are usually overgrown with light-loving, fast-growing tree species: aspen, birch, and alder. The mixed forest in this area gives way to secondary plantations - deciduous. Only after 10-15 years, under the canopy of a deciduous forest, spruce burrows appear. Trees, at first small and fragmented, are gaining strength every year and after a while, spruces will outstrip deciduous species in growth and development and enter the 1st tier. Birches and aspens under the crowns of conifers do not find optimal living conditions and gradually, one after another, die. As a result, a mixed forest is restored in this area, in which deciduous species are only an admixture that has been preserved to a greater or lesser extent (usually in the 2nd layer and in the undergrowth). Thus, using the example of a mixed forest, one can demonstrate the fact of an interspecific struggle for existence and the restorative power of natural complexes. A person can always preserve or create favorable conditions for the restoration of any natural (living) complex - such is the dialectic of nature.
In a mixed forest, it is convenient to demonstrate examples of interspecies mutual assistance. Mixed forest, as a natural complex, historically formed a very long time ago. All elements of this complex (trees different types, shrubs, mosses, herbaceous plants, soil, etc.) are well adapted to a certain set of external conditions, are interconnected and interdependent. Their coexistence is mutually beneficial. In a mixed forest, in contrast to open biotopes, a special temperature, water and air regime is created, which determines general character and features of the complex. As a rule, spruce, spruce and pine, spruce and birch dominate; they are accompanied by pine, birch, aspen, linden; the undergrowth is characterized by groups of young firs, birches and aspens. Limes and maples, mountain ash and hazel are always located in the 2nd and 3rd tier under the crowns of ripe spruces and pines, sometimes oaks, forming the 1st tier of the mixed forest. Such a forest is characterized by a certain set of shrubs and herbaceous plants: under the canopy of trees you will certainly find shade-tolerant "pyramidal" juniper bushes, raspberries, blackberries, blueberries, as well as mosses and ferns.
In a mixed forest, you can observe the brighter coloration of male birds (chaffinch, small flycatcher, pied flycatcher, oriole, etc.). What is it connected with? Why do only male birds sing? Why do all birds take care of their offspring (building a nest, feeding, "educating" chicks)? During the nesting period, the chaffinch, for example, occupies a certain area in the forest and actively protects it from other individuals of its own species. On these and other examples of complex intraspecific relationships, students can recall the phenomenon of competition for nesting territory, for food, etc. Intraspecific relationships are generally aimed at preserving offspring, at the prosperity of the species. Thus, the distribution of nesting areas between pairs of finches and the stubborn protection of the latter ensures the feeding of chicks and their protection in each family.
Here, in the mixed forest, you will come across other examples of natural selection in plants and animals. In many plants, pollen from the anthers of the stamens falls on the stigma of the pistil of the same flower. This method of fertilization is called self-pollination. Self-pollination can be compared with closely related crossing (inbreeding), which reduces the vitality of the species.
In the process of evolution, plants developed peculiar adaptations for cross-pollination. It has been experimentally proven that cross-pollination of plants enriches the hereditary qualities of their offspring, ensures the development of viable, ecologically stable and more prolific organisms.
In May, you will certainly see a flowering medicinal lungwort in the forest, and medicinal primrose (rams) on the edge or in a forest clearing. In some specimens of these plants, the flowers have a long style with a stigma and short stamens (these flowers are larger!). In flowers of other specimens, on the contrary, the stamens are located above the stigma of the pistil. In order for pollination to lead to the formation of a fruit, pollen from high-lying anthers must fall on a high pistil, and from short stamens on a short pistil. This is usually what happens: insects that collect nectar on flowers with short stamens carry off the pollen on their heads and leave it on the stigma of a short pistil. Conversely, pollen from tall anthers sticks to the abdomen of the insect and is transferred to the flower with the tall pistil. Such an adaptation to cross-pollination, when one plant species has two forms of flowers, is called heterostyly.
Heterostyly is characteristic of insect pollinated plants (entomophily). In the spring forest you will find many flowering plants, near which various insects fly. In May, white-pink flowers of oak anemone are visible everywhere, yellow - buttercup anemone, blue-violet - dense corydalis, lungwort officinalis and spring pine. A little later, clusters of fragrant flowers are thrown out, the May lily of the valley, the two-leaved mullet, and the European septenary. The flowers of these plants are diverse, but they all have similar adaptations for attracting insects: a bright color of the corolla, sticky pollen, abundant secretion of nectar and aromatic substances.
In the forest there are many plants whose pollen is carried by the wind (anemophilia). The flowers of these plants are usually inconspicuous, small, collected in inflorescences such as srezhka, complex spike, panicle. Examine the inflorescences (earrings) of birch. Men's earrings are much larger than women's (unisexual flowers!). They are laid at the end of summer, hibernate, and in spring, when the leaves bloom, they open, and numerous stamens throw out a huge amount of small dry pollen, which is carried by the wind. This pollen falls on the female pistillate flowers, which are collected in small green catkins. In most woody anemophilous plants, the trapping of pollen by the stigmas of pistils is facilitated by the fact that flowering occurs before the leaves bloom (hazel, alder) or simultaneously with it (birch, oak, poplar).
Some plants have time to form fruits and seeds in May - June. Everyone is well aware of the medicinal dandelion, in which the fruit (achene) has a fluff in the form of a parachute; the latter allows the fetus to be transported over a long distance with the help of the wind. Willow, aspen, poplar seeds are surrounded by thin white hairs ("fluff"), they are also easily carried by the wind.
Natural selection and its results are well illustrated by examples of protective colors and forms in forest animals. Cryptal coloration is the coloration of an animal that is in harmony with the background. It is very widespread in nature. An example is the gray, in small ripples, coloring of the upper side of the front wings of many moths and scoop moths; on the gray surface of the tree bark, where the butterflies sit in the daytime, they are hardly noticeable (Fig. 23). The monochromatic coloration of many beetles (longhorn beetles, pine weevils, etc.) living on tree trunks harmonizes well with the color of the bark. The woodcock and the nightjar sitting motionless on the "forest floor" are also invisible against the background of fallen dry leaves. The cryptic coloring is not always modest, nondescript. The bright lemon-yellow plumage of the oriole perfectly camouflages it among the leaves of tree crowns illuminated by the sun.
Cautionary coloration, bright, often variegated, contrasting, distinguishes the animal from the natural background. Insects with such a demonstration coloration, as it were, say to other animals: "do not touch me, otherwise you will feel bad." Among our insects, ladybugs, red bugs, and various leaf beetles have a distinctly warning coloration, of which the poplar leaf-eater is especially demonstrative - a black-blue beetle with bright orange elytra, up to 1 cm long. , leaf beetles, etc.), or with a specific repellent smell (red bug, henbane bug, etc.) "or with the presence of active means of defense or attack in the animal (wasps, bumblebees, bees, etc.). Insects with a warning color are inedible for most animals.Therefore, well-marked coloration is useful for these animals, since enemies remember them better; "non-aggression reflex" is developed faster.
Insects with this color do not need much mobility. For example, in a moth butterfly, the front wings are blue with red spots, and the hind wings are bright crimson. She is in no hurry to fly off the inflorescences at your approach. She flies badly. Natural selection in the moths does not follow the development of a fast flight (like other butterflies), but in the direction of the formation of bright colors and toxic substances in the blood, which determines their inedibility. Clusters of moths can be found on forest edges and roads.
In some insects, one part of the body has a cryptic coloration, the other - a warning; when danger appears, the animal suddenly opens a brightly colored area - this enhances the effect of the demonstration. This is how moths from the group of ribbons are colored: the front wings are gray, the color of the bark of trees, on which butterflies often sit, the rear ones are bright, with scarlet or blue wide winding stripes. In poplar and ocellated hawks, the front wings also have a cryptic color, and the hind wings have a warning. In a calm state, hawk moths sit on tree trunks with their wings folded - they are invisible; and when threatened with an attack, they spread their front wings and suddenly show bright red rounded spots of the hind wings, which scares off predators.
By natural selection, you can easily explain examples of the imitative similarity of animals with objects of inanimate nature: twigs, shoots, dried leaves, pebbles, etc. part of the body to the side and freezes in this position (Fig. 24, 2), imitating a dry knot. The imitative resemblance to small branches and knots is especially pronounced in stick insects. Appearance night butterfly - silvery holes - with folded wings, it very much resembles a broken shoot: at rest, the upper side of its front wings looks like a roof and is colored like the bark of a dry branch, and a round white-yellow spot on top of each of them perfectly imitates a transverse fracture of the shoot (Fig. 24, U). These examples illustrate more advanced forms of camouflage: a combination of cryptic coloration and the outward resemblance of an animal to some object.
In many animals, natural selection tends to develop similarities with other animals that have active defenses. This phenomenon is called mimicry. Everywhere in the forest glades and edges, on the inflorescences of umbellate and composite plants, hoverflies live (approximately the size of a housefly). Some of them have a brightly striped abdomen, like a wasp armed with a sting, others have a color and pubescence resembling bumblebees. Most insectivorous animals (birds) avoid stinging insects; they do not touch the hoverflies either, mistaking them for wasps, bees and bumblebees. These flies are called so: wasp flies, bee flies, bumblebee flies.
The motley anteater, in size and color, is very reminiscent of a large red forest ant. He boldly, without hiding, hunts for bark beetles and their larvae. This beetle is completely harmless, but insectivorous animals mistake the beetle for an ant and do not "take" it.
Sometimes imitators in the course of natural selection, getting an external resemblance to poisonous or stinging models, lose their most important systematic features. So, hallmark butterflies are colored wax scales on the wings. In bumblebee hawks, wax scales on the wings have practically disappeared, the latter have become very similar to the transparent wings of bumblebees. But on the body, colored scales are preserved in abundance; they imitate the bright and colorful pattern of the bumblebee.
You are walking along a meadow road, involuntarily stepping on various plants with your feet. Large plantain grows especially often on the roads - a perennial plant that is widespread in our country. Pay attention to the wide leaves of this plant - they lie on the ground. Try to find on the road among tens and hundreds of plantain individuals at least two individuals that are completely identical. You will not be able to do this, since all living organisms have indefinite variability. But look away from the road, and there, among the many meadow grasses, you will see many bushes of plantain. Unlike the form that grows on the roads, the plantain that you see on the side has larger leaves pointing upwards. Here, the variability of individuals of the same species is explained by different habitat conditions. Another example of phenotypic variability is the arrowhead (an aquatic and semi-aquatic plant), which forms several forms that are morphologically different, since they are found in different habitats. In the arrowhead form, which lives at a depth of 1-2 m, only underwater leaves develop. In the form growing at a depth of 60-80 cm, underwater leaves are preserved and floating arrow-shaped leaves appear. The typical form, associated with a depth of 10-30 cm, also retains ribbon-like underwater leaves, and floating blades develop into characteristic emersed leaves (Fig. 25).
One of the forms of the struggle for existence is the "struggle" of plants and animals with unfavorable conditions of existence. By adverse conditions I mean not only natural factors (negative influence spring floods on the life of many species of animals of river floodplains, summer drought on the development of field plants, meadows and animals trophically related to them, etc.). In densely populated areas, the main unfavorable factor in the life of plants and animals has become a man with his ever-increasing economic activity. The most affected fish live in rivers and lakes. "Costs" of technical progress of the XX century. led to the transformation of many rivers and rivers into waste streams from industrial and domestic enterprises, although in many countries, especially in ours, significant work is being done to curb the process of pollution and purify water.
Most fish species cannot withstand environmental pollution. Untreated sewage changes the gas regime of reservoirs, sharply disrupts the breathing of fish, and they die from suffocation or from direct poisoning with toxic substances. The number of fish is rapidly declining, one species after another disappears from reservoirs. The first to die are oxygen-loving species - sterlet, chub, asp; zander, bream, carp, ruff, pike do not withstand strong and prolonged pollution. In dirty and poisoned lakes and rivers, only small perches, roaches and loaches eke out a miserable existence. So far, these are the results of the "struggle" of the fish population with unfavorable environmental conditions.
Perhaps your school area is inhabited by birds that nest in colonies: black-headed gulls, terns, bee-eaters, sand martins. Seagulls and terns nest on old overgrown lakes and marshes, on lake islands and "floodlands" of aquatic and marsh plants. It is forbidden to visit nesting colonies during the period of breeding chicks. Look from afar how furiously tens and hundreds of birds of the colony attack a kite or marsh harrier that is near the colony, and how quickly the predator flies away from the gulls attacking it. The collective protection of their offspring is one of the most important adaptations of animals. It appeared and became fixed in the course of natural selection in gulls and other colonial nesting birds. This device sometimes does not save individual gulls from death; for the kite, escaping from the frantically screaming birds around him, defends himself, and his heavy paw, armed with sharp claws, inflicts mortal blows. The biological significance of this adaptation is that it is useful for offspring, for the species as a whole. Natural selection has fixed in the course of evolution the colonial form of nesting of gulls and their collective way of protecting offspring from numerous enemies.
Tour results. On the tour, we got acquainted with examples of both hereditary (flowers of plants of the same species, birch or maple leaves, rock doves, etc.) and non-hereditary variability (large plantain, arrowhead), both forms of which are characteristic of all plants and animals. Of course, only hereditary changes matter for the evolution of species.
In any natural landscape, during the reproduction of living organisms, many times more appear than they can live. There is a discrepancy between the number of living individuals and the presence of conditions that ensure survival (food, shelters, light, humidity, etc.). Because of this discrepancy, a struggle for existence arises; as a result, a huge number of plants and animals, especially young ones, die every year. On the excursion we were convinced that there are three forms of struggle for existence: intraspecific, interspecific and "struggle" of plants and animals with unfavorable environmental conditions.
In the course of natural selection - the main and guiding force of evolution - plants and animals develop various adaptive features that contribute to their survival and reproduction. Consequently, natural selection should be understood as the preservation in nature of organisms with traits that are useful for their life and the disappearance (death) of organisms with traits that are useless or harmful. On the excursion, we observed a variety of adaptations of plants and animals to specific environmental conditions: adaptations of plants to cross-pollination, to the distribution of seeds and fruits; pathways for the emergence of protective colors and shapes in animals.
Natural selection determines the divergent nature of the evolutionary process. Divergence (divergence of signs) occurs in nature all the time; one original form gives many different forms.
Everything in nature is interconnected and interdependent. Any biogeocenosis (mixed forest, pine forest, forest-steppe oak forest, water meadow, etc.) is a relatively stable ecological system that has developed over millions of years. Changing such ecological systems must be approached reasonably and carefully, taking into account the dialectics of the development of biogeocenosis. It must be remembered that a change in one element of the ecosystem entails a change in other elements. Human impact on biogeocenosis in the process of economic activity leads to complex, often negative consequences.
Departure from Vitebsk early in the morning. Arrival at Minsk.
Sightseeing bus and walking tour of Minsk- the capital of the Republic of Belarus. Trinity Suburb - the historical center of the old city with old, like toy houses of the 18th-19th centuries, the Upper Town with the Town Hall and cathedral Holy Spirit. Picturesque curved streets, cozy cafes, craftsmen's houses, artists' galleries. Church of the Holy Virgin Mary, shopping malls, ancient Nemiga. The Island of Sorrow and Tears in the bend of the Svisloch River and the memorial complex "To the Sons of the Fatherland". Dynamic modern look of Minsk. The unique iconic architecture of the main street - a monument of urban planning art of the 20th century - Pobediteley Avenue. Victory Square and the National Library, included in the list of the most outstanding architectural buildings of our time.
Sightseeing tour of the library. During the tour, you can visit the book museum (optional for an extra charge), get acquainted with the history, information resources, technical equipment, service technology, architectural features and decoration of the National Library, its functions as an information center. Rise to the observation deck, where visitors get the opportunity to admire the view of Minsk from a height of more than 73 m.
visit botanical garden In Minsk. Today it is one of the largest botanical gardens in Europe, both in terms of collections and area. In addition, the Minsk Botanical Garden is one of the best in the entire post-Soviet space in terms of the composition of the collection.
In the Botanical Garden in Minsk, there are about 10,000 plants from all over the world, including about 2,000 species and varieties of tropical and subtropical plants. Among them - cacti, agave, eucalyptus, bamboo, bottle tree from the island of Madagascar, palm trees, cypresses, magnolia, a coffee tree, oranges, evergreen jasmine and many others.
The Botanical Garden in Minsk is a museum of living plants under open sky. The arboretum of the Botanical Garden in Minsk is famous for its collection of coniferous trees. Trees and shrubs in it are placed by geographical sectors: North America, Europe, Central Asia, Caucasus and Crimea, Far East and Siberia. Unique collections of perennial plants from South America, Caucasus, Australia, Pamir and Southern Europe.
Optionally you can visit:
- Ecological excursions-lessons in the Botanical Garden, taking into account the school program "Biology" on the following topics:
6th grade- Live and inanimate nature; observation of living objects"; "Living organisms in winter"; "Living organisms in spring in various ecosystems".
7th grade -"Diversity of plants. Autumn phenomena in plant life”, “Variety of flowering plants, their habitats. Spring phenomena in plant life.
8th grade -"Species diversity of living organisms of the Botanical Garden"
Grade 10 - "Variety of plant varieties of the Botanical Garden."
Grade 11 -"The Results of Natural Selection".
- Museum of Nature and Ecology of the Republic of Belarus. The permanent exposition consists of six halls dedicated to the nature and biodiversity of Belarus, as well as the protection environment. At the Museum of Nature and Ecology, you can visually trace the evolution of the animal and plant world of the country and get acquainted with its natural resources (samples of all minerals found in Belarus are shown here). However, the greatest attention, of course, is paid to the Belarusian fauna. Next to the king of local animals - bison - stuffed animals of his "subjects": wolves, bears, wild boars, elks, lynxes... up to bats. Museum visitors will get acquainted with the inhabitants of the Belarusian swamps and underwater world lake Myadel, a collection of bird nests and the birds themselves - from the smallest, the yellow-headed beetle (weight 5.5-6.5 g), to cranes and the "winged symbols" of Belarus - storks. They immediately learn that the largest European habitat of the aquatic warbler, a globally endangered bird species (i.e., one that cannot be saved without special conservation measures), is the Polissya swamps, in which more than half of the world population of this species nests.
Among other noteworthy exhibits of the museum (there are more than 40 thousand of them in total) are the rib and shoulder blade of mammoths, which became extinct about 12,000 years ago, a fragment of the skull of a woolly rhinoceros, destroyed by man in the 10th century, the tur horn, and also unique for land Belarus collection of shark teeth.
- Minsk Zoo is a unique wildlife museum. The collection of the Minsk Zoo currently consists of more than 450 species of animals, about 2.5 thousand specimens. These are exotic animals and rare representatives of the fauna of Belarus, about half of which are listed in the International Red Book. In summer and winter enclosures, you can see 10 species of monkeys (there are anthropoids - chimpanzees), admire large and small cats - lions, tigers, jaguars, leopards, lynxes, cougars. Bison, red deer, moose, yaks, camels and llamas, mouflons and markhor goats live here. Waterfowl inhabit the natural backwaters formed by the Svisloch all year round. The constant interest of visitors is the collection birds of prey, including white-tailed eagles, Steller's sea eagles, steppe eagles, buzzards, kestrels, as well as owls - owls, owls, barn owls, polar and long-eared owls. In the exotarium pavilion, you can see more than 80 species of South American fauna: freshwater and marine fish, lizards and frogs, crocodile caimans, large turtles, macaws, capybaras, leaf-bearing bats, small monkeys - tamarins and capuchins, jaguars, pumas and many others.
- Dino Park- a bridge between the present time and the prehistoric era. You will be able to travel from reality to a world that existed millions of years ago and meet huge dinosaurs. Attention is presented to the figures of dinosaurs in real size. Realistic exhibits move, make sounds, blink and even breathe. The dinosaur park is designed for the general public: from the smallest to the oldest members of your family.
- Dolphinarium "Nemo".
At the performances, you will be told about the physiology and characters of dolphins, the features of their behavior. You can also learn a lot about the sea lion, Pacific dolphins and northern fur seals here. Minsk Dolphinarium "Nemo" is one of the most modern year-round cultural and health centers in Europe, which combines a dolphinarium and a dolphin therapy center. It is home to the northern fur seals Elochka and Alex, the adorable dolphins Hercules, Vita, Mika and Hugo, and the sea lion cub Nicholas.
Departure home. Arrival in Vitebsk late in the evening.
Automatic issuance of a certificate of publication in the official media immediately after adding material to the site - Free. laboratory, practical work, excursions. The law of homologous series in hereditary variability. Methods for studying human hereditary variability. Centers of origin of cultivated plants. Selection of animals and microorganisms. Lesson of generalization and systematization of knowledge. Lesson control and testing knowledge. Patterns of micro- and macroevolution 11 hours. History of the development of evolutionary theory. Population as an evolutionary structure. Factors-suppliers of material for evolution. Natural selection and its results. The main directions and ways of the evolutionary process. Direction and predictability of evolution. A lesson in acquiring new knowledge. Origin and historical development of life on Earth. Man's place in the biosphere. A lesson in acquiring new knowledge. Living only from living - the theory of biogenesis. Virtual excursion to the local history museum. Development of life on Earth by Cryptoz. Development of life in the Late Paleozoic. Development of life in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Interaction of society and nature. Activity modern man as an environmental factor. Co-evolution of nature and society. A lesson in applying the acquired knowledge. 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Excursion on the topic: "NATURAL SELECTION AND ITS RESULTS"
Target: introducewith many different animals and plants, which can serve as excellent examples of the most diverse adaptations to the conditions of a given biotope; develop attention and observation; cultivate love and respect for nature.
Evolution is the historical process of the development of living organisms from simple forms to complex, from less organized to more organized, ultimately leading to the maximum adaptability of the organism to environmental conditions. As the great biologist Charles Darwin first showed, this fitness is due to natural selection - as the main driving force evolutionary process that ensures the harmony of the species precisely to the environment in which it lives.VIn nature, there are many protective adaptations in organisms that can only be explained from the point of view of the theory of natural selection, and, conversely, it is these indirect adaptations that are very convincing evidence of the existence of natural selection.
In our natural conditions, in the biocenoses surrounding us, there are many different animals that can serve as excellent examples of the most diverse adaptations to the conditions of a given biotope. You just need to carefully look at the life of these animals, be able to find them and have the gift of showing these wonderful manifestations of natural selection to students.Athis can be done only in the course of a biological excursion into nature.
Let us consider specifically examples of various adaptations of organisms that have arisen in evolution under the guiding action of natural selection. In modern biology, the following basic adaptations in animals are classified (according to Acad.I.I.Schmalhausen,1969):
Protective colors: concealing or cryptic; patronizing pattern and form;
dismembering color, or concealing countershade; warning coloration, or aposemia;
threatening or intimidating;
Mimicry.
Means of protection in plants and animals from predators and insectsgov.
4. Mutual adaptations of plants and animals to cross-pollination.
Examples of passive defense in organisms can be shown in almost any biotope, but in order for students to see them on different representatives of the animal and plant world, it is necessary to go through various biotopes during such an excursion: forest, meadow, field, vegetable garden, reservoir.
Concealing or cryptic coloration: similarity in color and shape with the environment, due to which the organism becomes difficult to distinguish. For example, the eggs of many species of freshwater molluscs are transparent; insect eggs laid on the bark of trees and shrubs are grayish-brown, and green on stems and leaves.Atbirds nesting on the soil surface (plovers, lapwings, ternsthey:gray and brown, with spots. If the eggs are protected and inaccessible to a predator, then most often they have White color(reptiles that bury them in the soil, and birds that have closed nests).
Draw students' attention to the fact that caterpillars of many speciesbutterflies green, under the color of foliage; or dark, the color of the bark and soil. At the same time, Lepidoptera pupae are always gray or brown, matching the color of the soil and bark.
When you walk along a field or forest path and carefully look under your feet, you occasionally notice a beetle, dark in color, crushed by the foot of an inattentive previous passer-by. This happens because it is difficult to notice the ground beetle or sandy slow moth, which are very similar in color to the soil surface.
From autumn to spring in our oak forests it is difficult to find caterpillars of the oak-leaved silkworm on the trees. Their brown flat body has two lobed lateral outgrowths on the abdomen. The shape of the body and coloring make the caterpillars invisible against the background of the winter landscape. The same can be observed in the summer in the garden. If the cabbage leaves are riddled with holes covered with a transparent film, then they were damaged by the caterpillars of the cabbage moth.Abutterflies are not visible, because when they sit, their shape and color resemble a mote or a piece of weathered wood. Thus, the patronizing design and form are a variety of the same cryptic coloration.
It is good to follow this on the example of nymphalid butterflies brightly colored in red. The earliest spring butterfly of our places is the urticaria. Many schoolchildren know it very well, they usually try to catch it, but it is extremely difficult to do it. At the moment of danger, the butterfly falls like a stone, folds its wings and becomes almost invisible. The fact is that the underside of her wings is painted the color of grass.
Dissecting coloration: an optical illusion of vision, when the stripes on the body create a false effect, and at a certain distance even a large animal cannot be detected. So it is very difficult to see a tiger or a zebra from afar even in open areas. But we don’t have tigers and zebras, so it’s impossible to show optical illusion using examples of large animals. Insects come to the rescue: in May, on flowering umbrella plants from a distance of 1 m, we easily distinguish a red stink bug with dark longitudinal stripes - Italian shield bug. But we have to retire to3 m, and the optical effect of deception immediately works.
Aposemia: warning coloring distinguishes seemingly completely defenseless animals from the environment and makes them especially noticeable. Such are the stinging bees, wasps and bumblebees, caterpillars, ladybugs, poisonous snakes. In this case, the bright coloration helps predators recognize an inedible or even dangerous animal and saves them from a useless attack and even death.
Threatening coloration: in this case, the animal is brightly coloredandobviously noticeable to a predator. But the drawing itself scares him away. The caterpillar of the wine hawk hawk has eye-like spots. In danger, it swells up, assumes a threatening posture, and the birds mistake it for a small snake. another ocellated hawk moth, as well as a well-known diurnal butterfly - the peacock eye, have bright blue spots on the red hind wings. Experiments have established that chickens and sparrows are frightened, mistaking a butterfly for the head of a large animal.
Mimicry: in this case, there is a false warning color, pattern, and shape. But the main thing - mimicry - is an imitating similarity of an unprotected organism with a protected one. Mimicry is often cited as an example in the literature.G.Batsa, a famous English travel zoologist who first noticed that among the poisonous butterflies, heliconids; flying in the Amazon Valley, there are representatives of another family, whites, similar to them in color and habits. In our area, students can be shown no less striking examples: beetles, flies, and butterflies are known to copy wasps, bees and bumblebees. In particular, the bee-eater fly is widespread, imitating the honey bee and visiting flowers with it; the hairy bumblebee imitates a bumblebee, the glass butterfly resembles a hornet, and the bee bug resembles a wasp.
Means of protection in plants and animals from predators and enemies.
In the forest you will definitely meet a hedgehog. In addition to the fact that this wonderful animal destroys rodents in abundance, which students are well aware of, the hedgehog has its numerous spines as a means of passive protection. The same importance is played by the needles and thorns of roses, wild roses, acacias, and many other plants. In nettle, mint, geranium, and many other herbaceous plants, scalding hairs containing organic acids or essential oils are a good defense against herbivores.
In different groups of the animal world, there are similar protective formations in the form of various kinds of shells: crayfish, variousColeoptera, sponges, shells of our freshwater and terrestrial mollusks, tortoise shell. Even under a microscope, in protozoa, students can show testate amoebae - artella and difflugia.
All of the listed and a number of other formations could develop only as a result of natural selection, due to the survival of individuals with more solid covers or better protected forms. This conclusion must be firmly grasped by all students.
Mutual adaptations in plants and animals to cross-pollination. The facts of mutual adaptation of plants and animals to cross-pollination can only be considered as proof of the existence of natural selection. Today it is obvious that the emergence of bright flowering plants with a strong and sugary smell is associated with the appearance of the first insects that begin to feed on nectar. For the first time he showed the diversity and depth of mutual adaptations of flowering plantsandrepresentatives of the entomofauna, the great Charles Darwin: for plants, this is the provision of pollination and, consequently, reproduction; for insects - the high quality of food associated with this significant development of the nervous system and sensory organs. The evolution of pollination by flowering insects followed the path of specialization. For example, the sage flower evolved in structure in such a way that only bees and bumblebees could pollinate it. Such a plant as a bruise in our area is pollinated exclusively by bumblebees.Atorchid flower is designed in such a way that many can pollinate it e insects. At the same time, in a number of nocturnal flowering nectar is so deep that they can be pollinated only by nocturnal hawk moths, which have a very long sucking tube in their mouthparts.
At the end of the excursion, a meaningful conversation will take place in the school biology room to consolidate the material collected during the excursion and observed in nature by students. In addition, it is necessary to create appropriate collections from objects obtained in nature, showing the indirect results of natural selection in the evolutionary process.
Pine is one of the most common trees in our country. This tree is very unpretentious to the soil. Pine can be seen on dry sands and moss swamps, on bare chalk slopes and on granite rocks. But on the other hand, with regard to light, it is very demanding and does not tolerate shading at all. This is one of our most light-loving tree species. Like other light-loving trees (birch, larch), pine has a loose, openwork crown that lets in a lot of light.
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State Educational Institution "Gymnasium No. 14 in Gomel"
Excursion №2
The results of natural selection
Fulfilled
Ermakov Vladislav
11 "A" class
Gomel 2013
Progress
A) Pine is one of the most common trees in our country. This tree is very unpretentious to the soil. Pine can be seen on dry sands and moss swamps, on bare chalk slopes and on granite rocks. But on the other hand, with regard to light, it is very demanding and does not tolerate shading at all. This is one of our most light-loving tree species. Like other light-loving trees (birch, larch), pine has a loose, openwork crown that lets in a lot of light.
Its needles are long and narrow, they are always in pairs. The pairwise arrangement of needles is a characteristic feature of this tree species. After dying, both needles remain connected and fall off together.
In winter, pine needles are reliably protected from drying out. Each needle is covered on the outside with a thin, but water-impermeable cuticle film. Microscopic valves-stomata, scattered in many on the surface of the needles, are tightly closed. Water also cannot evaporate through them. For reliability, each stomata is “sealed” with wax.
At the base of young shoots, dense light yellow clusters of the so-called male cones are seen in some places. A little time will pass, and yellow pollen will fall abundantly from them. Pine produces a huge amount of pollen. It is carried by the wind in a pine forest when the trees are "dusty". The unusual extravagance of pine in relation to pollen is understandable: only an insignificant percentage of it falls on the so-called female cones and produces pollination, the rest of the mass dies. Pine pollen is carried by the wind and has special devices that improve its "aeronautical" properties. On the sides of each dust grain there are two voluminous sacs filled with air. They reduce the specific gravity of the pollen and thus increase the flight range.
B) Color - disguised as the surrounding landscape: in winter - white (like snow), in summer - gray (forest, field).
Long ears - fine hearing helps to determine the approach of a predator in time.
Long hind legs- make it possible to confuse the trail by jumping over long distances.
The structure of the jaw (teeth) - allow you to eat tree bark and hard shoots.
A) Species diversity of birds of prey
great egret
A large heron with a very long, thin and sharply curved neck, long legs and a relatively short body (average body length 85-102 cm, weight 1.1-1.5 kg). The wingspan is 140-170 cm. The plumage is snow-white. In the nesting period, there are elongated feathers (egrets) on the back, somewhat extending beyond the tail. It is one and a half to two times larger than the little egret, in contrast to it it has black fingers and, in non-breeding time, a yellow beak.
short-eared owl
An owl of medium size (slightly larger than a crow). Body length 34-43 cm, wingspan 84-110 cm. Weight of male 218-450 g, female 237-430 g. The plumage of the belly, legs and underside of the wings is lighter, buffy-white. It differs from the outwardly similar long-eared owl in very short feather “ears”, black feathers around the eyes and less streaked wings on the underside. The iris of the eye is yellow, the beak and claws are black.
A small falcon with a body length of 25-34 cm and a wingspan of 50-69 cm, weighing 160-200 g. The male has a bluish upper body, a whitish-reddish bottom with longitudinal streaks. The female is brownish above, buffy below, the tail is striped. Young birds are similar in color to the female.
Little owl
The size of a jackdaw is an owl of dense build. Body length 21-27 cm, wingspan 54-65 cm. Male weight 160-240 g, female 155-250 g. The plumage color is grayish-brown with light gray and ocher-brown spots on the upper and lower sides of the body. There are no feather "ears", the legs to the claws are feathered with short light gray feathers. It differs from a species similar to it - the boreal owl in longer legs and a smaller head, which, due to the shape of the facial disc, looks as if flattened. The iris of the eye and beak are yellow, the claws are black.
A large feathered predator, with a body length of 62-67 cm, about 180-190 cm in wingspan, weighing about 2 kg. Females are slightly larger than males. It looks a bit like a very large harrier. It differs from smaller buzzards and honey buzzards in its larger head. The top of the body is grayish-brown, the bottom is white with sparse dark streaks, the throat and goiter are dark, the wings and tail are striped. Juveniles are darker.
Common buzzard (young, light morph). Medium-sized bird, body length 51-57 cm, wingspan 110-130 cm. Females are usually larger than males. Coloration varies greatly, from fawn to dark brown; the bird is easily confused with the closely related Rough-footed Buzzard (Buteo lagopus) or the much more distant relative the Common Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus), which mimics the buzzard's coloration to protect itself from the Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis). As a rule, juveniles are more colorful. The voice of common buzzards is nasal, reminiscent of a cat's meow.
dwarf eagle
The smallest eagle of the Western Palearctic, no larger than the common buzzard (body length 50-57 cm, wingspan 115-135 cm, weight about 900 g). There are two clearly separated color morphs - light and dark, which differ in the color of the lower body. In the light morph, the breast, belly, and underwing coverts are creamy white, contrasting with the black flight feathers. The tail is light gray, gradually darkening towards the end. In the dark morph, the underparts of the body are uniformly dark brown. The upperparts of both morphs are brown with lightening on the wing coverts. The rump and small spots at the base of the neck near the wings are white. When soaring, the wings are held flat or slightly arched downwards. The dark morph at a distance is easily confused with the black kite, marsh harrier or honey buzzard; light - with light variations of buzzard and honey buzzard.
red kite
Slightly larger than a black kite (body length 60-66 cm, wingspan 155-180 cm, weight 1.0-1.2 kg). The plumage is less monochromatic than that of the black kite, in general, a little lighter and with a predominance of red-brown tones, the tail is bright red on top, which is noticeable from afar. At the base of the primaries there is a large white area below. The main distinguishing feature of the red kite is a deep notch at the end of the tail. In flight, it looks more elegant and less massive than the black kite, due to its longer wings and tail.
B) The diversity of species is due to the position of the country, topography, climate, food availability and in Lately human activity.
Conclusion: The results of natural selection are such that there is a huge variety of animal and plant species on the territory of Belarus.
Each organism has its own set of individual adaptations to environmental conditions and a different level of organization.
