In Russia, 1896 there were 52 higher educational institutions (without Finland). In 1893-1894 25 166 people studied in them, from them women 983, i.e. four%. In 1896, 3,801,333,333 people were studied in primary classes at a population of 126,369,000 people. "Based on these data, - indicated in the reference book" Russia: encyclopedic Dictionary"- You can take 3 for primary education for all Russia." For the United States, this indicator was equal to 21 (p. 400).
Detailed information on education gives a statistical reference book "Russia 1913". In one of the reports given by the Directory, it was said: the Universal Census of the Population of the Empire of 1897 found only 21% of competent. This percentage increases in the Privislyan Territory up to 30.5%, in Europe, in European Russia without the Privislyansky provinces and the Caucasus, is 22.9% ... But in 24 provinces of 50 European Russia, the number of competent is still decreased without reaching 20%. Among them were a number of central provinces with a native Russian population: Vologda, Voronezh, Kaluzhskaya, Kurskaya, Orlovskaya, Penza, Simbirskaya, Smolenskaya, Tambov and, finally, Pskov, who ranked in 1897. Last place for literacy of the population (14.6% ). The high percentage of competent, 70-80%, gave three Baltic provinces, the metropolitan provinces were followed by them, St. Petersburg - 55%, Moscow - 40%. In the rest of the provinces of European Russia, it turned out to be less than 30% able to read.
The city of Vernadsky has several other data, although significantly and not diverged with the above. It indicates the dynamics. Writes: "At the date of the census of 1897, only 24% of the population of the empire over 10 years old could read and write. In 1914, similar persons were already about 45% "(p. 252). "The number of primary school students from 1894 to 1914 increased from 3.275.362 to 8 million people." He also adds: "In the Russian universities in 1912, there were 137,000 students of both sexes" (p. 277, 253).
Indeed, by 1913, the amount of education increased, reaching 4.6% of the budget (143,074 thousand rubles). With then common population Empire at 170.9 million people. This meant an increase in the cost of education to 84 kopecks. per soul, that is, an increase of 3.4 times. In general, according to modern updated data, by the beginning of the century, about 30% of the adult population was competent. Again, it should be borne in mind that 90% of the population were competent in the main states of Europe and America. And Russia in the sense of education practically lagged from all countries in Europe, the USA and Japan.
Literature. For some, the following data may also be curious. What literature was produced at the end of the XIX century?? It turns out that in the fifth anniversary (1890-1894) the topics of books were distributed as follows: theology - 13.13%, works of verbost (literature in the present) - 12.19, reference editions - 9.13, textbooks - 8.43, medicine - 7, History Russian and Universal - 6.29, publications for the people - 5.22, political sciences, finance, statistics, commerce, etc. - 4.88, lawwork - 3.44, publications for children - 3,16, Natural science - 2.71 ... Philosophy - 0.63%. Theologians clearly beat philosophers. They continued to beat them in 1913. This year, the religion was released 1764 names in circulation of 5,731,935 copies., By philosophy - 111 names in circulation 198,801 Ex. .
The science. The achievements of Russian scientists of National Patriots are complex myths-legends no less than the literacy of the Russian people. Some, such as V. Midinsky, trying to exaggerate their number, calculate those scientists who emigrated from Russia. Others, despite their anti-Semitism, are ranked with Russian and Jews, for example, Ilya Mechnikov, or Russified French or Germans (i.e. immigrants, which should be, according to their logic, attributed to scientists of those countries where they were born). Moreover, neither the other do not negotiate the criteria at all, on the basis of which include a person to scientists.
In fact, with science and scientists in Russia to the Bolshevik revolution, the situation was very unfavorable. An objective picture in this area can be learned from the unique monograph of Charles Merea "Achievements of Humanity", in which he analyzed the situation in science in the main countries of the world over 800 BC. Until 1950, the technology of its analysis and counting is described in detail in my monograph "Society: Progress and Power", so I will not repeat here. I will give only the results of his analysis on Russian scientists, limited to the period until 1917. He allocated scientists in a number of scientific areas that made large discoveries. The picture gets the following. In the area of \u200b\u200bastronomy out of 124 scientists, only one Russian - M. Lomonosov appears (thanks to its atmospheric research around Venus). In biology from 193 scientists of the Russians Two (DM. Ivanovsky and F. Leven). Chemistry: out of 204 Russian scientists four (D. Mendeleev, A. Butlerov, V. Ostvald, V. Makovnikov). Region: from 85 scientists Russian one (E. Lenz). Physics: out of 218 - Two Russians (P. Lebedev, A. Popov). Mathematics: from 191 - Russians four (N. Lobachevsky, S. Kovalevskaya, P. Chebyshev, A. Markov). Medicine: out of 160 - one Russian (K. Klaus). Technology: out of 239 - Two Russians (K. Tsiolkovsky, A. Popov - it is mentioned twice).
In a special list of Merea "the most outstanding" scientists who enter the "twenty" of the lowest. This list is indicated in the section "Chemistry" only Mendeleev. Attention is drawn to the fact that neither Lomonosov none of the Russian scientists fell into the field of view of world science.
I want to emphasize that the work of Merea is perhaps the only one in general in such a kind, and the main thing is that it is not ideologized. He absolutely no intention to ignore or humiliate any country. Although there are some flaws in the methodology for analyzing the degree of "significance" of a scientific event or a specific scientist, however the method of calculating the Merea today should be recognized as the most objective. And these books are confirmed in a generally obvious fact that Russia before the revolution was inferior to all European countries and the United States on the field of science.
Two words about D.I. Mendeleev. Its opening of the periodic system, no doubt, is one of the outstanding events in the field of chemistry. In this area, he is really a great scientist. However, his work in the field of economy, which some estimated very highly, are amateur in nature, which you can see by reading his book "Cepenty Thoughts". This should also add the political myopia of Mendeleev, which becomes especially obvious in connection with its estimates of the progressiveness of capitalism in general, and Russian in particular, before the revolution of 1905, only a smile aroused his estimates of the perspective of the Russian-Japanese war. This is the same as with L. Tolstoy, who is philosophized about world history in the epilogue "War and Peace". I. Turgenev in connection with this wrote P. Annenkov: "The trouble, if the self-taught is accepted to philosophize, as Tolstoy does." The same self-taught in the economy was Mendeleev. Although the material assembled by them, in particular about foreign trade, has a very useful applied nature, and some judgments relative to the Chinese-Russian relations cause a pleasant surprise.
* * *Usually in the context of science, the enlightenment is also talking about art, literature. So in these areas, Russia was exactly ahead of all! Many times read similar judgments.
In this regard, it is necessary to keep in mind the following. Not denying the great accomplishments of Russian writers and artists ("Golden Age", "Silver Age"), you can nevertheless to start a dispute, who is higher, who is lower: Shakespeare, Goethe or Pushkin, Mozart, Beethoven or Tchaikovsky, etc. The problem is that not only nationally significant writers, artists or composers, but even world-famous were unlikely to play any role in terms of human progress in general or a country in particular. At one time, this thought seemed to me wild. As long as I did not engage in the theory of progress. After studying this topic, now it seems to me natural. Well, let's say what influence did the Mozart or Shakespeare on the development of Japan or China? Or the great creations of the Japanese poet Bass, or the Chinese poet, Dongpo on the state of the European brain? I think no. While the inventions and discoveries in the field of science and technology, if not immediately, with time, certainly affect the development and specific states, and all mankind.
»Chapter VIII. Russian culture of the late XIX - early XX century.
The general crisis of an autocratic building, which was clearly already at the end of the XIX century, the rapid events of the beginning of the XX V.- Alto this imposed an indelible imprint to Russian culture. In a wide variety of its areas, they were reflected and those cataclysms that were shocked by Russia at this time, and then inherent in many representatives of the creative intelligentsia, a taking premonition of an even more terrible tragedy, which was promised the near future.
In the XX century Russia entered, having a rather extensive and branched system of education. She included three steps: initial (church-parish schools, folk schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher (universities, institutes). At the same time, these educational institutions existed and developed in unequal conditions.
Heavy it was elementary school. This was evidenced by a very low percentage of competent in the country: 21%-in 1897 ᴦ., 30%-in 1917 ᴦ. At the beginning of the XX century. Russia spent 43 kopecks on public enlightenment. per soul of the population, while England and Germany - 3.8 rubles. True, after the first Russian revolution, a sharp increase in the provision of primary education began. In 1905 ᴦ. In II, the Duma even considered a draft on the introduction of a total primary education in Russia, but he never received the force of law.
Somewhat better was the case with the average educational institutions. In Russia, in the first half of the XIX century. A whole network of gymnasiums was created with well-developed curriculum and a rather strong staff of the teacher. At the same time in the 1860s. In order to combat '' '' Mustion of nihilistically tuned young people, this whole system was artificially deformed. On the one hand, classical gymnasiums established, where the main emphasis was made to teach ancient languages, on the other - real schools with narrow-professional technical orientation.
At the beginning of the XX century. Under the influence of public requirements, the ugly parties of secondary education are gradually straightened. In the gymnasiums, a classic direction was weakened, more time was assigned to the teaching of natural sciences and mathematics. It was eliminated and unnecessary specialization in real collections, the graduates of which were now broader opportunities for obtaining higher educationThe earlier. Increasingly popular at the beginning of the XX century. Commercial schools used, the network of which was created on the initiative and means of trading and industrial bourgeoisie. These schools had the best material base than other secondary educational institutions, they gave a good educationThe joint training of young men and girls has been practiced in Russia.
As for the highest educational institutions - Institutions and especially universities, then in terms of the organization of teaching, they have not been inferior to the best European samples. At the same time, it is on this sphere of Russian education tragic events of the beginning of the XX century. The fatal impact was provided. Student unrest became the usual phenomenon of Russian life from the 1860s. But it was at that time they took a completely unprecedented scope. In 1899 ᴦ. The authorities aggravated the tight administrative supervision of the so-called 'long rules'', according to which the participants of student riots were subject to return to the soldiers. This measure caused consequences, diametrically opposed to those that the government was calculated: from 1899 ᴦ. Up to the first revolution, student unrest continued almost continuously, from time to time, proceeded in the strikes, which led to the closure of universities and other higher educational institutions. During the revolution, students became one of its most active participants. True, Stolypin, acting by the most cruel methods, managed to bring relative order in higher educational institutions. At the same time in 1911 ᴦ. A common student strike broke out, as a result of which several thousand students were excluded from universities. Following this, it began, 'seeing from Moscow University of Professors, who made his color: In protest, N. D. Zelinsky, P. N. Lebedev, K. A. Timiryazev and many others filed against the protest against repression. ᴀᴋᴎᴍᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϭᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, from the end of the XIX century. Normal life in higher educational institutions was broken, the study was carried out by urabs, politics pushed science to the background.
Start XX century. It was noted intense growth in Russia periodic press and book business. Manifesto 17 October 1905 ᴦ. introduced, albeit incomplete, freedom of printing. It was released from preliminary censorship, thoroughly undergoing judicial and administrative persecution for the publication of an anti-government nature. Although the concept of''antihivitative'''' was too much extremely widespread, all the prospects for publishing activities are now much more attractive than before.
If at the beginning of the XX century. 125 legal newspapers were published in the country, then in 1913 ᴦ. - more than 1000. The number of magazines has reached even larger digits by this time - 1263. At the same time, along with traditional 'thousand's' magazines designed for educated sectors of society, in more They begin to leave''ththy'''' - purely entertaining,''Dly family reading'''', women, for children and youth, etc. Some of them were greatly popular and went out with mass traggles.
Significantly expanded the release of books: according to the total number of literature published, Russia at this time came out in the third place in the world (after Germany and Japan). The activities of many book publishing, among which I. D. Satent and A. S. Suvorin were singled out by their disconnect. Sytin became famous for publications available to the mass reader: luffing books, a variety of brochures, school textbooks. In the same row, Suvorin also acted, mass editions of Russian and foreign authors, works on art, popular science and popular works by mass editions. At the same time, publishers arise, for example, the Sabashnikov brothers, specializing in the publication of serious scientific literature.
At the end of the XIX - early XX century. Russian science goes to advanced frontiers. In various areas, scientists appear at this time, whose discoveries change traditional ideas about the world around. In the field of natural sciences, such a revolutionary role was played by the works of Physiologist I. P. Pavlov, who developed a fundamentally new methodology for the study of living organisms. For discoveries in the field of physiology of digestion Pavlov, the first among Russian scientists, Nobel Prize was awarded (1904 ᴦ.). Another Russian naturalist I. I. Mesnikov became the Nobel Laureate for research in the field of comparative pathology, microbiology and immunology. The basics of the new sciences (biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radioogeology) were laid at the end of the XIX - early XX century. V. I. Vernadsky.
Having overtooking his time, scientists who devoted themselves to the development of fundamentally new languages \u200b\u200bof science. N. E. Zhukovsky, who played a huge role in the formation of aeronautics, laid the foundations of modern hydro and aerodynamics.
In 1902 ᴦ. Under his leadership, an aerodynamic tube was built - one of the first in Europe; In 1904 ᴦ.- The first aerodynamic institute was created in Europe. The brightest phenomenon is not only Russian, but also the world sciences are the works of K. E. Tsiolkovsky, which laid the foundations of the theory of rocket movement and theoretical cosmonautics.
The revolutionary situation in Russia began the beginning of the XX century. accompanied by the rise of the whole interest in politics, to humanitarian sciences: history, philosophy, economics, right. These sciences from 'Kababinetaya'''' turned into journalistic, a number of scientists began to engage in political activities. At the end of the XIX - early XX century. Of particular importance acquires religious philosophy, the foundations of which were laid by V. S. Solovyov. With extreme force and persuasive, he opposed materialism and positivism dominating in Russian science, trying to enrich the philosophy with ideas learned from Christianity. Following the Solovyov search for ways, in which humanity could approach the Lord and create a truly Christian society, such wonderful philosophers were devoted to N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov, P. A. Florensky, S. N. and E . N. Trubetsky, S. L. Frank, etc.
At this time, a number of very bright work appear, associated with various areas of historical research:''oocheries on the history of Russian culture''n P. N. Milyukov,''Krestyanskaya reform''a A. A. Kornilova,''istoria of the young Russia' M. O. Gershenzon. Increasingly, historians attract economic problems: serious studies on the history of Russian economy created '' olemal Marxists' M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky and P. B. Struve. Peculiar indicator high level The domestic historical science was the brilliant lecture course on Russian history V. O. Klyuchevsky, published at the beginning of the XX century.
With the names of Russian lingules F. F. Fortunatova, A. A. Shamatova, N. V. Krevhevsky related to the development of a number of fundamental issues of general linguistics and the birth of linguistics as science. In literature began the beginning of the XX century. The most noticeable figure was A. N. Veselovsky - one of the creator of comparative historical school, a lot that worked on the comparison of literary monuments of various eras and different nations.
Questions and tasks
1. Tell us about the Russian education system. 2. What influence was the events of the beginning of the XX century. on Russian students? 3. What explains the increase in the number of periodic publications after the first Russian revolution? What features distinguished the activities of leading book publishers in Russia? 4. Tell us about the most important scientific discoveries Russian scientists at the beginning of the XX century.
The reform in the field of education was one of the most important among the complex of transformations following the manifesto 1861. In 1864, the "Regulations on the initial folk schools" was published, according to which the network of primary educational institutions expanded in Russia, which were divided into 3 types: 1. Zemsky schools created by local land facilities. 2. The church schools. 3. International schools of the Ministry of Folk Enlightenment. At the same time, a new charter of secondary educational institutions was introduced, which were now divided into 2 types: classical gymnasiums - the main emphasis was made to study the objects of the humanitarian cycle and, above all the "classical" languages \u200b\u200b(ancient Greek and Latin). In gymnasiums, the children of nobles and officials were mainly studied. The real school program was different from gymnasically high attention to natural science subjects: mathematics, physics, chemistry. Representatives of the bourgeoisie preferred to real schools in real schools. Graduates of the gymnasiums could not enter universities without exams. Real schools prepared for admission to technical higher educational institutions. At the end of the century (1896), commercial schools, open on the initiative of representatives of large bourgeoisie, were added to these types of educational institutions. Big successes were made in the field of women's education. In the II Half of the XIX century, women's defamations and gymnasium appear in many county cities.
By the beginning of the 1960s, there were already 7 universities in the country: in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Derpete (Tartu), Vilnius (Vilnius), Kharkov, Kiev, Kazan. Later universities were opened in Odessa, Warsaw, Tomsk. Before the revolution itself, the university was opened in Perm. In 1863, a new university charter entered into force, expanding the rights of universities in self-government. In addition to classical universities, the number of higher technical educational institutions increased. Polytechnic institutions in Kiev, St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk were founded; Technological Institute in Tomsk. An important innovation was the emergence of higher female education (only men took higher educational institutions). Supreme female courses open. The courses of Professor V.I. used the greatest fame. Gerier, founded in 1872 in Moscow and the famous "Bestuzhev Courses" (named so named by their official head of the historian of Professor K.N. Bestumev-Ryumin) in St. Petersburg (1878).
Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky (1824-1871) became a source of scientific pedagogy in Russia. Proponents of democratization of public education, he approved as the basis of his pedagogical system the idea of \u200b\u200braising learning. Peru Ushinsky belongs to the works on pedagogy and textbooks for schools, withstood dozens of publications. Many forces gave the pedagogy L.N. Tolstoy.
Reforming education has brought certain fruits. If in the early 60s, the literacy rate was only 5%, then by the end of the century (1897), due to the efforts of Zemsky teachers and enlighteners, 21% of the total population of Russia were competent. The government did not show focus on education. Teachers' salary continued to remain very small. Ocignments to popular education were extremely scarce. In comparison with the countries of the West, Russia continued to remain a country with a very low level of literacy.
A feature of the uniqueness of Russian culture II of half of the XIX century was that the relatively low level of elementary literacy of the overwhelming majority of the population was combined in Russia with an unusually high rates of development of domestic science, which reached great success at this time. Especially wide fame in the world received research in the field of natural science. The founder of the Public School of Physiology became I.N. Sechens. His works devoted to the study of the brain and nervous systemwere a major contribution to biology. Work on theoretical and experimental study of the physiology of the nervous major activity was continued by a major domestic scientist, laureate Nobel Prize, Academician St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936), established with the help of a conditional reflex method developed by him, which the material physiological processes occurring in the cerebral cortex are based on mental activities.
Napoleonic Wars and subsequent active participation Russia in European affairs sharply near Russia and Europe. To the colossal rise of the national identity led Patriotic War 1812: Doubted the age-old foundations of Russian life - autocracy and serfdom. There were secret mugs of young nobility-guards (future Decembrists). And although orthodox Church Back in the previous century, it was reduced to the level of the state department, new phenomena began to be traced in it. The activities of the Movotechnikov - Starters, famous for their wisdom and righteous life become increasingly becoming more noticeable. The most famous were Seraphim Sarovsky, found later to the face of saints, and the elders of the optical desert - a small monastery near Kaluga.
At the beginning of the century, the enlightenment was recognized as the most important direction of public policy. The Ministry of Folk Enlightenment is created. The number of gymnasium increases, lyceums occur. The Tsarskoye Lyceum was especially famous (where bodily punishments were forbidden), from which A. S. Pushkin was released - the pride of our literature, A. M. Golchakov - the future Minister of Foreign Affairs, etc. In many cities, literacy committees that promoted the spread of primary education . Universities existed in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kharkov, Derpete (Tartu), Kazan, Odessa, Tomsk. A number of scientific societies are based, periodicals are developing.
In 1839, the Observatory was solemnly opened in Pulkovo near St. Petersburg with the most powerful in the world at that time a telescope. Professor Kazan University N. I. Lobachevsky (1792- 1856) developed a geometry of the curved space, which marked a new stage in the development of mathematics. In the field of physics, a number of wonderful discoveries belong to V. Petrov and E. H. Lenza. The whole Pleiad of Russian Chemists is put forward: N. N. Zinin, A. M. Butlers, A. P. Borodin. In 1832, P. L. Schilling, ahead of S. Morse, creates an electromagnetic telegraph. The government instructed him to pave the telegraph underground line, which combined all the buildings of the Admiralty. The first steamer was lowered in 1803, and the electric boat was created by B. S. Yakobi in 1839. Father and son E. A. and M. E. Cherepanovy in 1834 build one of the first in the world railways In the Ural Plant, and then create a steam locomotive.
A huge step forward was made in the knowledge and understanding of the Russian past. The famous historian and writer N. M. Karamzin (1766-1826) wrote "the history of the Russian state." His work has gained enormous popularity, thanks to him, many Russians first learned about the wealth and originality of Russian history.
In the second half of the century, a new ascent of natural science begins in the Russian Empire. In the field of mathematics and mechanics, the domestic science was glorified by P. A. Chebyshev, A. M. Lyapunov, S. V. Kovalevskaya, A. G. Tsenov. The pride of Russian natural science is D. I. Mendeleev, P. N. Lebedev, V. V. Dokuchaev, I. P. Pavlov, A. S. Popov, I. I. Mesnikov.
D. I. Mendeleev (1834-1907) was an encyclopedist scientist. In his extensive scientific heritage, there are about 500 jobs, there are works not only in chemistry, but also in physics, meteorology, aeronautics, agriculture, economy, etc. World famous scientist brought the periodic law open in 1869 chemical elementsin periodic dependence on the sequence number, or the charge of the atom nucleus.
I. I. Mesnikov (1845-1916) is one of the founders of evolutionary embryology and immunology. Together with N. F. Gamalee founded the first bacteriological station in Russia. Created the theory of origin of multicellular organisms, engaged in the problems of aging.
Truda I. M. Sechenov (1829-1905) and I. P. Pavlova (1849-1936) enriched world physiology and were a solid natural science basis for a materialistic understanding of such complex phenomena as physiological and mental processes In highly developed animals and man. Research in the field of electricity and magnetism, as well as photoelectric effects became famous for A. G. T-Tentes (1839-1896). The history of science includes A. S. Popov (1859-1905), the inventor of Radio, and P. N. Apple (1847-1894), the inventor of the "arc lamp" (electrical lighting). In 1882, according to the drawings of A. F. Mozhaysky (1825-1890), the construction of an airplane piloted by man was completed.
XIX century Especially glorified by the discoveries of our travelers. The first world swimming in domestic history (1803-1806) implemented I. F. Kruzhenstern. The expedition, headed by F. F. Bellinshausen and M. P. Lazarev (1819-1821), closely approached the "ice walled mainland" - Antarctica, which can be regarded as the opening of the sixth continent.
Modern brides are long studying photos of wedding dresses on the Internet before stopping their choice and make a purchase before the wedding.
Large achievements were made in the field of geography. The study of Central Asia was engaged in P. P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky (1827-1914). His associate N. P. Przhevalsky (1839-1888) explored the Ussuri region, Mongolia, China, Tibet. N. N. Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888) traveled and studied the region of Southeast Asia, Island Pacific Ocean. The scientific activity of these scientists has enriched not only world geography, but also climatology, biology, geology, as well as ethnography and history. N. N. Miklukho-Maclay lived among the Papuans of New Guinea. Based on the results of its observations and research, he proved that the backwardness of the island peoples is not related to biological (racial) reasons, but is extremely historical. Miklukho-Maclay actively opposed racism and colonialism. The richest ethnographic and anthropological collections brought from expeditions are posted in the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography in St. Petersburg.
The need to democratization of society - the abolition of autocracy and the elimination of serfdom was reflected in the ideological and political flows of Westerners and Slavophiles. Westerners considered Russia as part of world civilization, believing that it should develop on progressive models as advanced countries of Western Europe. From the 40s From this course, a radical wing in the face of V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, and others, who believed that it was impossible to transform Russian society only by reforms. Slavophiles (Brothers I. V. and P. V. Kireevsky, Brothers K. S. and I. S. Aksakov, A. S. Khomyakov, Yu. F. Samarin, etc.) believed that Russia has its own, distinctive way historical Developmentnot coinciding with the "rot" West. They idealized a rural community, saw liberalization in the idea of \u200b\u200bthe revival of the Zemsky Cathedrals, freedomity. The era of the Grand Reforms of the 60-70s. Began with the cancellation in 1861. Serfdom. It was the starting point of the transformation Russian state From the military-feudal-bureaucratic in the bourgeois-democratic.
Cancellation of serfdom, bourgeois reforms carried out within the 60-70s. XIX century Significantly accelerated the formation of capitalist relations in Russia, the processes of social development in general were intensified. Technical progress, transformation of the social structure, changes in the management system predetermined the need to improve the education system.
The reform in the field of education was one of the most important transformation complex following the manifesto 1861 in 1864, "Regulations on the initial folk schools" were published, according to which the network of primary educational institutions expanded in Russia, which were divided into three types: 1 . Zemsky schools created by local land establishments. 2. Church schools. 3. Folk schools of the Ministry of Folk Enlightenment. At the same time, a new charter of secondary educational institutions was introduced, which were now divided into two types: classical gymnasiums - the main emphasis was made to study the objects of the humanitarian cycle and, above all, "classic" languages \u200b\u200b(ancient Greek and Latin) and real schools, where more Attention was paid to natural science subjects: mathematics, physics, chemistry. Big successes were made in the field of women's education. In 2 half of the XIX century, women's defamations and gymnasium appear in many county cities. By the beginning of the 80s, seven universities were already in the country. In addition to classical universities, the number of higher technical educational institutions has increased.
A line of the originality of Russian culture 2 half of the XIX century. It was that the relatively low level of elementary literacy of the overwhelming majority of the population was combined in Russia with an unusually high rate of development of domestic science, which reached great success at this time.
Especially wide fame in the world were research in the field of natural science: I.M.Sethenov (study of the brain and nervous system), I.P. Pavlov (theory of reflexes), I.I.Technology (immunology, embryonicity, problems of aging, pathology and etc.)
The wonderful discoveries were marked by the development of chemistry: A.M. Butlerov (the theory of the chemical structure of substances), D.I. Imendeev (periodic law of chemical elements).
In physics, the end of the XIX is the beginning of the twentieth centuries. An entire number of brilliant discoveries were marked: A.G. Alloletov (questions of electricity, magnetism, physical nature of light, the first text of the photo effect), P.N. Yablokkov (arc lamp, "Candle of AppleKakova"), A.N. Lodgin (incandescent lamp ), A.S.Popov (Radio), A.F.Bolkovsky (aircraft), K.E.TSiolkovsky (project of the development of near-earth space with the help of devices driven by reactive engines).
A special place in the Russian science of the stroke of the ages belongs to V.I. Vernadsky, the former Rodonchaimage of Geochemistry, Biogeochemistry, Radiogeology. They were developed by the doctrine of the noosphere, the new evolutionary state of the biosphere (covered by the life of the Earth's surface), in which one of the decisive factors of its development becomes reasonable human activity.
End of the XIX century. He was the epoch of the last great travelers. On the map almost no "white spots" was almost left. However, not the whole earthly surface was studied evenly. A significant contribution to the development of geography and ethnography was made by Academician P.P. Semenov-Tien Shansky (explored Tian-Shan, was the initiator of several expeditions to Central Asia), N.M. Przhelzhalsky (study of Central Asia), N.N. Miklukho -Maklay (study of New Guinea and Oceania).
Significantly the development of historical science during this period: in 2 half of the 19th century S.M.Solovyev, the remaining fully and detailed "History of Russia since ancient times" in 29 volumes is written until today; VO Klanchevsky writes works on the agiography and history of medieval Russia.
The event in the cultural life of Russia appeared Intelligent dictionary Living Great Russian Language "V.I. Dal. Study of Russian literature was engaged in a collector of Russian folk fairy tales A. N. Afanasyev. The works of the Russian philologist and art historian F. I. Buslaeva received great fame.
The public lifting of the 60s affected both the total growth of printed products (according to the charsions and names) and on the change in the subject of literature. In the capital, many textbooks, religious books, fiction, fiction, is published, there is an increase in the release of serious socio-economic and natural science literature.
In connection with the cultural activities of the intelligentsia, the number of publicly available publications for the people, for people engaged in self-education, has increased.
But at the same time the release of the chesting books is growing. By the end of the century, the proportion of the transfer literature significantly decreased. This was caused by the success of Russian literature, the development of domestic science, social thought. The new industrial rise of the late 80s - early 90s, the revolutionary movement of the working class, the activities of the first Marxist organizations contributed to the growth of books and other print works, the book range was noticeably changed.
The number of publications by 1901 reached 10318, total circulation - 56331 thousand copies. The main centers of the book publishing in the second half of the XIX century were St. Petersburg and Moscow, Kiev, Odessa, Kharkiv went behind them.
