Altruism is a principle of behavior according to which a person does good deeds associated with selfless care and the well-being of others. Altruism the meaning of the word and its main principle are defined as "living for the sake of others." The term altruism was coined by Auguste Comte, the founder of sociological science. By this concept, he personally understood the selfless motives of the individual, which entail actions that provide benefits only for others.

O. Comte put forward an oppositional opinion to the definition of altruism by psychologists, who, with the help of their research, determined that altruism in the long run creates more advantages than efforts were expended on it. They recognized that in every altruistic action there is a grain of selfishness.

It is seen as the opposite of altruism. Selfishness is a position in life according to which the satisfaction of one's own interest is perceived as the highest achievement. Separate theories assert that altruism is a certain form of egoism in psychology. A person gets the highest pleasure from the achievement of success by others, in which he took a direct part. After all, in childhood, everyone is taught that good deeds make people significant in society.

But if we nevertheless consider altruism the meaning of the word, which is translated as “other”, then it is understood as help to another, which manifests itself in acts of mercy, care and self-denial for the sake of another person. It is necessary that egoism, as the opposite of altruism, is present in a person to a lesser extent and gives way to kindness and nobility.

Altruism can refer to a variety of social experiences, such as sympathy, mercy, empathy, and goodwill. Altruistic acts that extend beyond the boundaries of kinship, friendship, neighborhood, or any relationship of acquaintance are called philanthropy. People who engage in altruistic activities outside of dating are called philanthropists.

Examples of altruism vary by gender. Men are prone to short-term impulses of altruism: to pull a drowning man out of the water; help a person in a difficult situation. Women are ready for more long-term actions, they can forget about their careers in order to raise children. Examples of altruism are displayed in volunteering, helping those in need, mentoring, charity, selflessness, philanthropy, donation, and more.

Altruism, what is it

Altruistic behavior is acquired with education and as a result of individual self-education.

Altruism in psychology is a concept that describes a person's activity, focused on caring for the interests of others. Selfishness, as the opposite of altruism, is interpreted in different ways in everyday use, this confuses the meaning of these two concepts. So, altruism is understood as a quality of character, intention or general characteristic of human behavior.

An altruist may wish to show concern and fail in the very implementation of the plan. Altruistic behavior is sometimes understood as a manifestation of genuine concern for the welfare of others rather than one's own. Sometimes, it’s like showing the same attention to your own needs and to the needs of others. If there are many “others”, then this interpretation will not make practical sense, but if it refers to two, then it can become extremely important.

There is a difference between altruists, they are divided into "universal" and "mutual".

"Reciprocal" altruists are people who agree to sacrifice only for the sake of those people from whom they expect similar actions. "Universal" - consider altruism an ethical law, and follow it, doing good deeds with good intentions to everyone.

Altruism is of several types, which can be immediately interpreted as examples of altruism. Parental altruism is expressed in a disinterested self-sacrificing attitude, when parents are fully prepared that they will have to give material benefits and, in general, their own life to the child.

Moral altruism in psychology is the realization of moral needs for the sake of achieving inner comfort. These are people with a heightened sense of duty who provide selfless support and moral satisfaction.

Social altruism applies only to people from the closest circle - friends, neighbors, colleagues. Such altruists provide free services to these people, which makes them more successful. Therefore, they are often manipulated.

Compassionate altruism - people experience, understand the needs of another, sincerely experience and can help him.

The demonstrative type of altruistic behavior is manifested in behavior that lends itself to the control of generally accepted norms of behavior. Such altruists are guided by the "so it should be" rule. They show their altruism in gratuitous, sacrificial actions, using their personal time and their own means (spiritual, intellectual and material).

Altruism in psychology is a style of behavior and a quality of an individual's character. An altruist is a responsible person, he is able to individually take responsibility for actions. He puts the interests of others ahead of his own. An altruist always has freedom of choice, because all altruistic actions are performed by him only at his own request. The altruist remains equally satisfied and not prejudiced, even when he compromises his personal interests.

The origins of altruistic behavior are presented in three main theories. The evolutionary theory explains altruism through the definition: the preservation of the genus is the driving developmental force of evolution. Each individual has a biological program, according to which he is inclined to do good deeds that do not benefit him personally, but he himself understands that he is doing all this for the common good, for the preservation of the genotype.

According to the theory of social exchange, in a variety of social situations, a subconscious account of the basic values ​​in social dynamics is made - information, mutual services, status, emotions, feelings. Faced with a choice - to help a person or to pass by, the individual instinctively first calculates possible consequences of his decision, he correlates the expended energy and the received personal benefit. This theory demonstrates here that altruism is a deep manifestation of selfishness.

According to the theory of social norms, the laws of society assert that the provision of gratuitous assistance is a natural necessity of a person. This theory is based on the principles of mutual support of equals, and on social responsibility, helping people who do not have the opportunity to reciprocate, that is, young children, sick people, the elderly or the poor. Social norms are considered the motivation for altruistic actions.

Each theory analyzes altruism in many ways, does not provide a single and complete explanation of its origin. Probably, this quality should be considered on the spiritual plane, since the above-described theories of a sociological nature limit the study of altruism as a personal quality and the identification of what prompts a person to act unselfishly.

If a situation occurs where others are witnesses to the act, then the individual who commits it will be ready for altruistic action more than in a situation where no one is watching him. This happens through the desire of a person to look good in front of others. Especially if the observers are significant people, whose disposition he takes as very valuable, or these people also value altruistic actions, a person will try to give his action even more nobility and demonstrate his disinterestedness, without expecting to be rewarded.

If a situation arises in which the danger is likely that the refusal to help a specific person means that the individual will have to bear personal responsibility for it, according to the law, for example, then he, of course, will be more inclined to act altruistically, even when he personally does not want to. make.

Children generally show altruistic behavior through imitation of adults or other children. This is done before they understand the need for such behavior, even if others do differently.

Altruistic behavior, as a result of simple imitation, can happen in a group and a subgroup, in which other people that surround a given individual do altruistic actions.

Just as a person shows sympathy for people who are like him, he also wants to help such people. Here altruistic actions are governed by the similarities and differences from the person to whom he helps.

It is generally accepted that since women are the weaker sex, it means that men should help them, especially when the situation requires physical effort. Therefore, according to the norms of culture, men should act altruistically, but if it happens that a man needs female help, then women should behave themselves altruistically. This is the motivation for gender-based altruism.

This happens in situations where you need to help an individual of a certain age. Thus, children and the elderly need help much more than middle-aged individuals. For these age categories, people should show altruism more than for adults who can still help themselves.

Aspects such as the current psychological state, character traits, religious inclinations refer to the personal characteristics of an altruist that affect his actions. Therefore, when explaining altruistic actions, one must take into account the current state of the altruist and the recipient of his help. Also in psychology, personal qualities are determined, which contribute or hinder altruistic behavior. Promote: kindness, empathy, decency, reliability, and prevent: callousness, indifference.

Today we will talk about altruism. Where did this concept come from and what is hidden behind this word. Let us analyze the meaning of the expression "altruistic person" and give a description of his behavior from the point of view of psychology. And then we will find the differences between altruism and egoism using the example of noble deeds from life.

What is Altruism?

The term is based on the Latin word "alter" - "other". In short, altruism is selfless help to others. A person who helps everyone, I do not pursue any benefit for myself, is called an altruist.

As the Scottish philosopher and economist of the end of the 18th century Adam Smith said: “No matter how selfish a person may seem, certain laws are clearly laid in his nature, forcing him to be interested in the fate of others and consider their happiness necessary for himself, although he himself does not receive anything from this, except for the pleasure of seeing this happiness. "

Definition of altruism

Altruism is a person's activity aimed at caring for another person, his well-being and satisfaction of his interests.

An altruist is a person whose moral concepts and behavior are based on solidarity and concern, first of all, about other people, about their well-being, observance of their desires and rendering help to them.

An individual can be called an altruist when, in his social interaction with others, there are no selfish thoughts about his own benefit.

There are 2 very important points: if a person is truly disinterested and claims the right to be called an altruist, then he must be altruistic to the end: to help and take care not only of his loved ones, relatives and friends (which is his natural duty), but also to provide help completely to strangers, regardless of their gender, race, age, job affiliation.

The second important point: to help without the expectation of gratitude and reciprocity. This is the fundamental difference between an altruist and an egoist: an altruistic person, while providing help, does not need and does not expect praise, gratitude, or reciprocal service in return, does not even allow the thought that he is now owed something. He is disgusted with the very thought that with his help he put a person in a dependent position on himself and can expect help or service in return, in accordance with the effort and money spent! No, a true altruist helps disinterestedly, this is his joy and main goal. He does not regard his actions as an "investment" in the future, does not imply that it will return to him, he simply gives, without expecting anything in return.

In this context, it is good to give an example of mothers and their children. Some mothers give the child everything he needs: education, additional developmental activities that reveal the child's talents - exactly what he likes, and not his parents; toys, clothing, travel, zoo and attractions, weekend sweets and soft, unobtrusive controls.
At the same time, they do not expect that a child, becoming an adult, will give them money for all this entertainment? Or that he is obliged to the end of his life to be attached to his mother, not to have a personal life, as she did not have, being busy with the baby; spend all your time and money on it? No, such mothers do not expect this - they just GIVE it because they love and wish happiness to their baby, and then never reproach their children with the funds and efforts spent.
There are other mummies. The set of entertainment is the same, but more often than not all this is imposed: additional activities, entertainment, clothing - not those that the child wants, but those that the parents choose for him and consider the best and necessary for him. No, maybe at a young age the child himself is not able to adequately choose his clothes and diet (remember how children adore chips, popcorn, sweets in huge quantities and are ready to eat Coca-Cola and ice cream for weeks), but the point is different: parents treat their child as a profitable "investment".

When he grows up, phrases sound in his address:

• “I didn’t raise you for this!”,
• "You have to look after me!"
• "You disappointed me, I invested so much in you, and you! ...",
• "I spent my youth on you, and what are you paying me for taking care of?"

What do we see here? Keywords- "pay for the care" and "invested".

Got the catch? There is no concept of “pride” in altruism. An altruist, as we have already said, NEVER expects payment for his care for another person and his good, for his good deeds. He never refers to it as an "investment" with subsequent interest, he just helps, while becoming better and improving himself.

The difference between altruism and selfishness.

As we have said, altruism is an activity aimed at caring for the well-being of others.

What is selfishness? Selfishness is an activity aimed at caring for one's own well-being. We see here a quite obvious general concept: in both cases there is Activity. But as a result of this activity - the main difference of concepts. Which we are considering.

What is the difference between altruism and selfishness?

1. The motive of the activity. An altruist does something to make others feel good, while an egoist does something to make him feel good.
2. The need for "payment" for the activity. The altruist does not expect rewards for his activities (monetary or verbal), his motives are much higher. The egoist considers it quite natural that his good deeds should be noticed, “put on the account”, remembered and responded with a favor for a service.
3. Need for fame, praise and recognition. An altruist does not need laurels, praise, attention and glory. Selfish people love when their actions are noticed, praised and cited as "the most selfless people in the world." The irony of the situation is, of course, blatant.
4. It is more profitable for an egoist to be silent about his egoism, since this, by definition, is considered not the best quality. At the same time, there is nothing reprehensible in the recognition of an altruist as an Altruist, since this is a worthy and noble behavior; it is believed that if everyone were altruists, we would live in a better world.
   As an example of this thesis, we can cite the lines from the song "If Everyone Cared" by Nickelback:
   If everyone cared and nobody cried
   If everyone loved and nobody lied
   If everyone shared and swallowed their pride
   Then we’d see the day when nobody died
   In free translation, it can be rewritten as follows: “when everyone will take care of the other and will not be sad, when there is love in the world and there is no place for lies, when everyone is ashamed of his pride and learns to share with others - then we will see the day when people will be immortal "
5. By nature, an egoist is an anxious, petty person, chasing his own profit, being in constant calculations - how to get profit here, where to distinguish himself, to be noticed. The altruist is calm, noble and self-confident.

Examples of altruistic behavior.

The simplest and most striking example is a soldier who covered a mine to keep his comrades alive. There are many such examples during periods of war, when, due to dangerous conditions and patriotism, almost everyone wakes up a feeling of mutual assistance, self-sacrifice and camaraderie. A suitable thesis here can be cited from the popular novel "The Three Musketeers" by A. Dumas: "One for all and all for one."

Another example is sacrificing oneself, one's time and energy for the sake of caring for loved ones. The wife of an alcoholic or a disabled person who cannot take care of himself, the mother of an autistic child, forced to take him to speech therapists, psychologists, therapists all her life, to look after and pay for his studies in a boarding school.

In everyday life, we are faced with such manifestations of altruism as:

What qualities does an altruistic person have?

• Unselfishness
• Kindness
• Generosity
• Mercy
• Love for people
• Respect for others
• Sacrifice
• Nobility

As we can see, all these qualities have a direction not “towards oneself,” but “from oneself,” that is, to give, not to take. These qualities are much easier to develop in oneself than it seems at first glance.

How can you develop altruism?

We can become more altruistic by doing two simple things:

1. Helping others. Moreover, it is completely disinterested, without demanding in return good attitude(which, by the way, usually appears exactly when you are not expecting it).
2. Volunteering - looking after, patronizing and caring for others. This can be help in shelters for homeless animals, in nursing homes and orphanages, help in hospices and all places where people cannot take care of themselves.

At the same time, there should be only one motive - selfless help to others, without the desire for fame, money and raising one's status in the eyes of others.

It is easier to become altruists than it seems. In my opinion, you just need to calm down. Stop chasing profit, fame and respect, calculate the benefits, stop evaluating the opinion of others about yourself and appease the desire to please everyone.

After all, true happiness lies precisely in selfless help to others. As the saying goes, “What is the meaning of life? - in how many people you will help to become better ”.

"No matter how selfish a person may be, in our opinion, it is obvious that there is something in his nature that makes him interested in the well-being of others and in their happiness, although he himself receives nothing from this, except pleasure, which brings him their contemplation. "- / Adam Smith. The theory of moral feelings. /

1. Introduction

In our time, the contradiction between the altruistic and egoistic aspirations of people is becoming more and more distinct. On the one hand, the role of altruism and generally helping behavior is increasing due to the fact that over the past decades in Russian society (and not only in it) the number of people in need of support has increased - disabled people, many elderly people, refugees, migrants, unemployed, homeless people, etc. On the other hand, capitalist and market relations, the spirit of profit and personal well-being lead to an increase in individualistic sentiments, increased indifference and selfishness, and a decrease in the desire to come to the rescue. According to a sociological survey of residents of our country, 59% of them believe that it is not people, but the state, that should help the suffering and needy. Thus, the problem of helping behavior is very relevant to our society.

The change in the socio-economic system in our country that took place after 1991 has significantly changed relations between people. Instead of collectivism, cooperation, mutual assistance, individualism, competition, rivalry are preached. All this leads to the fact that altruism, disinterested help is no longer regarded as a virtue, but as a person's lack of pragmatism, and sometimes as a manifestation of his stupidity. Hence, with all the acuteness, the problem arises of the relationship in man and society of manifestations of altruism and egoism, philanthropy and misanthropy, since there is a great danger of human loss of humanity.

Is it possible to get off the ground with the current attitude towards altruism in society? Is it possible to develop this quality in oneself, and then "instill" it in other people? To answer these questions, you need to understand the essence of the very concept of altruism and find out which of its varieties are most relevant today.

2. Altruism

2.1 Interpretations of Altruism

Altruism(from Lat. Alter - other, others) - a concept with the help of which the activity associated with disinterested concern for the well-being of others is understood; correlates with selflessness - the sacrifice of one's own benefits for the benefit of another person, other people, or in general - for the sake of the common good; in some ways can be seen as the opposite of selfishness; in psychology it is sometimes used as a synonym or part of the social behavior.

According to some foreign researchers, prosocial behavior- these are actions aimed at the benefit of others; Kindness (or helping behavior) is considered to be an act of kindness for the benefit of another, but not bringing external reward to the helper. Other sociologists attribute to prosocial behavior actions that a person does not only for the sake of another, but also for his own benefit. In their opinion, such behavior can include any action related to the provision of assistance: the action benefits both the other person and the person helping himself. For example, the psychopathologist V. A. Zhmurov believes that "helping behavior is the provision of help to someone, excluding, in contrast to altruism, any sacrifice to one's own interests."

Thus, there is no precise and unambiguous definition of this concept in the literature. Most often, prosocial behavior is understood as any action aimed at the well-being of other people. Their range extends from fleeting courtesy through charitable work to helping a person in danger, in a difficult or distressful situation, to saving him at the cost of his own life. Despite the closeness of the concept of prosocial behavior to the concepts of altruism and helping behavior, there are certain differences between them.

Actions performed exclusively in the interests of another person, unchallenged dedication to the interests of another person or the interests of society, when one's own interests are not taken into account at all, refer to a manifestation of altruism. Thus, all three terms are: "Prosocial behavior", "helping" and "altruism"- define one and the same type of behavior aimed at the benefit of another person, but differing depending on the motives underlying the action in each particular case.

When asked about the origin of altruism there are different points of view. Some consider altruism to be a specifically human, socially formed quality, others - an innate, genetically fixed result. natural selection... The evolutionary approach is associated with the search for biological and social conditions that can contribute to the formation of altruistic behavior.

The term "altruism" was introduced by the founder of sociology, Auguste Comte, who believed that under the influence of positivism, society develops in the direction of humanistic values. In general terms, altruism as understood by Comte reflects the principle of "living for the sake of others" as a program for building a perfect human society; he saw the meaning of human life in "serving humanity by improving ourselves." However, as a moral principle, altruism existed and was realized much earlier. Even Socrates argued that “Not to take, but to give, is the essence of the moral law that balances the egoistic will of every person. And the more spiritual and sincere a person is, the stronger his desire to bestow and serve people. "

Psychologists Charlie L. Hardy, Mark van Wugt, David Millery and David Kelly have shown in their research that altruism and altruistic behavior although not related to direct benefits or combinations of different benefits, but ultimately in the long term create more benefits than was spent on performing altruistic actions.

V philosophy and ethics altruism- a moral principle based on the recognition of the natural connectedness of people through an innate feeling of sympathy. Hence, according to the saying of the philosopher V.S.Soloviev, altruism is "moral solidarity with other human beings." The founder of the French sociological school E. Durkheim wrote that altruism- a social state in which the individual is completely absorbed by the group and does not have his own goals that differ from the goals of the group; doing duty and adhering to group norms are considered the highest values.

According to psychologist Jonathan Seglow, altruism Is a voluntary, free act of the subject, which, however, cannot be carried out without the perfect altruistic action losing its altruistic nature.

American psychologist BF Skinner analyzed such a phenomenon as altruism and came to the following conclusion: “We respect people for their good deeds only when we cannot explain these actions. We explain the behavior of these people by their internal dispositions only when we lack external explanations. When external reasons are obvious, we proceed from them, and not from personality traits. "

Some have expressed the opinion that gifts can also be called a manifestation of altruism. However, this cannot be accepted unconditionally. After all, we often give things that are completely unnecessary, useless for others and for ourselves, just wanting to get rid of them. What kind of altruism can we talk about here?

As can be seen from the above, there are many scientific definitions of altruism, the content of which depends on the scientific discipline represented by the author giving the definition.

There is no single and generally accepted interpretation of the concept of altruism. This is the case for the reason that different psychologists and sociologists make their conclusions, guided by their own subjective criteria. This is where “conflicts” of diametrically opposed ideas arise and, at the same time, the gradually increasing variety of interpretations of the term “altruism”, which will be described in more detail in the next paragraph of the abstract.

In my opinion, only from the position of a selfish mind an altruistic act can be regarded as stupidity, illogicality, irrationality, sacrifice, selflessness and so on. After all, in fact, the altruist does not consider his choice sacrificial, but acts so at the call of his heart only because he simply cannot act otherwise at this moment. We can say that an altruistic act for him is a state of mind, a fulfillment of the call of conscience, but in no way a sacrifice. But the efforts of an egoist who wants to develop this “helping quality” in himself are precisely accompanied by a large number of losses and hardships as a result of the sacrifices made. Unwillingness to develop altruistic tendencies in oneself, on the contrary, creates an excuse to justify selfishness in every possible way in one's actions and in the actions of other people, thereby motivating the presence of a share of selfishness (benefit) in the process of their commission.

Altruism is largely due not to external social pressure and not to the presence of a person who is able to appreciate the nobility of the subject's deed. This behavior, which is due to the presence of a number of spiritual qualities in a person - compassion, caring, a sense of duty, responsibility - and the absence of qualities that do not contribute to the manifestation of altruism - suspicion, greed, skepticism.

It seems to me that egoist and altruist- it is like two different "civilizations" between which there is a huge information gap. It is he who does not allow them to sincerely understand each other. This gap is determined by a large number of new ideas necessary for the egoist (subject to his desire to become more altruistic), so that, each time overcoming these tendencies of egocentrism, he will more passionately listen to the call of conscience and, overcoming old and time-worn patterns of behavior, make with each choice a more humane act. This desire is caused by a subconscious desire to experience states of joy and happiness from the selfless good being done.

2.2 Varieties of altruism

Depending on the share of egoism in the altruistic decision made by a person, egoism and altruism can be mixed in very different proportions. This is how various interpretations and types of altruism are formed.

Self sacrifice is sacrificing oneself for the good of others. Self-sacrifice is associated with extreme situations, with the salvation of other people (direct or indirect) and requires the person who implements it, a sense of duty and courage, heroism. No wonder they often talk about heroic self-sacrifice. From the history of medicine, there are cases when doctors, developing a vaccine against one or another infectious disease for the sake of saving mankind, they tested it for themselves, knowing at the same time that if it turns out to be insufficiently refined, then they will perish, which in a number of cases happened.

Mercy, or disinterested altruism, Is the main difficulty for sociologists who adhere to the theory of evolution, which absolutely does not fit into their simplified argumentation, since it cannot be explained by striving, since it cannot be explained, for example, by striving selfish genes individual to self-preservation, as is now accepted in the scientific community.

Mercy cannot be attributed to affection, friendship and romantic love, which can be safely considered mutually beneficial relationships and which can be partly observed in other (non-human) species of living beings.

V mass consciousness mercy is understood as generosity, kindness to people, readiness to forgive or at least understand a person, even if he did something very bad. This is also caring for something else (remember the sisters and brothers of mercy). In the philosophical encyclopedia there is such a definition of the concept of mercy: compassionate, benevolent, caring, loving attitude towards another person; the opposite of indifference, cruelty, malice, hostility, violence.

The essence of mercy was most accurately expressed by LN Tolstoy: “Mercy consists not so much in material aid as in the spiritual support of a neighbor. Spiritual support is, first of all, not in condemning one's neighbor, but in respect of his human dignity. " Mercy is more of a moral help to a person who is in a difficult life situation than material.

Rational altruism Is a balancing act between your own interests and the interests of another person and other people.

Rational is reasonable and logical. This is competence and knowledge, skills and abilities, not feelings and premonitions, desires and impulses, impressions and experiences. Rationality is an attitude of consciousness, a type of thinking and a personality trait, when decisions are made by choosing the best option by comparing on the basis of facts and logic, rather than emotional impressions, impulsivity, desires, feelings and intuition.

Altruism as generalized exchange(a kind of rational altruism). Generalized exchange systems are characterized by the fact that they are based on efforts made unilaterally without direct compensation. Anyone can be the recipient of a benefit (from an altruistic action) or the one who performs this action. The rationality of the generalized exchange is that everyone who needs help can receive it, but not directly from someone, but indirectly; important role relationships of trust between people play here.

A utilitarian understanding of altruism... An altruistic act is seen as based on the maximization of some common good, including by attracting other people for this. Example: a person has a certain amount of money and he wants to donate it for the development of a certain territory. He finds some organization that owns this territory, and donates money to it, hoping that it will be spent in the right way. At the same time, as follows from the example, such a utilitarian understanding of altruism can lead to bias and the pursuit of certain self-interests.

Reciprocal (mutual) altruism(a kind of rational altruism) - a type of social behavior when individuals behave with some degree of self-sacrifice towards each other, but only if they expect a reciprocal self-sacrifice. The term was coined by sociobiologist Robert Trivers.

The rationality of mutual altruism is obvious: actions based on the norms of reciprocity (justice, honesty) are focused on accurate accounting of the efforts made and their compensation. Rather, it is about preventing the use of altruists by egoists so that the exchange process can continue. Reciprocity is a means to prevent exploitation.

This type of behavior is inherent not only in humans, but also in a number of animals. This is about mutual assistance. According to this principle, people, interacting with each other within small cities, schools, workers, student groups, strive to maintain a balance, since the unequal distribution of benefits or costs causes displeasure. Therefore, as the experiments show, the subjects are much more helpful in completing the task to another subject, if he has not previously refused to help them themselves.

Some forms of altruism (mutual assistance, support for the helpless, sick, children, old people, transfer of knowledge) are called indirect mutual altruism, since it is assumed that a reciprocal service is expected in an indirect way - through the mediation of observing third parties, who will further reward the helping person with the reputation of a worthy citizen who should be helped in every possible way if necessary. In other words, with his altruistic behavior at the moment, a person creates the basis for reciprocal services in the future, moreover, from many outsiders, and not from the person to whom the assistance was provided.

Summing up the consideration rational altruism, I want to note that in its manifestation there is a lot of selfishness... Intelligence in this case, although it is manifested, is supported by calculations of benefits (fears of receiving less than given), the need to show reciprocity, which lowers this concept and puts the manifestation of such altruism on one level with animal altruism.

Emotional altruism. In a state of emotional excitement, a person can act both very prudently and reasonably, and act very illogical and stupid. As a rule, greater emotionality leads to a decrease in rationality: emotional people tend to have spontaneous, unexpected, emotional reactions rather than consistency and adherence to a plan. However, in people of a high level of development, high emotionality gets along well with rationality.

Emotional altruism, in my opinion, can have two types of manifestation, depending on the situational characteristics: passive and active ... Passive manifestation limited to the manifestation of emotions, which are not followed by any active actions. For example, if such an altruist observes the states of happiness experienced by another person, then his natural reaction is unconditional joy for him, which is now very good for him. If the other is stressed or worried about the situation just experienced, then such an emotional altruist will become an empathic listener, completely absorbed and involved in the story so that he can experience the same emotions as the narrator.

Active empathy manifests itself in concrete actions and choices, and very often such an altruist does not have time (or is unable) to predict the consequences of his action. Examples of emotional altruists include those mothers who are able to blindly follow the whims of their children, who often use parental love for manipulation purposes. It also includes people who are guided in their relationship with society by impulsiveness, on the basis of which their behavior model is perceived by others as conflicting, inconsistent, devoid of intelligence and intelligence. Without giving account of their actions, they easily commit irresponsible actions, the consequences of which they can realize (at best) only after some time during the analysis. If the passive manifestation of emotionality does not bear negative consequences for the recipients of such assistance, then in the case of an active manifestation, they may well take place. I would classify individuals of the extraverted type as emotional altruists.

"Extraversion is characterized by interest in an external object, responsiveness and readiness to perceive external events, the desire to influence and be under the pressure of events, the need to interact with the outside world, the ability to bring confusion and noise of any kind (and in reality find pleasure in it), the ability to hold constant attention to the world around, making many friends and acquaintances without much, however, analysis, and, ultimately, the presence of a feeling of great importance to be close to someone chosen, and therefore a strong tendency to demonstrate oneself. Accordingly, the life philosophy of an extrovert and his ethics are usually highly collectivist in nature (beginning) with a strong inclination towards altruism. His conscience is largely dependent on public opinion "(PT, par. 9.2)."

From this definition, we can conclude that the true the nature of extrovert altruism partly lies in his high-energy potential, which he seeks to use up by directing his inner experiences outward. Such "help" sometimes bears an obsessive character, it is rather a reason for active communication, interaction with the object of help, and often even brings destruction to relations with another person (if the latter does not want such interaction).

Altruism, limited by the framework of a certain group, is called parochial("Parish", "parochial") altruism(parochial altruism). It is known that we unconsciously divide people into "us" and "strangers", and this is reflected in our altruistic behavior. We are more inclined to provide help to one group of people (“ours” - people who are similar to us in habits, inclinations, manner of dress, social status, etc.) than to another group - “strangers”. Since similarity breeds sympathy, and sympathy is a desire to help, we are more inclined to help those who are like us. And here we are talking about both external and internal similarities. The name is associated with the typology of political cultures developed by the American political scientists G. Almond and S. Verbe. They identified three types of cultures: parish, dependent, and participatory. Parish altruism is part of the parish culture. It is shown that support for “insiders” and hatred for “outsiders” associated with belonging to certain religious communities are observed in different human cultures. The inclination towards parish altruism is significantly related to the frequency of visiting churches and communities. Of the six confessions studied, this effect was most pronounced among the parishioners of the Russian Orthodox Church.

In case of acute intergroup enmity, help to "friends" and aggression towards "aliens" are equally beneficial to the group. In human societies, altruistic actions of the parochial type, as a rule, are highly valued, considered highly moral, heroic, patriotic, etc. People prone to such behavior are especially in demand during wars and conflicts. They are revered as heroes who combine dedication, sincere loyalty to brothers in arms and hatred of enemies.

Altruism of sympathy and empathy... Altruism can be associated with various kinds of social experiences, in particular with sympathy, compassion for another, mercy and benevolence. Altruists, whose benevolence extends beyond family, neighbor, friendship, and relationships with acquaintances, are also called philanthropists, and their activities are philanthropy... In addition to goodwill and compassion, altruistic actions are often done out of attachment (to something / someone) or general gratitude for life.

Alternative altruism assumes that the subject, ignoring his own interests, helps another, but in a special way: harming his rivals, infringing on their interests. Defense of the homeland, the fight against terrorism, crime, selfless defense of another person from someone else's non-physical and physical aggression, etc. are examples of such activities. Here, too, the attitude works, expressed in the readiness to make sacrifices for the benefit of neighbors, however, these sacrifices include not only the subject himself, but also others who are different from their neighbors and oppose them. For such cases, the psychologist A. N. Poddyakov introduces the term "alternative altruism" (alter-altruism). Alter-altruism - humanity in relation to some at the expense of inhumanity in relation to others. It relates to the economy and social policy of the distribution of limited public goods, the provision of material or financial assistance to some groups of the population at the expense of the interests of others. A.N. Poddyakov singles out two types of alter-altruism:

Helping "friends" with causing damage to "aliens". This is, first of all, aggression associated with the protection of "insiders". This is parochial altruism, which was mentioned above;

Forced differentiation of "friends": helping one at the expense of others. It is the deliberate sacrifice of the interests of part of the group due to dramatic resource constraints.

These are all cases where help is provided to one person or group, while reducing the chances of survival of another or others (saving some while sacrificing others). Such situations often occurred among mothers during the blockade of Leningrad: they decided which of their children to save from hunger, because giving your ration to everyone will not save a single one. The same situation can take place on a sinking ship, etc.

Moral (normative) altruism consists in acting in accordance with one's own conscience. Actions to fulfill obligations (which a person makes to himself or to another) and expectations (which other people have towards a person) are sometimes viewed as some degree of altruism. At the same time, quite often such actions can also be calculated actions.

The problem with the accuracy of the definition of moral altruism, in particular, attributing it to the category of altruism without an admixture of selfishness, lies in the subjectivity of the consideration of the very concept of conscience. Who knows what the source of the “hidden voice of conscience” is, whether it comes from highly intuitive levels of consciousness of a person or is a source of low-emotional (selfish) manifestations that wedge into the decision-making process ?!

Transfinite altruism(transfinite - from Lat. trans - for and finis - end; infinite, limitless, beyond the finite) - this is the highest, spiritual type of altruistic behavior; he is truly humane and environmentally friendly. Psychologist V.R. Dorozhkin explains that this type of altruism is not directly related to the cultural and value norms of a particular time, it has an enduring value, its reference points are basic human norms, and it is characterized by the highest degree of love in each of its acts. Transfinite altruistic behavior, which is the highest, spiritual level of development of altruism and consists in self-transcendence into the world, in which the person experiences himself and the world as part of a single whole, conveys to the world inner love and fulfillment. This type of behavior always has a humanistic orientation and high degree morality. It is possible to characterize altruistic behavior as transfinite if a number of conditions are met, which include: a) correlation of altruism with universal human norms; b) detection of specific altruistic emotions that give spiritual pleasure to the subject of altruistic behavior.

Deprived of all selfishness. The author of Iissiidiology, who singled out this type of altruism, explains that at the initial stage of eradicating egoism and connecting highly intellectual Altruism to one's choices, there is a striving to serve people, to selflessly help them in mastering knowledge, to responsible and strong friendship, to creative cooperation in some from the directions of self-improvement or self-actualization. When the selfish tendency to divide into "nice people" and "other people", as well as "people in general" and "everything else" disappears from self-consciousness, a person will consciously and truly serve Everything. Gradually, selfish motivations will be replaced by new, less “material” and “profitable” ones, and will become more perfect and altruistic in relation to all creatures of the surrounding reality.

Highly intellectual Altruism is expressed in informational motivation and analytical transformation of the existing experience into each of the decisions made. Examples of the activity of this type of altruism can be the image of a person who models and builds as his main goal the idea of ​​a radical increase in the welfare of society. Such a person has a high need and inexhaustible desire to constantly bring his individual contribution to something useful for society and to do everything to eradicate shortcomings in it; tries to fill the world only positive mental reactions and intellectual decisions, which forms and maintains in her a powerful conviction in the correctness of her actions. And in order to achieve these states, it is necessary to get rid of negative reactions and egoism, constantly direct your intellectual and altruistic activities to the unconditional benefit of other people, even regardless of how they react to your sincere desire to help them, whether they understand you, thank you, respect and, in general, do they take you seriously. Intellectual altruism is based not on idle reasoning "about lofty matters" and far-fetched ambitious games of "humanity", "charity" and "virtue", but on the fact that a person is simply not able to live and act otherwise, even if it were forbidden to be realized in this under threat of death.

3.Alternative to existing types of altruism

Talking a lot to myself about different types manifestations of altruism, I came to the conclusion that all their diversity is due to the presence of varying degrees of selfishness in the ideas of people who subjectively approach the interpretation of this concept itself. The more selfishness is reflected in a person's ideas, the greater the degree of selfishness will be colored by the altruistic act he does, although usually a person has a better opinion of himself and is ready to notice someone else's selfishness rather than his own.

Powerful technological progress began to have a very strong and negative effect on the consciousness of people: with an abundant flow of information, people become more and more limited, superficial, cynical and aggressive. Intelligence without parallel cultivation of altruism can lead humanity to an evolutionary dead end from which it will be very difficult to get out. An example of development in this direction can be the projects developed now on the global chipization of humanity (implantation of microchips into a biological form), robotization, computerization, etc. over time, it becomes very difficult to do an act that is motivated by, for example, self-sacrifice, compassion and mercy.

On the other hand, the actions of a person committed by him in relation to other people without connecting rationality and intellect, lead to one-sidedness of situational perception or its distortion by himself. Take, for example, showing the same empathy. From a subjective point of view, it is positive in its essence, but nevertheless it can be attributed to a selfish act, since the empathic, carried away by his own experiences, does not think about the possible harm that he causes to another person by such a specious act. Yes, in this moment he is positive, he is compassionate and empathic. However, the consequences of such empathy, devoid of a rational approach, can become even more tragic for the other person. In my opinion, highly intelligent Altruism just is to do not harm another with your "good", passively empathizing and resonating with his painful states (and thus only earning his good disposition for himself), but on the contrary, help him see the cause of his own troubles and misfortunes with the help of “necessary” words and actions that can deeply “shake up” his consciousness. It is necessary to try to bring the seed of rationality into the manifestation of your compassion and be able to convey it to another - this is the essence of highly intellectual Altruism.

This means that it turns out that any of the currently existing types of altruism is either a sensory-intuitive aspect, or an intellectual-rational aspect, and therefore cannot be considered true and acceptable in the perception of most people, since the "supporters" of these diametrisms for the most part categorically perceive each other's position ... But what if we combine these two aspects, developing in oneself both intellect and high sensuality? The author of such knowledge as Iissiidiology, just, and offers this option, considering it the most harmonious and acceptable. He writes that in order to develop highly intellectual Altruism in oneself, one must get rid of selfishness, as well as consciously and purposefully work on oneself, gradually cultivating such qualities as responsibility, honesty, openness, etc.

An example of the ultimate goal of such a person, according to Oris O.V., is any activity aimed at the benefit of achieving maximum benefit for our society and state. This is possible through the all-round development of intellectuality (which presupposes the continuous study of the latest information of a high intellectual level) with the obligatory combination with genuine (devoid of egoism) altruism, "including" an orientation towards the most highly emotional feelings and thoughts. Consciously choosing a life reference point and realizing highly intellectual Altruism, based on a reliable foundation of more reliable and quality knowledge, such a person with his active creative activity is capable of overcoming stagnant crisis tendencies in society, diplomatically reaching wise and satisfying all interested parties interests and consensus, based on understanding only the positive principles of relationships. Full responsibility for her actions and control of any manifestations of personal egoism allows her to fully focus on public service. Constant conscious work on tracking, recognizing the internal relationships of ongoing events, intuitively anticipating them possible reasons, allows her to achieve personal responsibility for each of her choices.

A person actively striving for self-improvement will be especially interested in highly intelligent Altruism... The harmonious development of altruistic and intellectual tendencies in oneself seems to me the most logical and optimal. In addition, not a single author from among those who devoted their works to describing the problems of altruism in society, except for the author of Iissiidiology, penetrates so deeply into the essence of the emergence of human egoism (as well as negativism in general) and does not offer specific motivations and methods for cultivating altruism. ...

In my opinion, in the context of development modern society people are not well informed about the need to cultivate altruism. Relying on the independent development of the morality and ethics of such a society is a rather lengthy process. I am convinced that in order to really change something in the world around you, you need to start with yourself, "infecting" other people with your own example.

1. Cialdini R., Kenrick D., Neuberg S. Social psychology. Understand yourself in order to understand others. In 2 T. - SPb .: prime-EUROZNAK, 2002, p. 15
2. Ilyin Evgeny Pavlovich, Psychology of Help. Altruism, selfishness, empathy. Publisher: Peter, 2013
3. Modern psychological dictionary / Edited by B. G. Meshcheryakov, V. P. Zinchenko. - St. Petersburg: Prime-Evroznak, AST, 2007 .-- 496 p. - (Psychology is the best). - 3000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-17-046534-7, ISBN 978-5-93878-524-3
4. Jonathan Seglow (Ed.). The Ethics of Altruism. ROUTLEDGE CHAPMAN & HALL. London. - ISBN 978-0-7146-5594-9.
5. Clive Staples Lewis, Mere Christianity (1952, based on radio broadcasts from 1941-1944)
6.V. Zelensky. Dictionary of Analytical Psychology, M., Kogito-Center, 2008
7. Poddyakov AN, Alter-altruism // Psychology. Journal of the Higher School of Economics. 2007.T.4.No.3.P.98-107.
8. Keiselman (Dorozhkin) V.R. - Altruism: the so-called good ISBN: 978-966-435-245-8 Year of publication: 2010, Publisher: 9. Tavriya, Serie: Scientific edition
9. Oris OV, "Immortality is available to everyone", Volume 15, Publisher: JSC "Tatmedia", Kazan, 2011.

Altruism

The concept of altruism was introduced by the French philosopher and founder of sociology Auguste Comte. He characterizes them as disinterested motives of a person, entailing actions for the benefit of other people. According to Comte, the principle of altruism is: "Live for others." According to O. Comte, altruism is opposite, antonymic to egoism, and implies such behavior and activity of a person, by which he brings other people more benefit than requires them to apply any costs.

This understanding of altruism is opposed by Charlie L. Hardy, Mark van Wugt, David Miller and David Kelly, who in their studies have shown that altruism and altruistic behavior are not associated with direct benefits, or with combinations of different benefits, but ultimately, in the long term. perspective create more benefits than was spent on performing altruistic actions.

The belief that people should provide help to those who need it, regardless of the potential benefit in the future, is a norm of social responsibility. It is this norm that prompts people, for example, to pick up a book that a person dropped on crutches. Experiments show that even when the helpers remain unknown and do not expect any gratitude, they often help people in need.

Those who love always strive to come to the aid of their beloved. However, an intuitive, unconscious desire to help does not have to relate to the human being with whom you are bound by the bonds of love or friendship. Quite the opposite, the altruistic desire to help a complete stranger has long been considered proof of a particularly refined nobility. Such disinterested impulses of altruism are quoted in our society extremely highly and even, as experts say, they themselves carry a moral reward for the troubles caused to us.

“No matter how selfish a person may seem, certain laws are clearly laid down in his nature, forcing him to be interested in the fate of others and to consider their happiness necessary for himself, although he himself does not receive anything from this, except for the pleasure of seeing this happiness.”

The main types, forms and practices of altruism

Moral and Normative Altruism

The moral, moral side of altruism can be understood through the moral imperative of I. Kant. Internalized by a person, this or that understanding of morality can become such an intrapersonal formation as conscience, on the basis of which, and not from aspirations for certain benefits, a person will act. Thus, moral / ethical altruism is about acting in accordance with one's own conscience.

Another form, or one understanding of moral altruism, is its interpretation within the framework of the concepts of justice or justice, the social institutions of which are widespread in Western societies. Within the framework of the concept of justice, a person is seen as often ready to act disinterestedly for the truth and its triumph in the world of social relationships, as well as against various kinds of injustices.

Acting in compliance with obligations (which a person makes to himself or to another) and expectations (which other people have towards a person) are sometimes viewed as some degree of altruism. At the same time, quite often such actions can also be calculated actions.

Altruism of sympathy and empathy

Altruism can be associated with various kinds of social experiences, in particular with sympathy, compassion for another, mercy and benevolence. Altruists, whose benevolence extends beyond family, neighbor, friendship, and relationships with acquaintances, are also called philanthropists, and their activity is philanthropy.

In addition to goodwill and compassion, altruistic actions are often done out of attachment (to something / someone) or general gratitude for life.

Rational altruism

Rational altruism is a balancing act (as well as an attempt to comprehend it) between one's own interests and the interests of another person and other people.

There are several areas of rationalization of altruism:

Social psychology of altruism and altruistic behavior

With the development of empirical psychological research, such fuzzy concepts as altruism and utility are gradually being replaced by the more commonly used term "prosocial behavior."

There are gender differences in altruistic behavior: women tend to exhibit more long-term prosocial behavior (such as caring for loved ones). Men are more likely to have unique “feats” (for example, in the event of a fire), in which specific social norms are often violated.

There is also research from evolutionary psychology that shows that humans survive through cooperation and normal reciprocity. As Herbert Simon put it, prosocial behavior takes precedence in a natural selection / evolution situation, and in a sense, altruism can be seen as a genetically inherent program in a person.

According to socio-psychological studies of altruistic behavior, a person's personal responsibility plays an important role in it. Making decisions requires taking responsibility for those decisions. If a decision is made by a group of people, then the responsibility for it is distributed among the members of the group, reducing the personal responsibility of each of them. As Dmitry Alekseevich Leontiev writes, referring to the research of social psychologists described in the book by Lee Ross (English) Russian and Richard Nisbett (English) Russian : “If something happened, if you feel bad, you need help, and people are walking around, without stopping, you cannot simply call for help, without addressing anyone. Choose any person, look at him and contact him personally, and the likelihood that they will come to your aid will increase several times. "

Other varieties

V general concept altruism there are separate sub-concepts that describe some specific types of altruism. For instance:

Notes (edit)

1. Soloviev. V.S.Justification of Good, 3.11, I
2. Modern psychological dictionary / Edited by B.G. Meshcheryakov, V.P. Zinchenko. - St. Petersburg: Prime-Euroznak, AST,. - 496 p. - (Psychology is the best). - 3000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-17-046534-7, ISBN 978-5-93878-524-3
3. Manuela Lenzen. Evolutionstheorien in den Natur- und Sozialwissenschaften. Campus Verlag, 2003. ISBN 3-593-37206-1 (Google Books)
4. Charlie L. Hardy, Mark van Vugt. Giving for Glory in Social Dilemmas: The Competitive Altruism Hypothesis. University of Kent, Canterbury 2006.
5. David Miller. ’Are they my poor?’: The problem of Altruism in a World of Strangers. In: Jonathan Seglow (Hrsg.): The Ethics of Altruism .: Frank Cass Publishers, London 2004. - ISBN 978-0-7146-5594-9, S. 106-127.
6. David Kelley. Altruism and capitalism. In: IOS Journal. 1 Januar 1994.
7. Jonathan Seglow (Ed.). The Ethics of Altruism. ROUTLEDGE CHAPMAN & HALL. London. - ISBN 978-0-7146-5594-9.
8. Soloviev V.S. Justification of Good. Part one. Chapter 3. Pity and altruism
9. Dawkins, Clinton Richard. Did morality arise in the process of evolution? // God as an illusion = The God Delusion. - Colibri,. - 560 p. - 4000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-389-00334-7
10. Christoph Lumer. Rationaler Altruismus. Eine prudentielle Theorie der Rationalität und des Altruismus. Universitätsverlag Rasch, Osnabrück 2000.
11. Howard Margolis. Selfishness, Altruism, and Rationality. A Theory of Social Choice. Chicago and London, 1982.
12. Eagly A.H. Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. - Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 1987.
13. Hoffman M.L. Is altruism a part of human nature? In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 40 (1981) S. 121-137.
14. Ross, Lee D. (English) Russian , Nisbett, Richard E. (English) Russian Man and Situation: Lessons of Social Psychology = The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychology / Translated from English by V.V. - M .: Aspect-Press, January 12, 1999 .-- 429 p. - 5000 copies. - ISBN 5-7567-0234-2, ISBN 5-7567-0233-4
15. Leontiev, Dmitry Alekseevich. Labyrinth of identities: not a person for identity, but identity for a person (Russian) // Philosophical Sciences: magazine. - 2009. - No. 10. - P. 6.

Links

• R. Corsini, A. Auerbach. Psychological Encyclopedia - Altruism
• PsyJournals - Altruism with Pleasure: The Psychology of Volunteering

see also

• Generativity

Categories:

• Ethics
• Personality traits
• Motivation
• Actions and behavior
• Social Psychology
• Basic social values
• Social commitment

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Synonyms:

Antonyms:

See what "Altruism" is in other dictionaries:

- (fr. altruisme from lat. alter other) a moral principle that prescribes disinterested actions aimed at the good (satisfaction of interests) of other people. The term "A." was introduced by O. Comte to fix the concept opposite to the concept of "egoism"; ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Altruism- Altruism ♦ Altruisme Auguste Comte (***) called altruism “living for others”. Hence, to be an altruist is to be guided in life not by your own interests, but by the interests of another person (other people). In fact, this almost never happens ... Sponville's Philosophical Dictionary

altruism- (from Lat. alter other) a system of personal value orientations, in which the central motive and criterion of moral assessment are the interests of another person or social community. The term "A." introduced by the French philosopher O. Comte as ... ... Big psychological encyclopedia

- (lat.alter other). Feelings opposite to selfishness and arising under the influence of sympathy for other people. Dictionary foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov AN, 1910. ALTRUISM [fr. altruisme Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

- (altruism) Caring for the welfare or interests of others. The everyday opposition of altruism to egoism leads to different interpretations of the meaning of the former. So, this term is often understood as certain character traits, intentions or behavior ... ... Political science. Dictionary.

Philanthropy, selflessness, unselfishness Dictionary of Russian synonyms. altruism see disinterestedness Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language. Practical guide. M .: Russian language. Z. E. Alexandrova ... Synonym dictionary

Despite the fact that, according to many, modern world plunged into the abyss of materialistic values, egocentrism and the pursuit, in which people stop at nothing, there is a place for manifestations of altruism. For some, this word is associated with negative impressions, someone reveres altruists as the highest link in the development of mankind, and someone is indifferent to this phenomenon. Today I want to understand the reasons, principles and meaning of altruism.

Let's start with definitions. Altruism is understood as disinterested activity, activity aimed at serving humanity (in the global sense) or helping others (in the local). It is generally accepted that altruists are people who have reached the highest level of consciousness, when their own benefit and material values ​​recede into the background, and self-giving for the benefit of others becomes the highest good. Evolution leads to becoming an altruist, and not every person is able to understand this.

The principles of altruism and their interpretation

1. Readiness sacrifice one's own interests, prosperity and even life for the sake of helping other people. These people are not necessarily close to the altruist or even familiar: he does not divide people into those who deserve his help more (for example, because of family ties) and those who are less.

2. Unselfishness. From a philosophical point of view, if an altruist experiences joy, pleasure, helping others, he is no longer an altruist. After all, then this pleasure is the benefit that he receives from his actions. If you look at things more down to earth, manifestations of altruism are in no way connected with obtaining personal gain (any - material, psychological, physiological, etc.). That is, an altruistic act is one from which you will not receive any benefits for yourself at all.

3. Humanity. An altruist is not necessarily a believer, an adherent of any religious concession. He believes in life, in humanity and in each individual representative of this kind. Mercy is synonymous with altruism.

4. Generosity. This is not only about money and material wealth, but also about your personal time, efforts, providing moral support, etc. The Russian expression "guy-shirt" describes this aspect of altruism well: a person who is always ready to help and does not expect anything in return.

5. Knowledge transfer is another manifestation of altruism. In a world where the most valuable treasure today is information, disinterested dissemination of knowledge and transmission to those who need it is a true step of an altruist. It is no coincidence that, in addition to charity, they are engaged in teaching, "uploading" valuable information to the Internet with free access, etc.

6. Living in harmony with others. An altruist does not create problems for his loved ones or anyone else, he does not hold grudge against offenders, does not cause trouble to anyone, does not enter into conflicts. This is one of the most difficult, in my opinion, principles of altruism.

7. Modesty and anonymity... If a person talks about his good deeds, this is not altruism, but a PR campaign. Altruism is incompatible with boasting and pride.