Innovation means innovation, novelty, change; innovation as a means and process involves the introduction of something new. With regard to the pedagogical process, innovation means the introduction of something new into the goals, content, methods and forms of teaching and upbringing, the organization of joint activities of the teacher and the student. There are several types of innovations: technical innovations appear in the production of products with new or improved properties; technological ones arise when more advanced methods of manufacturing products are used; organizational and managerial are associated with the processes of optimal organization of production, transport, sales and supply; information solutions solve the problems of rational organization of information flows in the field of scientific, technical and innovative activities, increasing the reliability and efficiency of obtaining information; social are aimed at improving working conditions, solving problems of health care, education, culture.

Thus, pedagogical innovation is part of social innovation. The specificity of innovations in education is manifested in the fact that innovation always contains a new solution to an urgent problem; the use of innovations leads to a qualitative change in the level of development of the personality of students; the introduction of innovations causes qualitative changes in other components of the school system. It is necessary to consider in more detail the types and types of innovations in general: Technological - innovations relate to various technical means and equipment used in teaching (computer technologies, the Internet) Methodological - innovations in the field of education, covering the process of teaching natural science and humanitarian disciplines from preschool education to higher education education, training and retraining of personnel. Organizational - the development of new forms and methods of organizing pedagogical work, involving changes in the ratio of the spheres of influence of structural units, social groups or individuals (issues of recruiting various classes, groups, ways of working in classes, school and out-of-school teams) Economic - innovations cover positive changes in financial , payments, accounting areas, as well as in planning, motivation and remuneration and assessment of performance in education. Social - forms of activating the human factor through the development and implementation of a system for improving personnel policy, a system of professional training for advanced training of employees, a system of remuneration and assessment of labor results, improving the social and living conditions of workers, safety and health conditions, cultural activities, organization of free time; raising the level of education, culture of youth, rationalizing mental and physical labor, achieving a high level of education, morality. Legal - new and amended laws and regulations that define and regulate all types of activities of educational institutions. There are also innovations: Intra-subject - innovations that implement within the subject, which is due to the specifics of its teaching. General methodological - the transition to new teaching materials and the development of copyright methodological technologies. Administrative - the introduction into pedagogical practice of non-traditional pedagogical technologies that are universal in nature (development of creative tasks for students, project activities). Ideological - decisions made by leaders of various levels, which contribute to the effective functioning of all subjects of educational activity. Innovations are caused by the renewal of consciousness, the trends of the times, are the fundamental principle of all other innovations. Pedagogical innovations are aimed at improving the content of education, studying and implementing modern pedagogical technologies into practice. Also on the creation of a system for working with gifted children, improving the management system and informatization of the educational process. For a complete and accurate representation of the specifics of the innovative processes taking place in the modern Russian educational space, two types of educational institutions can be distinguished in the education system: traditional and developing. Traditional systems are characterized by stable functioning aimed at maintaining the once established order. The developing systems are characterized by a search mode. Academician V.I. Zagvyazinsky, who studied, in particular, the life cycles of various innovative processes, notes that very often, having received positive results from the development of an innovation, teachers unreasonably strive to universalize it, extend it to all areas of pedagogical practice, which often ends in failure and leads to disappointment, cooling to innovative activity. The management structure involves the interaction of four types of management actions: planning - organization - leadership - control. As a rule, the innovation process in a school is planned in the form of a concept for a new school or, most fully, in the form of a school development program, then the activities of the school team are organized to implement this program and control its results. Particular attention should be paid to the fact that the innovation process at some point can be spontaneous (uncontrollable) and exist due to internal self-regulation (that is, all the elements of the given structure do not seem to exist; there can be self-organization, self-regulation, self-control). However, the lack of control over such a complex system as the innovation process at school will quickly lead to its fading. Therefore, the presence of a management structure is a factor stabilizing and supporting this process, which, of course, does not exclude elements of self-government, self-regulation in it. Innovations in the field of education are aimed at shaping the personality, its ability to scientific, technical and innovative activities, at updating the content of the educational process. Each pedagogical era has spawned its own generation of technology. The first generation of educational technology was traditional methodology; technologies of the second and third generations were modular-block and whole-block learning systems; Integral technology belongs to the fourth generation of educational technologies. Historically, novelty is always relative. It is specific, i.e. may occur ahead of its time, then it may become the norm or become outdated. UNESCO defines innovation as an attempt to change the education system, to consciously and deliberately improve the current systems. Innovation is not necessarily something new, but necessarily something better and can be demonstrated on its own.

Sources of innovative ideas can be:

• 1) an unexpected event (success or failure, as an impetus to the development or expansion of activities or to the formulation of a problem);
• 2) various inconsistencies (between the true motives of children's behavior, their requests and desires, and the teacher's practical actions);
• 3) the needs of the pedagogical process (weak points in the methodology, the search for new ideas);
• 4) the emergence of new educational models;
• 5) demographic factor;
• 6) changes in the values ​​and attitudes of children (a change in the attitude of children to education, to significant values ​​entails the search for new forms of communication and professional behavior);
• 7) new knowledge (new concepts, approaches to education, specific methods and technologies).
• 8) Distinctive features of the teacher's innovative activity:
• 9) novelty in setting goals and objectives;
• 10) deep meaningfulness;
• 11) the originality of the application of previously known and the use of new methods for solving pedagogical problems;
• 12) development of new concepts, content of activities, pedagogical technologies based on humanization and individualization of the educational process;
• 13) the ability to consciously change and develop oneself, contributes to the profession.

V.A. Ivanov

The article examines the existing points of view on the essence of the concept of "innovation", based on the generalization of the definition of this term, the author's approach to the economic content of the term "innovation" is developed. The author identified the specificity and classification of innovations in agro-industrial production, proposed priority directions for the development of innovative processes in the regional agro-industrial complex.

The essence of the concept of "innovation"

Recently, interest in the problems of the theory of innovation has sharply increased, as evidenced by the constantly increasing volume of publications. At the same time, in the literature, the conceptual apparatus of innovation is far from fully developed. In this case, the same term is interpreted differently, or identified. This indicates the relevance of clarifying the essence of innovation.

The concept of "innovation" first appeared in scientific research of cultural studies back in the 19th century. And it meant the introduction of some elements of one culture into another. Typically, it was about the infiltration of European customs and organization into traditional Asian and African societies. It was only at the beginning of the twentieth century that the patterns of technical innovations began to be studied.

J. Schumpeter is considered the founder of the theory of innovation. He, in his Theory of Economic Development, published in 1912, considered innovation (new combinations) as a means of entrepreneurship for profit. The author called entrepreneurs "economic entities whose function is precisely the implementation of new combinations and which act as its active element."

Later, in the 30s, J. Schumpeter identified five typical changes in economic development:

Use of new technology, new technological processes or new market support for production (purchase and sale);

Introduction of products with new properties;

Use of new raw materials;

Changes in the organization of production and its material and technical support;

The emergence of new sales markets.

A significant contribution to the research of innovations was made by N.D. Kondratyev, who substantiated the theory of large cycles with a duration of 50-60 years, developed models of conjuncture cycles. He proved that the transition to a new cycle is associated with the expansion of the stock of capital goods, creating conditions for the massive introduction of the accumulated inventions. N. D. Kondratyev linked the transition to a new cycle with technical progress: “Before the onset of an upward wave of each large cycle, and sometimes at the very beginning,” he wrote, “significant changes are observed in the conditions of the economic life of society. These changes are usually expressed in one combination or another, in significant technical inventions and discoveries, in profound changes in the technique of production and exchange. " The main role in the changes in the economic life of society is N.D. Kondratyev allotted scientific and technical innovations.

In the world economic literature, "innovation" is interpreted as the transformation of potential scientific and technological progress into real, embodied in new products and technologies.

In the studies of domestic economists, the term "innovation" has become widely used with the transition of the economy to market relations. Prior to that, in the domestic economic literature, the problems of innovations were widely covered in the framework of research on scientific and technological progress (STP), the development of science and technology.

In order to effectively manage innovation, it is necessary to clearly understand the meaning and meaning of the term "innovation". In the dictionaries of S.I. Ozhegov and V.I. Dahl has no concept of "innovation". S.I. Ozhegova is the term "innovation" - something new, innovation, "innovation" - a new order, a new custom, a new method of invention, a new phenomenon. In the dictionary of V.I. Dahl - "innovation", used as the introduction of novelty, new customs, orders. In the "Great Soviet Encyclopedia" the concept of "innovation" is also absent.

In English terminological dictionaries, the term "innovation" is synonymous with innovation or innovation. In a number of encyclopedic dictionaries published in Russia in recent years, innovation is also identified with innovation, innovation.

Based on the study in the economic literature of recent years on the subject of the concept of "innovation", it can be argued that there are many of its definitions. Systematization of interpretations of the concept of "innovation" is given in table.

Analysis of the above definitions of the term "innovation" allows us to state that three points of view are widespread. First, innovation is identified with innovation, innovation. The second point of view, innovation is seen as a process of creating new products, technologies, innovation in the field of organization, economics and production management. The third is innovation as a process of introducing new products, elements, approaches into production that are qualitatively different from the previous analogue.

Table 1

Definition of "innovation"

Definition
ANDInnovation is a social - technical - economic process that, through the practical use of ideas and inventions, leads to the creation of products and technologies that are best in their properties.	Santo B. Innovation as a Means ..., 1990, p. 24.
PAn innovation (innovation) usually means an object introduced into production as a result of a study or a discovery made, which is qualitatively different from the previous analogue.	Utkin E.A., Morozova N.I., G.I. Morozova Innovation management ..., 1996, p. 10.
ANDInnovation is the process of implementing a new idea in any area of ​​human life, contributing to the satisfaction of existing needs in the market and bringing economic benefits.	Bezudny F.F., Smirnova G.A., Nechaeva O.D. The essence of the concept ..., 1998, p. eight.
ANDinnovation is the use of the results of scientific research and development aimed at improving the process of production, economic, legal and social relations in the field of science, culture, education and other areas of activity.	Suvorova A.L. Innovation Management, 1999, p. fifteen.
ANDInnovation is the result of activities aimed at updating, transforming previous activities, leading to the replacement of some elements with others, or the addition of existing ones with new ones.	Kokurin D.I. Innovation activity, 2001, p. 10.
ANDan innovation (innovation) is the result of practical or scientific and technical mastering of an innovation.	Avsyannikov N.M. Innovation management, 2002, p. 12.
PAn innovation means an object introduced into production as a result of a scientific research or a discovery made that is qualitatively different from the previous analogue.	Medynsky V.G. Innovation management, 2002, p. five.
ANDInnovation is understood as the end result of scientific research or discovery, qualitatively different from the previous analogue and introduced into production. The concept of innovation applies to all innovations in organizational, industrial and other areas of activity, to any improvements that provide cost reduction.	Minnikhanov R.N., Alekseev V.V., Fayzrakhmanov D.I., Sagdiev M.A. Innovation management ..., 2003, p. 13.
ANDInnovation is a process of development, development, exploitation and exhaustion of production, economic and social potential that underlies innovation.	Morozov Yu.P., A.I. Gavrilov, A.G. Gorodkov Innovation management, 2003, p. 17.
ANDinnovation as a result of the creative process in the form of created (or introduced) new use values, the use of which requires from the persons or organizations using them to change the usual stereotypes of activities and skills. The concept of innovation applies to a new product or service, a method of their production, an innovation in organizational, financial, research and other areas, any improvement that provides cost savings or creates conditions for such savings.	Zavlin P.N. Fundamentals of innovative management ..., 2004, from. 6.
ANDinnovation - a new or improved product (product, work, service), a method (technology) of its production or use, an innovation or improvement in the organization and (or) economics of production, and (or) sales of products, providing economic benefits, creating conditions for such benefits or improving the consumer properties of products (goods, works, services).	Kulagin A.S. A little about the term ..., 2004, p. 58.
ANDAn innovation is created new or improved technologies, types of products or services, as well as solutions of an industrial, administrative, financial, legal, commercial or other nature, resulting in their implementation and subsequent practical application of a positive effect for the economic entities that have involved them.	Stepanenko D.M. Classification of innovations ..., 2004, p. 77.
FROMLove “innovation” is synonymous with innovation or innovation, and can be used along with them.	Avrashkov L.Ya. Innovation management, 2005, p. five.
ANDAn innovation is the end result of the introduction of an innovation in order to change the object of management and obtain an economic, social, environmental, scientific and technical or other type of effect.	Fatkhutdinov R.A. Innovation management, 2005, p. fifteen.
ANDinnovations in relation to the agro-industrial complex are new technologies, new equipment, new varieties of plants, new breeds of animals, new fertilizers and means of protecting plants and animals, new methods of prevention and treatment of animals, new forms of organization, financing and crediting of production, new approaches to preparation, retraining and advanced training of personnel, etc.	Shaitan B.I. Innovations in the agro-industrial complex ..., 2005, p. 207.
ANDinnovation is the involvement in the economic turnover of the results of intellectual activity, containing new, including scientific, knowledge in order to meet social needs and (or) make a profit.	Volynkina N.V. Legal essence ..., 2006, p. 13.
INin accordance with international standards (the Frascati Manual - a new version of the document adopted by the OECD in 1993 in the Italian city of Frascati), innovation is defined as the end result of innovation, embodied in the form of a new or improved product introduced on the market, a new or improved technological process, used in practice, or in a new approach to social services.	Science statistics ..., 1996, p. 30-31.
ANDinnovation (innovation) - the end result of innovation, which has received implementation in the form of a new or improved product sold on the market, a new or improved technological process used in practice.	The concept of innovative ..., 1998.
ANDinnovation - an innovation in the field of engineering, technology, labor organization and management, based on the use of the achievements of science and best practices, as well as the use of these innovations in a variety of fields and fields of activity.	Raizberg B.A. Lozovsky L.Sh. E.B. Starodubtseva Modern economic ..., 1999, p. 136.
ANDinnovation: 1. Innovation, innovation. 2. A set of measures aimed at introducing new equipment, technologies, inventions into the economy, etc .; modernization.	Bolshoy sensible ..., 2003, p. 393.
ANDinnovation is an innovation in the production and non-production spheres, in the field of economic, social, legal relations, science, culture, education, health care, in the field of public finance, in business finance, in the budget process, in banking, in the financial market, in insurance etc.	Financial and credit ..., 2004, p. 367.
ANDinnovation - obtaining great economic results through the introduction of innovations; the essence of the progressive development strategy of the organization of the state as opposed to the bureaucratic type of development.	Rumyantseva E.E. New economic ..., 2005, p. 162.

We shared the position of those researchers who consider it inappropriate to equate the concepts of “innovation” and “innovation”. An innovation, says prof. R.A. Fatkhutdinov is a formalized result of fundamental, applied research, development or experimental work in any area of ​​activity to improve efficiency. Innovations can take the form of: discoveries; inventions; patents; trade marks; rationalization proposals; documentation for a new or improved product, technology, management or production process; organizational, production or other structure; know-how; concepts; scientific approaches or principles; document (standard, recommendations, methods, instructions, etc.); marketing research results, etc. Investing in the development of an innovation is half the battle. The main thing is to introduce an innovation, to turn an innovation into a form of innovation, i.e. complete the innovation activity and get a positive result, then continue the diffusion of innovation. These stages refer to innovation as a process.

Thus, an innovation acts as a concrete result of research and development in the form of new products, equipment, technology, information, methods, etc. In turn, innovation is the process of introducing innovation in order to change the object of management and obtain scientific, technical, economic and social effect.

The analysis of currently existing definitions contains a number of shortcomings. For example, the current international standards on innovation established by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development are developed for new products, technical change and social services, do not cover innovations in the field of organization and management. A similar flaw in the definition of innovation is contained in the "Concept of the innovation policy of the Russian Federation for 1998-2000."

In our opinion, innovation should have the following properties: have novelty, applicability in any field of human activity, implemented in the market, bring economic and other types of effect.

Summarizing the above definitions of this term, we can give the following formulation of the concept of innovation. Innovation is the commercialization of scientific knowledge that has been embodied in the form of a new or improved product (service), technique, technology, organization of production, management and bringing various types of effect.

With regard to the agro-industrial complex (agro-industrial complex), innovations are the implementation into economic practice of the results of research and development in the form of new varieties of plants, breeds and species of animals and poultry crosses, new or improved food products, materials, new technologies in crop production, animal husbandry and processing industry, new fertilizers and means of protecting plants and animals, new methods of prevention and treatment of animals and poultry, new forms of organization and management of various sectors of the economy, new approaches to social services that improve production efficiency.

Classification of innovations

In the scientific literature, it is customary to classify innovations according to a number of characteristics - according to the degree of radicalism, significance in economic development, dividing them into basic, improving and pseudo-innovations (rationalizing).

According to the direction of the results, innovations are divided into product and process innovations. Product innovation encompasses the introduction of new or improved products. They include the use of new materials, new semi-finished products and components, and the receipt of new products. Process innovations are divided into technological - new production technologies; organizational and managerial - new methods of organizing production, transport, sales and supply, new organizational management structures and social - improving working conditions, recreation, meeting human needs in health care, education, culture ..

A fairly complete classification of innovations was proposed by A.I. Prigogine.

1. By prevalence:

Single;

Diffuse.

2. In place in the production cycle:

Raw materials;

Providing (binding);

Grocery.

3. By succession:

Substitute;

Canceling;

Returnable;

Openers;

Retraction.

4. By coverage of the expected market share:

Local;

Systemic;

Strategic.

5. By innovative potential and degree of novelty:

Radical;

Combinatorial;

Cultivators.

The fourth and fifth directions of the classification, taking into account the scale and novelty of innovations, the intensity of innovative change, to the greatest extent express the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of innovations and are important for the economic assessment of their consequences and justification of management decisions.

P.N. Zavlin proposes to classify innovations according to 12 criteria: by importance; by direction; by the sectoral structure of the life cycle; by the depth of change; in relation to development; by the scale of distribution; by role in the production process; by the nature of the needs being satisfied; by the degree of novelty; by time to market; for reasons of occurrence; by subject and area of ​​application (Fig. 1).

The decrease in appropriations for science over the years of reforms led to an outflow of young scientists.

One of the features of agriculture is that, along with industrial means of production, living organisms - animals and plants - take an active part in the reproductive process. Their development is subject to the action of natural laws and depends on such natural factors as climate, weather, heat, moisture, light and food. V.R. Williams wrote: “Plants require for their prosperity continuous availability or continuous influx of four groups of factors - light, heat, water and nutrients under the continuous condition of simultaneous and joint presence of all four factors in optimal quantities with their unconditional equivalence and independence. .

Expanded reproduction in agriculture takes place in the interaction of economic and natural biological processes. Therefore, when managing innovations, it is necessary to take into account the requirements of not only economic laws, but also the laws of nature: equivalence, irreplaceability and the totality of life factors, the laws of minimum, optimum and maximum. The operation of the law of indispensability of factors of production is manifested in the fact that, for example, selection cannot compensate for fertilizers, a variety cannot compensate for the gaps in agricultural technology, and breeding cannot replace feed. According to the law of the minimum, the growth of production is constrained by the factor that is at the minimum. For example, the level of productivity of livestock is determined by the substance, the largest amount of which is in the feed ration; in accordance with the law of maximum, the excess of any one nutrient in excess of the needs of the animal will not lead to an increase in its productivity. The complex nature of innovations in the agro-industrial complex imposes specific requirements on the innovative mechanism (regulatory and legal framework for innovative development, organization and management, innovative marketing, the development of an innovative structure).

In agriculture, even the slightest omission is fraught with undesirable consequences. K.A. Timiryazev pointed out: "Nowhere, perhaps in any other activity, is it required to weigh so many different conditions of success, nowhere is such multilateral information required, nowhere can a passion for a one-sided point of view lead to such a failure as in agriculture."

The complexity of agricultural production and its features predetermine the originality of approaches and methods of managing the innovation process, a combination of various types of innovations, and the strengthening of the role of the state in stimulating innovations.

It should be noted that the complexity and characteristics of agricultural production are characterized by a high level of risks of innovation processes in the agricultural sector. The risk of financing research and production results, the risk of a temporary gap between costs and results, the uncertainty of demand for innovative products do not interest private investors to invest in the development of agriculture.

Fig. 3. Conditions and factors influencing the innovative development of the agro-industrial complex

To activate innovative processes, it is necessary to provide conditions for expanded reproduction in the agricultural sector, first of all, to improve the financial condition of organizations. Most of the agricultural enterprises of the Komi Republic have long lost their own working capital, their accounts payable exceeded the annual volume of proceeds from the sale of products, they cannot take new loans, which counteracts the normal production process. Even taking into account subsidies and compensations from the budget in 2005, 56% of agricultural enterprises in the republic were unprofitable. With a lack of funds, they are primarily directed to current goals.

The conditions and factors that hinder the development of innovations in the agro-industrial complex also include a contraction in domestic demand for food, a reduction in state support for the agricultural sector and state funding for scientific and technical programs, an underdeveloped lending system, high interest rates on loans, a lack of innovation infrastructure and state innovation policy and strategy. insufficient level of training of personnel of agro-industrial complex organizations in the field of innovation management.

One of the main obstacles to the transition of the agricultural economy to the path of innovative development is an acute shortage of qualified managers and specialists. Currently, over 300 positions remain vacant in agricultural organizations of the Komi Republic, including 32 positions of chief agronomist, 52 - chief engineer, 41 - chief veterinarian, 49 - chief economist. Only 56% of heads of organizations have a higher education, and 12% do not even have a secondary vocational education. The number of managers and specialists retired from agriculture exceeds the number of those hired.

The innovative type of development of the agrarian economy is largely determined by the scientific and technical policy of the region, the formation of a regional innovation mechanism. The subjects play an important role in the implementation of the anti-crisis program, using innovations of the selection-genetic, technological, organizational-managerial and social types.

The priorities for the development of innovative processes in the regional agro-industrial complex include:

Technological re-equipment of the organizations of the complex;

Energy and resource saving technologies for the production, storage and processing of agricultural products;

Reproduction of soil fertility, prevention of all types of soil degradation, development of adaptive technologies for agroecosystems and agricultural landscapes;

Development of production of organic agricultural products. In the North zone there is a unique opportunity to concentrate on its huge land resources the production of ecologically safe products, to work out the technologies of organic farming;

Creation of a modern system of information and infrastructural support for innovation in the agro-industrial complex;

Development of state innovation policy and strategy at the federal and regional levels, aimed at the formation of progressive technological structures;

Formation of the organizational and economic mechanism for the functioning of the agro-industrial complex on an innovative basis;

Strengthening the role of government organizations in enhancing innovation;

Development of regional and municipal innovative programs for the development of the agro-industrial complex;

Improving the system of training personnel in the field of innovation, ensuring an increase in the innovative activity of organizations and the commercialization of the results of scientific research.

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1

Mueller R.W. 1

1 Saint Petersburg National Research University of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics, Saint Petersburg

The article reveals the essence, role and significance of innovations, provides a classification of innovations and innovations according to a number of fundamental features. The concepts of "innovation" and "innovation" are considered separately, taking into account the characteristics of innovation processes, organizational and economic mechanism and types of innovations. Classifications of innovations have been carried out on various grounds. These classifications confirm that the processes of innovation are diverse and different in nature, therefore, the forms of their organization, scale and ways of influencing innovation are also diverse. It is concluded that the Russian economy is not ready for investments, since the profitability of financial transactions is higher than the average profitability of financial investments. Innovation is viewed from different perspectives: in relation to technology, commerce, social systems, economic development and policy formulation. Accordingly, there is a wide range of approaches to conceptualizing innovations in the scientific literature.

innovation

innovative project

investment

efficiency

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2. Makarova I.A. Mechanism for the selection of innovative projects // Issue 3: Interuniversity collection of scientific papers. - SPb .: WATT Publishing House, 2007.

3. Medynsky V.G. Innovation management: textbook. (Higher education). - M .: INFRA-M, 2007.

4. Morozov Yu.P. Innovation management: textbook. allowance. - M .: UNITY-DANA, 2000.

5. Prigogine A.I. Innovation: incentives and perspectives. - M., 1998.

A variety of specific conditions, including economic, organizational and others, in innovation leads to the fact that, despite the generality of the subject of innovation, each of its implementation is unique. At the same time, there are many classifications of innovations and, accordingly, the subjects of innovation. Let's take a look at some of them. The differences between radical and improving, or modifying, innovations express qualitative differences in the level of novelty of the corresponding innovations and indicate the dependence of the latter on the former: radical innovations serve as the basis for subsequent improvements. Behind these differences, there are two significantly different types of subjects of innovation. Their organizational structures are in many ways opposed, and their relationship is very dialectical. After introducing a radical innovation, improving it serves its further development and prolongs the effect. But in the initial stages, radical innovation encounters resistance from the mechanisms and structures of improvement activities.

The peculiarities of innovation processes that an innovation manager must take into account when creating an organizational and economic mechanism for their own business follow from the prevailing type of innovation. An important stage in the analysis of innovations is their classification according to a number of fundamental features (Table 1).

The classifications given in this table confirm that the processes of innovations are diverse and different in nature, therefore, the forms of their organization, the scale and methods of influencing innovation are also diverse.

Among economists who study the problems of innovations, an important place is occupied by the German scientist G. Mensch, who tried to link the rates of economic growth and cyclicality with the emergence of basic innovations. In his opinion, at the moments when basic innovations exhaust their potential, a situation of "technological stalemate" arises, which determines stagnation in economic development. This formulation of the question and the introduction of this definition into circulation are of great scientific, and, taking into account the current situation in Russia, and practical importance. Mensch believed that industrial development is a transition from one technological stalemate to another. As a result of the emergence of basic innovations, new enterprises appear, the development cycles of which are interrelated. The production of new goods at the initial stage, as a rule, lags behind demand and therefore is characterized by high growth rates during this period. Mensch associates the cyclical nature of the economy with the cyclical nature of innovations and the phases of development of new enterprises. He pointed to the moment when the production of new goods begins to exceed demand. From this time on, firms begin to look for exits to foreign markets, the rate of profit falls, and less and less funds are directed to investments. Capital is pouring into financial markets. Sooner or later, speculative financial transactions reach gigantic proportions and the rate of return in the monetary sphere falls below the rate of return in industry. This means, according to Mensch, that the financial sector is ripe for investment in the real sector. This is very important for Russian practice. It is obvious that the Russian economy is not ready for investments, since the profitability of financial transactions is higher than the average profitability of financial investments.

Table 1

Classification of innovations

Classification attribute	Types of innovations
According to the degree of radicality (novelty, innovative potential, originality of a technical solution, etc.)	Radical (pioneer, basic, scientific, etc.), ordinary (inventions, new technical solutions)
By the nature of the application: grocery; technological; social; complex; market	Focused on the production and use of new products. Aimed at creating and applying new technology. Focused on the construction and functioning of new structures
By the stimulus of appearance (source)	Innovations caused by the development of science and technology, the needs of production and the market
By role in the reproductive process	Consumer and investment
By scale (complexity)	Complex (synthetic) and simple
For whom are innovations	For the producer and the consumer; for society as a whole; for the market

Many provisions of Mensch's concept have been critically reviewed and developed by other authors. In particular, the German economist A. Kleinknecht clarifies the thesis about the formation of innovation clusters at the stage of depression. He believes that clusters of product innovations are indeed formed during the depression phase, but innovation processes - at the stage of increasing the long wave.

A significant place in the theory of innovation management is occupied by concepts that study the formation of technological systems and ways of diffusing innovations. These concepts are being developed by a number of scientists, among them the English economists K. Freeman, D. Clark and L. Suite can be distinguished. They introduced the concept of a technological system of interconnected families of technical and social innovations. According to the authors, the rate of economic growth depends on the formation, development and aging of technological systems. Diffusion, or the process of diffusion of innovations, is considered as a mechanism for the development of a technological system. The authors associate the rate of diffusion of innovations with the market mechanism. They note that the diffusion of innovation requires appropriate conditions and incentives. The impetus for the development of the economy is the emergence of basic innovations in certain industries (here there is a similarity with Mensch's concept). The aging of technological systems in some countries and the emergence of new ones in others leads to uneven intercountry development. Economic growth is seen as a consequence of the emergence of new industries.

Among the Russian scientists who study the problems of cyclicity and have contributed to the development of many theoretical and practical aspects of this problem, one can name Yu.V. Yakovets and E.G. Yakovenko.

Yu.V. Yakovets identified the cycles and phases of the development of technology, and also periodized the scientific and technological revolutions. In the works of E.G. Yakovenko and his colleagues considered product life cycles, modeling of cyclic processes at the micro level. Many of the conclusions of these researchers can be used in the development of mechanisms for regulating market processes, taking into account the life cycle of technologies, products and industries.

Yu.V. Yakovets distinguishes four types of innovations from the point of view of the cyclical development of technology:

• the largest basic innovations implement the largest inventions and become the basis for revolutionary upheavals in technology, the formation of its new directions, the creation of new industries. Such innovations require a long time and large expenditures for their development, but they provide a significant in terms of level and scale of the national economic effect; however, they do not occur every year;
• major innovations (based on a similar rank of inventions) form new generations of technology in this area. They are implemented in a shorter time frame and at lower costs than basic innovations, but the leap in technical level and efficiency is comparatively smaller;
• medium innovations implement the same level of invention and serve as the basis for creating new models and modifications of this generation of technology, replacing outdated models with more efficient ones or expanding the scope of this generation;
• small innovations improve individual production or consumer parameters of manufactured models of equipment based on the use of small inventions, which contributes either to more efficient production of these models, or to an increase in the efficiency of their use.

Pavit and Walker distinguish seven types of innovations, depending on the degree of use of scientific knowledge in them and their widespread use:

Based on the use of fundamental scientific knowledge, the results of which are widely used in various spheres of social activity (computers, etc.);

Innovation, also based on research, but with a limited scope (for example, measuring instruments for the chemical industry);

Developed using already existing technical knowledge, innovations with a limited scope (for example, a new type of mixer for bulk materials);

Innovation coming from a combination of different types of knowledge in one product;

Using one product in different fields;

Technically challenging innovations. Appeared as a byproduct of a major research program (a ceramic pan created on the basis of research conducted as part of the space program);

Application of already known techniques or methods in a new field.

A detailed and original typology of innovations was given by A.I. Prigogine. He shared innovation:

• by type of innovation: material and technical and social, economic and organizational and managerial, legal and pedagogical;
• by the mechanism of implementation: single, diffusion, completed and incomplete, successful and unsuccessful;
• on innovative potential; radical, combined; modifying;
• by the peculiarities of the innovation process: intra-organizational, inter-organizational;
• by efficiency: efficiency of production and management, improvement of working conditions, etc.

The author has divided the concepts of "innovation" and "innovation". Innovation is the subject of innovation. Innovation and innovation have different life cycles. Innovation is development, design, manufacture, use, obsolescence; innovation is nucleation, diffusion, routinization .

By the nature of public goals, innovations are distinguished:

Economic, profit-oriented (production of pharmaceuticals for export, etc.);

Economic, not profit-oriented (environmental, etc.);

Special (military, healthcare, education, etc.).

Taking into account the above, the specified classifications of innovations can be presented in a single scheme (Table 2). This classification of innovations makes it possible, through a survey and certification, to diagnose the subjects of innovative entrepreneurship, highlight the main features of each cluster and fix the main groups of subjects of innovative entrepreneurship.

Table 2 Generalized classification of innovations by characteristics

Innovations
1.In terms of cyclical development: the largest large average small	2.In terms of intensity: zero order first order second order third order fourth order fifth order sixth order seventh order
3. Depending on the degree of use of scientific knowledge: based on fundamental scientific knowledge on scientific research with a limited scope on existing scientific knowledge on a combination of different types of knowledge on the use of one product in various fields on spin-offs of major programs on already known technology	4. Whenever possible, life cycle planning: innovations that embody scientific ideas, revolutionize the productive forces and are fixed in their composition, as a new integral element (forecast object) qualitative shifts in individual elements of the productive forces, meaning a change in generations of technology while maintaining the original fundamental principle (an object of a long-term nature) quantitative changes, improvement of individual parameters (objects of current and long-term planning)
5.In terms of structural characteristics: at the entrance at the exit enterprise structure innovation	6. By method: experimental straight
7.In terms of linkage to specific areas of activity: technological production trade social	8. By management level: national economic sectoral territorial primary management
9. In the field of management: products processes (technological) work force management activities	10. By terms of execution: 20 and more years 15-20 years old 5-10 years up to 5 years
11. By the degree of coverage of the life cycle: R&D, development and application R&D, theoretical	12. By volume: point systemic strategic
13. In relation to the previous state of the process (system): replacing canceling opening retro innovations	14. Purposefully aimed at: efficiency of implementation production efficiency improvement of working conditions improving product quality
15. By planning source: central local spontaneous	16. By performance: embedded and fully used embedded and poorly used unimplemented
17. By the level of novelty: radical, changing or re-creating entire industries systemic modifying	18. Depending on the size: detection of new areas of application (increases efficiency by 10-100 and more times) use of new principles of functioning (increases efficiency by 2-10 times) creation of new design solutions (increases efficiency by 5-10%) calculation of optimization parameters (increases efficiency by 2-10%)

Reviewers:

Makarov A.D., Doctor of Economics, Professor of the Department of Applied Economics and Marketing, St. Petersburg National Research University of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics, St. Petersburg;

Semenov VP, Doctor of Economics, Professor, Head of the Department of Quality Management and Mechanical Engineering, GOU VPO "St. Petersburg State Engineering and Economic University", St. Petersburg.

The work was received on 05.04.2012.

Bibliographic reference

Mueller R.W. ESSENCE AND CLASSIFICATION OF INNOVATIONS // Fundamental research. - 2012. - No. 6-1. - S. 244-248;
URL: http://fundamental-research.ru/ru/article/view?id=29974 (date of access: 04/01/2020). We bring to your attention the journals published by the "Academy of Natural Sciences"

The specific content of innovation is change, and the main function of innovation is the function of change.

In the world economic literature, innovation is called the transformation of potential scientific and technological progress into real, embodied in new products and technologies.

The terms “innovation”, “innovative activity”, “innovation process” have replaced the concept of “scientific and technological progress”.

There are different views on innovation.

B. Twiss defines innovation as a process in which an invention or idea acquires economic content.

Austrian scientist I. Schumpeter in 1911 identified 5 typical changes:

Use of new technology, new technological processes or new market support for production;

Introduction of products with new properties;

Use of new raw materials;

Changes in the organization of production and its material and technical support;

The emergence of new sales markets.

Already later in 1930, I. Schumpeter introduced the concept of "innovation", defining it as a change in order to introduce new consumer goods, new production and transport vehicles, markets and forms of organization in industry.

Innovation is an innovation as a result of practical or scientific and technical mastering of an innovation.

An innovation is a concrete result of the development of a new scientific idea, which differs from the previously used qualitative characteristics, which make it possible to increase production efficiency.

The goal of innovation is to directly meet human needs for products, services, processes of a higher quality level.

The concept of "innovation" is identical in meaning to the term "innovation", which is considered as a developing complex process of creation, implementation, dissemination and use of innovation, contributing to the development and increasing the efficiency of innovation.

Innovation means an object that is not just introduced into production, but successfully implemented and profitable.

Thus, if an innovation (innovation) is a new order, a new method, a new phenomenon, a new custom, etc., then innovation (innovation) is the introduction of a new one or a process of using the innovation. An innovation becomes an innovation from the moment it is adopted for implementation. Practical use of an innovation from the moment of its technological development in production and large-scale distribution as new products and services is an innovation.

The process of introducing an innovation to the market is called the commercialization process, and the period of time between the appearance of an innovation and its implementation into an innovation is called an innovation lag. .

Innovation is defined as the end result of innovation, embodied in the form of a new or improved technological process used in practice, or in a new approach to social services.

Innovation has the following properties:

Scientific and technical novelty;

Manufacturing applicability;

Commercial feasibility.

The last property of innovation is potential, i.e. some effort is needed to achieve it. The variety of conditions and factors in which innovation is carried out leads to the fact that each innovation is unique. Therefore, there are many classifications of innovations and, accordingly, the subjects of innovation. Innovations and innovations, first of all, are subdivided into scientific and technical, technological, economic and organizational. Actually, most authors identify the following types of innovations:

1.innovation - products that are the results of creative research processes in the form of new products (techniques, technologies, raw materials, methods, techniques, etc.) introduced in production;

2. innovations - processes as sequential "procedures" for the introduction of new products, principles, methods instead of previously used;

3.social innovation – it is a change in the habitual thinking and lifestyle, the introduction of dynamism into the "stable" economic order (according to P. Drucker).

Innovations are classified according to various criteria: scope, level of novelty, needs of various user groups, etc.

Russian scientists, in particular, Yu.V. Yakovets distinguishes four types of innovations from the point of view of the cyclical development of technology:

The largest basic innovations that implement the largest inventions and become the basis of the scientific and technological revolution;

Major innovations are shaping new generations of technology in this area;

Medium innovations implement the same level of invention and serve as the basis for creating new models and modifications of this generation of technology, replacing outdated models with more efficient ones or expanding the scope of this generation;

Small innovations improve individual production or consumer parameters of manufactured models of equipment based on the use of small inventions, which contributes either to more efficient production of these models, or to an increase in the efficiency of their use.

Domestic researchers N.M. Makarkin and L.V. Shaborkin, depending on the level of novelty of changes, distinguish basic (or radical), improving (or modifying) innovations and pseudo-innovations. Basic innovation is the first time a new technical principle is implemented. They form the basis for the emergence of a new generation of technology, and, consequently, new industries, activities and markets. Improving innovations are, as it were, secondary in relation to the basic ones, they arise after them and reflect the possibilities of rationalizing innovations (for example, within the existing generation of technology, a system of machines in accordance with specific operating conditions, consumer requirements). Pseudo-innovations are characterized by very insignificant, minimal differences in the parameters of “new” products, arising, as a rule, under the influence of fashion, “public sentiments”, and not as a result of production and technical needs.

The original classification of innovations was given by A.I. Prigogine, who shared innovation:

By type of innovation: material and technical and social, economic and organizational and managerial, legal and pedagogical;

By the mechanism of implementation: single, diffusion, completed and incomplete, successful and unsuccessful;

By innovative potential: radical, combined, modifying;

By the peculiarities of the innovation process: intra-organizational, inter-organizational;

By efficiency: efficiency of production and management, improvement of working conditions, etc.

The innovation process is associated with the creation, development and diffusion of innovations. There are three forms of organizing the innovation process:

Simple (natural) - consists in the intra-organizational creation and use of innovation within the same organization;

Simple interorganizational, when an innovation is bought by its manufacturer;

Expanded innovation process - manifests itself in the creation of new manufacturers for innovation and in the violation of the monopoly on it.

A simple innovation process turns into a commodity process in 2 phases: 1) creation of an innovation and its distribution; 2) diffusion of innovation.

The first phase is research and development work, pilot production, sales, organization of commercial production.

The second phase is production and implementation.

The process by which an innovation is transmitted through communication channels between members of a social system over time is called the diffusion of innovation. As a result of diffusion, the number of producers and consumers increases. The continuity of the diffusion of innovation determines the speed and boundaries of the diffusion of innovation in a market economy. The diffusion rate of innovation depends on:

Decision making forms;

Information transfer method;

The properties of the social system, as well as the innovation itself.

The participants in the innovation process are:

Innovators are generators of scientific and technical knowledge, individual inventors or research organizations.

Early recipients are entrepreneurs who were the first to master the innovation and ensure its fastest promotion to the market.

The early majority are the first to innovate in production and receive additional profits.

Lagging firms are outdated firms.

All but the first are imitators.

To ensure the effectiveness of the innovation process in the enterprise, they need to be led. Management of the innovation process or innovation management is a set of principles, methods, forms of management of the innovation process of innovation activity, organizational structures and personnel engaged in this activity.

The innovation process includes the following steps:

Setting goals and choosing a strategy;

Planning, which includes several stages: drawing up a plan for the implementation of the strategy; determining the need for resources and setting the task; research and development of a strategy implementation plan; control, analysis, corrective actions;

Creation of an effective structure for managing innovative activities;

Motivation of the participants in the innovation process.

The choice of a strategy is the key to the success of an enterprise's innovation activity and an essential component of innovation management. A strategy is an interconnected set of actions aimed at strengthening the viability of a given enterprise in relation to competitors. For an enterprise to be competitive, it is necessary to anticipate and plan possible changes. The development of innovative strategies is based on the theory of the product life cycle.

There are the following types of innovative strategies:

Offensive - for enterprises that base their activities on the principles of entrepreneurial competition. It is selected by small innovative organizations;

Defensive - for organizations that maintain a competitive position in the market; this strategy requires intensive research and development work;

Imitation - used by organizations with strong market and technological positions that are not pioneers in the release of certain innovations.

Innovation strategies can also be categorized according to the stages of the innovation life cycle:

Inception - the emergence of a new system within the old mother;

Birth is the real emergence of a new system;

Affirmation - the emergence of a mature, adult competitive system;

Stabilization - the entry of the system into a period when it exhausts its potential;

Simplification is the tipping point at the beginning of the system decay;

Fall - a decrease in most significant vital signs;

Outcome is a turning point, characterized by the end of the life of the system.

Planning for innovation is a system of calculations aimed at choosing and justifying the development goals of the innovation process, and preparing decisions necessary for their unconditional implementation.

Innovation planning is based on the following principles:

Scientific validity of planning, i.e. the use of modern technologies, modern procedures and methods for the implementation of innovative processes;

The principle of dominance of strategic aspects of planning;

Complexity of planning, i.e. coverage of all aspects of planning and areas, as well as budgetary balance;

Flexibility and elasticity of planning innovation, responding to the manifestation of random factors of strengths and weaknesses;

Continuity of rolling planning concepts.

Planning for innovation in organizations has the following types:

Product-thematic planning - used in the formation of promising areas of research and development;

Technical and economic planning - based on the calculation of labor, material and financial resources and the economic efficiency of the organization;

Volumetric scheduling - provides calculation of the load of production units.

The goals of innovative planning must be realistic, consistent, clear, ranked, targeted and relevant.

The innovative activity of an enterprise is one of the main conditions for maintaining its competitiveness. This activity is aimed at bringing scientific and technical ideas, inventions, developments to a result suitable for implementation in the practical activities of the enterprise.

Thus, innovation activity includes all types of scientific activity, design, technological and experimental development, activities for the development of innovations in production and among their consumers - the implementation of innovations.

Questions and Answers

1. What is an innovation process?

2. Define the content of the innovation.

3. Define the main stages of the innovation process and their content.

4. What is the main goal of innovation?

5. Is the concept of "innovation" different from the concept of "innovation"?

6. What is the fundamental difference between innovation and innovation?

7. What are the main stages and characteristics of the innovation life cycle?

8. What does innovation include, as defined by I. Schumpeter?

9. What classifications of Russian scientists do you know?

10. What are the main factors in the development of the investment market and their impact on innovation.

11. What is the place of innovation in the innovation process?

12. What is the essence of scientific, scientific and technical, innovation and marketing in the innovation process?

13. What is the essence of the strategy of active state intervention in scientific and innovative activities?

14. What is the essence of the strategy for the decentralized regulation of scientific and innovation activities?

15. What is meant by the process of commercializing an innovation?

Tasks

1. The company is considering whether it is worth investing 1,500 thousand rubles in the project, which in two years will bring 2,000 thousand rubles. It was decided to invest money on the condition that the annual income from this investment is at least 10%. What should be the final conclusion?

2. The company decides whether it is worth investing 1,800 thousand rubles. to a project that can provide additional profit (excluding depreciation):

in the first year	1000 thousand rubles.
in the second year	2000 thousand rubles.
in the third year	3000 thousand rub.

Interest on capital is 10% (otherwise, the company needs a return on investment of at least 10%).

3. The project provides for capital investments in the amount of 2000 thousand rubles. The expected annual profit is 5000 thousand rubles. within 6 years (excluding depreciation). The cost of capital is 12%. Is this project profitable?

4. The project provides for capital investments in the amount of 5000 thousand rubles. Expected annual profit (excluding depreciation) 1200 thousand rubles. The interest on capital was 10%. Is the project profitable if its duration is 5 years?

5. The company is considering two proposals. Initial costs and cash receipts are as follows (in thousand rubles):

Year	Project A	Project B

Dividend return 10%. Only one of the two projects can be implemented. Calculate the net present value for each of the two projects, the profitability of discounted cash flows, analyze the calculation results and choose the most profitable project.

6. The company is considering whether to invest in a machine that costs RUB 8,000. The machine will increase the annual sales of products by 10,000 thousand rubles. (at constant prices) for two years. Material and labor costs amount to 5000 thousand rubles. The real rate of return is 10%. The expected headline inflation, corresponding to the retail price index, is 10% per year.

If the project is implemented, sales prices will increase by only 5% per year, while material and labor costs will increase by 20% per year. Determine the net present value of the project.

7. Investors offer the entrepreneur three projects for a five-year period:

The interest rate is assumed to be stable for 5 years and is equal to 20% per annum. Determine the most effective project. How much more efficient is it compared to other projects?

8. An innovative project for the production and sale of goods has the following indicators:

Calculate the indicators of the balance of income and expenses for this product. Determine the month and decade when the project will start making a profit.

9. It is assumed that the total profit of an innovative company after taxes will increase from 0 after two years of operation to 20,000 thousand rubles. after five years of work and investment. The company has been operating for four years. It is assumed that in five years the price of one share on the stock exchange will be equal to 3200 rubles, and the annual profit brought to the investor by one share will be equal to 800 rubles.

The innovative founders decided to sell the company after five years from the date of its creation. What will the value of this venture company be equal to?

10. The initial data of the business plan for determining the profitability threshold are as follows:

It is supposed to produce 2500 units of goods. Determine the profitability threshold for sales proceeds, the threshold amount of goods produced, the amount of profit that can be obtained as a result of the project.

11. It is required to make a decision on the choice of the best solution for the same amount of capital. In the first option, the capital makes 20 revolutions per year, the profitability of the production and sold goods is 20%. According to the second option, the capital makes 26 revolutions per year, the profitability is 18%. Make the choice according to the criterion of the maximum rate of return on capital.

Tests

1. "Innovation" and "Innovation" - the same concept or different?

2. Choose the correct one from the list of types of innovations presented:

a) the emergence of innovation, implementation, development, investment;

b) the production of a new product, the development of a new market, the introduction of a new method, organizational innovation;

c) production of a new product, distribution of profits, sale of goods in a new market, competitive leadership;

d) production of a new product, development of production facilities, opening a new market for the consumer.

3. The innovative strategy of the venture capital firm is:

a) minimizing the risk;

b) transfer of their developments to exporters, patents, violets and commutants;

4. The introduction of a new or the process of using an innovation is:

a) innovation;

b) innovation

c) innovation

d) innovation.

5. The information process, the form and speed of which depend on the power of communication channels, the characteristics of the perception of information by an economic entity, is a process:

a) diffusion of innovation;

b) information penetration;

c) diffusion of information.

6. The indispensable properties of innovation are:

a) scientific and technical novelty;

b) industrial applicability;

c) economic efficiency;

d) commercial feasibility.

7. A simple innovation process turns into a commodity process through the following phases:

a) creation of an innovation and its dissemination;

b) diffusion of innovation;

c) implementation of innovation;

d) commercialization of innovation.

8. The entrepreneurs who were the first to master the innovation are:

a) innovators;

b) early recipients;

c) violets.

9. Research not directly related to the solution of specific applied problems is called:

a) theoretical;

b) fundamental.

10. Firms operating at the stages of growth and saturation of inventive activity and still persisting in the already declining activity of scientific research are called:

a) venture capital;

b) risky;

c) pioneer;

d) commutants;

e) patents.

11. What phases of the product life cycle does the innovation strategy take into account:

a) origin;

b) approval;

c) conquest;

d) stabilization;

e) strengthening;

f) simplification;

g) fall;

i) destructuring.

12. The period of time between the appearance of an innovation and its embodiment in an innovation is called:

a) an innovative period;

b) innovative lag;

c) an innovative step.

13. From the point of view of the cyclical development of technology, innovations are divided into:

a) the largest basic, large, medium and small;

b) large, medium and small;

c) radical, ordinary.

14. Is innovation a must for a growing company?

c) in some cases.

15. The source of financial investments in the innovative activity of the enterprise can be:

a) own funds;

b) borrowed funds;

c) accumulation;

d) profit;

e) depreciation.

Conclusion

The study of the discipline "Economics of an enterprise (organization)" showed that in a market economy it really is of great importance, since the enterprise is the main subject of economic activity, combining various types of resources: material, financial, human, technical, information. These resources in the process of using the appropriate technology are transformed into a finished product (service), selling which the enterprise should make a profit.

Making a profit is the main goal of a commercial enterprise (organization) in market conditions. In order for an enterprise to make a profit as a result of its activities, it is necessary to effectively manage production resources, it is important to know their essence, classification, units of measurement, indicators for assessing the effectiveness of their use, how they are interconnected, since an increase in production efficiency is due to an increase in the return of the resources used.

At the same time, innovative activity is an integral type of activity of a modern enterprise that allows it to survive in conditions of increasing competition. This type of activity allows the company to improve the quality and competitiveness of its products (services), and in the future will ensure high financial results of its activities.

All this should be understood and assimilated by students when working with this textbook.

Innovation (innovation)- the result of scientific and technical activities, formalized as an object of intellectual property, materialized in the production sphere (carried out in the service sector) and demanded by the consumer.

J. Schumpeter, who first used this term, interpreted innovation as a new combination of resources motivated by an entrepreneurial spirit. A commonly used meaning is also the understanding of innovation as an innovation that has received public recognition through commercialization, transformation into a product or service. All interpretations of the concept of "innovation" are united by a common characteristic feature - a new consumer value of a product created in the process of innovation. Key features of innovation:

• o scientific and technical, technological or managerial novelty;
• o practical applicability (the possibility of implementation in a specific project);
• o compliance with market demand (social needs);
• o potential profitability. The following innovation functions are distinguished:
• o transform function, the essence of which is that innovation allows you to combine theory with practice in a specific subject area; to materialize scientific knowledge; apply them for the benefit of society. A successful innovation, if widespread, can change the economic structure and direction of economic development in a particular country, in a group of countries of the same technological level, or in the world as a whole;
• o stimulating function, which is that innovation gives an impetus to the development of human capital and science in the country through the material interest of all participants in the innovation process;
• o reproductive function, consisting in the fact that innovation serves as a source of economic growth and changes the structure of the country's gross domestic product in favor of its greater science intensity. This happens due to an increase in the share (specific weight) of high-tech industries;
• o social function, confirming the inseparability of the two-way connection between economic processes and factors of social life. Innovations contribute to the saturation of the market with quality goods and services, which is important, because most of the needs of a modern person are still in the material plane. Through innovations in the direction of increasing comfort, the living environment is changing and the quality of life is improving. A necessary condition for recognizing the success of an innovative solution is currently considered its environmental friendliness.

In the process of innovative activities, an enterprise can function with the greatest efficiency, only clearly focusing on a certain object and being guided by the maximum consideration of the impact of external and internal environmental factors. This requires a detailed classification of innovations, their properties and possible sources of funding. There is no single, generally accepted classification of innovations, or at least classification signs. Each author considers it his duty to propose both his own set of classification signs and his own list of innovations falling under these signs1.

Most researchers cite the following types of classification features:

• o by technological parameters of objects of innovative changes;
• o scientific and technical significance;
• o cause of occurrence;
• o frequency of use;
• o the place of innovation in the microeconomic system;
• o the scope of a specific embodiment;
• o by the scale of novelty.

By the criterion of technological parameters of objects of innovative changes highlight product and process innovations. Product innovation include:

• - obtaining fundamentally new goods and services (both consumer and industrial);
• - the use of new materials, semi-finished products, components.

Process innovation involve the use of new technologies (as a rule, more productive), new methods of organizing economic activities, various kinds of managerial innovations.

Technological innovations appear either as a result of a single innovation process, i.e. close relationship of R&D on the creation of a product and technology for its manufacture, or as a product of independent special technological research. In the first case, innovation depends on the design and technical features of the new product and its subsequent modifications. In the second, the object of innovation is not specifically a new product, but the basic technology that undergoes evolutionary or revolutionary transformations in the process of technological research.

By criterion of scientific and technical significance innovations are divided into basic and improving ones. Basic innovation represent the results of major scientific and technical developments. They are the basis for fundamentally new products and technologies of a new generation that have no analogues. Basic innovation marks a breakthrough in the consumer and investment goods markets.

Today, among them - nanotechnology, the creation of new materials; yesterday - cellular communications, the Internet, spacewalk.

Improving innovation represent the results of medium and small scientific developments that underlie significant changes (modernization) of existing products, technologies, methods of organizing economic activities. Examples of improving innovations are telephones equipped with additional functions (photo, video camera), or cars with on-board computers.

The so-called pseudo-innovation, or minor changes in the characteristics of the product (color, finish, etc.) that do not affect its design features and do not add fundamentally new consumer properties.

By cause criterion highlight reactive and strategic innovation. Reactive innovation represent a response to a competitor's innovation. The goal of reactive innovation is to reduce the economic gap with the industry leader, to prevent a decline in the competitiveness of its own products, and to maintain a competitive position.

Strategic innovation are proactive. They are the result of scientific and technological breakthroughs and are aimed at long-term sole leadership in the industry.

By application frequency criterion distinguish between one-off and diffuse innovations. One-off innovations do not have distribution outside the enterprise or the innovator company. In the early stages of commercialization, almost all innovations are one-off. Diffuse innovation arise in the course of application of innovations by imitating companies. Innovations of this type characterize the process of spreading innovation in time and space.

By the criterion of the place of innovation in the microeconomic system in the technological process at the enterprise highlight innovation in input, output and in-house innovation. Innovation at the entrance affect the resource provision of the profile of the enterprise. Innovation at the exit affect the characteristics of the products. Internal innovation modernize technological and management processes within the enterprise.

By the criterion of the scope of a particular embodiment distinguish material and technical, technological, managerial, service, social innovations.

Social innovation are innovations aimed at smoothing out or resolving conflicts within an active organizational system.

Social innovation as compared to material and technical innovation is distinguished by:

• - closer connection with specific social relations, business culture. This should not be overlooked, since the same innovations can manifest themselves in different ways even in different regions of the same country;
• - a large scope of application, since the introduction of technical innovations is often accompanied by social (necessary management, economic and other changes, reorganization);
• - a stronger dependence of the use of innovation on the group and personal qualities of users;
• - not as obvious advantages as in technical innovations, it is more difficult to determine the effectiveness. All experiments and tests here have to be carried out not in laboratory conditions, but at an operating facility - hence the difficulty of isolating the contribution of this innovation in the overall result;
• - the absence of the stage of "manufacturing" (it merges with the design). This allows you to avoid the exit of the innovation process from one industry to another, accelerates the process of creating an innovation;
• - the originality of the phenomenon of "invention", contributing to a special author's activity and advancement at all stages. Management innovations, as a rule, are developed collectively, with many agreements. Therefore, novelty is more often not of laboratory, but of "field" origin, which makes them more viable.

By the criterion of the scale of novelty distinguish between global, sectoral, regional, local innovations. Global innovation imply fundamentally new types of products, technologies, new management methods that have no analogues in world practice. The potential result of global innovation is to provide long-term competitive advantage. In the future, they are the sources of all subsequent improvements, improvements, adaptations to the interests of individual groups of consumers and other upgrades of the product. Industry innovation suggest innovations that have not previously been applied at the enterprises of this industry. Regional innovation presuppose the application of an innovation that has proven itself abroad, outside a given country or administrative-territorial unit. Local innovation imply the use by a separate enterprise of the progressive experience of another economic entity (for example, in the field of resource conservation, labor incentives, work with suppliers, etc.).

The various types of innovation are closely related. For example, technical and technological innovations create conditions for management decisions, as they change the organization of production.

The variety of classification features of innovations indicates that the forms of organization of innovations, the scale and methods of influencing the economy, as well as methods for assessing their effectiveness should also be diverse.

The classification of innovations allows an enterprise to determine the most effective innovation strategy and mechanism for managing innovation.