History of psychodiagnostics Table. The history of the development of domestic psychodiagnostics. The history of the development and formation of psychodiagnostics in Russia

· In Russia, 1910 by A.N. Bernstein (Director of the Laboratory of Experimental Psychology at the Psychiatric Clinic of Moscow University) and its like-minded people G.I. Rossolimo, Ts. Baltalon, etc. Bogdanov organized a society of experimental psychology in Moscow (one more). They created the first tests in Russian: "Experimental and psychological schemes" (A.N. Berstein) and "Psychological profiles" (G.I. Rossolimo).

· F.E. Fishermen, successor in the directory of A.N. Bershetina, released one of the first collections of psychological techniques in Russia, which included tests and methodological techniques F. Galton, H. Münsterberg, A. Bourdona, G. Ebbigauza, A. Bina and V. Henri, E. Utreyin, A.P. Nechaeva, A.N. Bernstein and others, "Atlas for an experimental psychological study of a personality with a detailed description and explanation of the tables drawn up in relation to the purpose of pedagogical and medical and diagnostic research."

· Work on the creation of psychodiagnostics methods also conducted in the clinic of the Psychoneurological Institute - V.M. Bekhterev and S.D. Vladychko.

· Actually psychodiagnostic work in Russia began to develop in the post-revolutionary period. Especially many such works appeared in the 20s-30s in the field of pedology and psychotechnics in connection with the growth of the popularity of the method of tests in Soviet Russia and abroad. Foreign tests were translated and their own were developed. Scale Study Motoric Children N.I. Ozertesky (1923) is still used, including foreign psychology (Lincoln-Ozerki scale). Theoretical developments contributed to the development of testing in our country. The ideas of Lev Semenovich Vygotsky about the psychological diagnosis expressed in the work "Diagnostics of the Development and Pedological Clinic of Difficult Childhood" (1936) matter so far.

· These were years of mass use of tests in folk education, trade guidance, in industry and transport. If in pedology, more attention was paid to the tests of intelligence, then in psychotechnics - tests of special abilities. The use was intense and uncontrollable. Mass test surveys were not supported by a serious quality testing of the toolkit, decisions on the transfer of some students to classes for mentally retarded children were made on the basis of short tests without taking into account other factors affecting the inspection results. For example, a protest mass transfer of quite mentally saved, but pedagogically launched children (with a low level of development of speech thinking or verbal intelligence) from normal schools to schools for mentally retarded children.

· In industry, based on the same tests, attempts to classify workers in various professions, without attentive accounting for personal inconsistencies and interests. Technical linings were also inevitable: poor adaptation of foreign test sample tests, attracting unprofessional to testing, categorical of conclusions, etc.

· Objective errors and a number of reasons for a subjective nature (for example, it is argued that I.V. Stalin was dissatisfied with the low test point of the son of Vasily) led to the emergence of July 4, 1936 of the decision of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) "On the pedology perversion in the Narkomprosters system", which It laid a ban on the use of meaningless (as noted there) tests and questionnaires. All psychodiagnostic research was discontinued, all the pedology institutions and almost all the laboratories on psychotechnic and psychophysiology of labor were closed. The word "test" was indecent. The sharp criticism of the pedology was accompanied by the denial of all positive, which was made by scientists in the field of pedology, psychotechnics, psychodiagnostics and psychology as a whole.

· It took about 40 years so that psychodiagnostics be fully restored in their rights. In the 50-60s, testing was used unofficially and often so was not called. Fracture in relation to testing occurred after a positive opinion on scientifically based methods psychological diagnosis Aleksey Nikolaevich Leontyev, Alexander Romanovich Luria and Anatoly Alexandrovich Smirnov in the article "On the diagnostic methods of the psychological study of schoolchildren" in the magazine "Soviet pedagogy" (1969. No. 7).

· From the late 1960s, the second period of the development of domestic psychodiagnostics begins. It develops in Pato and neuropsychology, as well as in those areas where the USSR had to preserve the advantages - aviation and space medicine, sports psychology and a number of other areas. They were applied scientific methods Selection and evaluation of candidates: pilots, operators, astronauts, athletes, etc. This period is marked by stormy discussions about the place of psychodiagnostics in the system psychological knowledge, on principles and methods, about the attitude towards foreign experience. In the 70s, the first specialized conferences on psychodiagnostics in Tallinn are held.

· In 1982, for the first time in Russian translation, Anna Anastasi "Psychological Testing" was released. In 1987, the domestic textbook "General Psychodiagnostics" comes out. From the mid-70s and mostly in the 80s, a number of original psychodiagnostics are published. Western and domestic tests are being created.

· In the 90s due to development practical psychology There were much greater opportunities for the development of psychodiagnostics. The main problem of applied psychodiagnostics, the existing last two decades is the use of methodologies that do not meet psychometric requirements taken from unreliable sources or obsolete. Improving professionalism in the use of diagnostic techniques leads to a better level of testing.

· Great work in the creation of highly professional psychodiagnostic techniques currently conduct teams of the Faculty of Psychology of the Moscow State University and the Center "Humanitarian Technologies" A.G. Shmeleva with him, psychodiagnostic laboratory of the Psychological Institute of RAO under the leadership of M.K.Akimova, Institute of Applied Psychology L.N. Council, Kogito-Center under the Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow); psychological laboratory of the St. Petersburg Psychoneurological Institute. V.M. Bekhtereva, Firms of Imaton (St. Petersburg), Scientific and Production Center "Psychodiagnostik" (Yaroslavl) and some others.

Ticket number 6: Classification of psychodiagnostic techniques.

Classification of methods by y.shvantsar:

1. According to the material used (verbal, non-verbal, manipulative, tests of "paper and pencil", etc.);

2. By the number of indicators obtained (simple and complex);

3. by the number of indicators obtained (simple and complex);

4. According to the mental activity of the subjects:

· Introspective (message subject on personal experience, relationships): questionnaires, conversation;

· Extrospective (observation and evaluation of various manifestations);

· Projective. The subject projects the unconscious properties of the individual (internal conflicts, hidden attractions, etc.) on unmarked multivalued incentives;

· Executive. The subject performs any action (perceptual, mental, engine), the quantitative level and qualitative features of which are an indicator of intellectual and personal traits.

Classification of methods in V.K. Guide, V.P. Zakharov:

1. In quality: standardized, non-standardized;

2. For purpose:

· Commongnostic (personal tests by type of questionnaires R. Kettel or Isaenka, common intelligence tests);

· Professional fitness tests

· Tests of special abilities (technical, musical, tests for pilots);

· Tests achievements;

3. According to the material to operate the subject:

· Blanche;

· Subject (Cubes of Spit, "The addition of figures" from a set of a ventilation);

· Hardware (devices for studying features of attention, etc.);

4. By the number of examined: individual and group;

5. In the form of a response: oral and written;

6. According to the leading orientation: tests for the speed of execution, power tests, mixed tests; In the test tests, the task is difficult and the decision time is not limited, the researcher is interested in both the success of the implementation and the way to solve the problem;

7. According to the degree of homogeneity of tasks: homogeneous and heterogeneous (characterized in that in homogeneous tasks are similar to each other and are used to measure completely certain personal and intelligent properties; in heterogeneous tests, the tasks are diverse and used to estimate the various characteristics of intelligence);

8. By complexity: insulated tests and test kits (batteries);

9. By the nature of the answers to the tasks: tests with prescribed answers, tests with free answers;

10. In terms of mental coverage: Personality tests and intelligent tests;

11. By the nature of mental actions: verbal, non-verbal.

Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

Vladivostok State University of Economics and Service

Institute for absentee and distance learning

Department of PS.

TEST

in the discipline "psychodiagnostics"

The history of the development and formation of psychodiagnostics in Russia

c. ZPS-04-01-37204 T.A. Karkova

Teacher

Vladivostok 2006.

Introduction ........................................................................ ... ............ 3

1 From the history of psychodiagnostics ............................................. ... ......... 6

1.1 Formation of psychodiagnostics ............................................. ... ...... 6

1.2 Appearance of psychodiagnostics methods ....................................... ... 7

2 psychodiagnostics in pre-revolutionary Russia and in the USSR .................. ..... 10

2.1 Development of psychodiagnostics methods ....................................... ........ 10

2.2 Psychology crisis and new requirements for the quality of psychodiagnostic methods ............... ................................... ......................12

3 Modern state of psychodiagnostics .................................... ..... 16

Conclusion ......................................................................................... ......... 18

List of sources used .......................................... ........... 20

Introduction

The psychological dictionary gives the following definition:

"Psychodiagnostics is an area of \u200b\u200bpsychological science, developing methods for identifying and measuring individual-psychological characteristics of the individual." "Psychodiagnostics acts as an integrative scientific and technological discipline, which relies on scientific theories of differential psychology and mathematicized testing technology (psychometric), and as a result develops and uses the repertoire of specific psychodiagnostic techniques to solve specific practical tasks" (A. G. Shmelev).

Psychodiagnostics is aimed at measuring any quality, making a diagnosis on this basis, finding the place that occupies the subject among others to the severity of studied features.

You can talk about two types of diagnosis. First, the diagnosis based on the statement of the presence or absence of any feature. Secondly, the diagnosis to find the place of the subject or group of the subjects on the "axis of the continuum" by the severity of certain qualities. Psychodiagnostic techniques are designed quickly and reliably ensure that the test data is collected for the formulation of a psychological diagnosis.

The psychological diagnosis is a structured description of the complex of interrelated mental properties - abilities, motifs, sustainable identity features. The diagnosed diagnosis may be accompanied by recommendations for the development or correction of the studied qualities and target not only to specialists (teachers, practical psychologists, etc.), but also the surveyed themselves.

The main functions of psychodiagnostics in the system of modern higher education It is the implementation of control over the formation of the necessary knowledge and professionally important qualities, the assessment of the characteristics of the mental and personal development of students in the course of training, assessing the qualities of the education itself.

The main goal of psychodiagnostics is to ensure full mental and personal development. Of course, psychodiagnostics makes it available to it, that is, seeks to develop such methods that would allow for assistance in the development of personality, in overcoming emerging difficulties, etc. The main purpose of psychodiagnostics becomes the creation of conditions for conducting aiming correctional development work, the development of recommendations, psychotherapeutic measures, etc.

N.F. Talisin so formulated the basic functions of psychodiagnostics in education at the present stage: "It loses its discriminatory purpose, although it preserves a prognostic role under certain limits. Its main function should be the definition of the conditions most conducive to further development of this person, assistance in the development of training and development programs that take into account the peculiarity of the cash state of its cognitive activity "(Talimin.n.F., 1981).

Thus, psychodiagnosis is carried out for the sake of forecast, that is, for a number of signs, the mental property is determined, which causes certain behavior, and predicts this behavior (criterion behavior), for example, diagnosed the ability of students to predict their further training, performance (training - This is criterion behavior, and performance is a criteria indicator).

Psychodiagnostic signs, psychodiagnostic categories and diagnostic conclusions are distinguished. Psychodiagnostic signs can be directly observed and registered, and psychodiagnostic categories are hidden internal psychological factors (psychological reasons), which cause certain behavior and features of a person. The difficulty of a psychological diagnosis is that there are often harsh mutual mutual relations between the signs and categories. Technological techniques for obtaining these primary psychodiagnostic signs and the logical rules for their synthesis into diagnostic categories are the main subject and product of the development of psychodiagnostics. Basic principles and mathematicized technology for creating standardized psychodiagnostic techniques are developed in a psychometrist. For the diagnosis of intellectual development, special abilities and professionally important psychological qualities of people, their personal qualities and motivational sphere requires a wide arsenal of psychodiagnostic techniques.

1 of the history of psychodiagnostics

1.1 Formation of psychodiagnostiki

The history of modern psychodiagnostics begins with the first four of the XIX century, that is, from the beginning of the so-called clinical period in the development of psychological knowledge. This period is characterized by the fact that the key role in the mining and analysis of empirical psychological knowledge about a person is beginning to play doctors (philosophers and writers and writers were engaged in this). Doctors are interested in the causes of the origin of extremely discernies in those years in the developed countries of the world of mental illness and neurosis. Psychiatrists start conducting systematic observations of patients in European clinics, recording and analyzing the results of their observations. At this time, psychodiagnostic methods as observation, survey, analysis of documents. However, in general, psychodiagnosis in these years is not yet strict, arbitrary character, which is manifested in various conclusions and conclusions, to which doctors come, watching the same patients and studying them with the same methods. This in particular is due to the methods of psychodiagnostics at the time are still qualitative.

The beginning of the creation of quantitative methods of psychodiagnostics should be considered the second half of the XIX and. - At the time when, under the leadership of the German psychologist V. Ku, the first experimental psychological laboratory was created under the world, where various technical devices and devices began to use various technical devices and instruments for the purposes of psychodiagnosis. By the same time, the discovery of a psychophysical law refers, which showing the quantitative relationship between physical and psychological phenomena, accelerated the creation of a quantitative psychodiagnostic agent. The main psychophysical law has opened the possibility of measuring psychological phenomena, and this discovery led to the creation of so-called subjective scales for measuring sensations. In accordance with this law, the main object of measurement was the sensation of a person, and for a long time, up to the end of the XIX century, practical psychodiagnostics was limited to measuring sensations.

1.2 The appearance of psychodiagnostics methods

Initial period of formation modern methods psychodiagnostics relating to the main psychological processes, properties and states of a person should be considered the end of the XIX - the beginning of the XX century. At this time, the areas of the theory of probabilities and mathematics are developing very actively and not without the participation of professional psychologists, which later began to rely on the scientific methods of quantitative psychodiagnostics. However, at first, mathematical statistics began to apply not in psychology, but in other sciences: in biology, economics, medicine, etc.

A slightly later creation of special means for quantitative psychodiagnostics of psychological phenomena, for example, factor analysis began. For the first time it was used for psychodiagnostics, the features and intellectual development levels.

The first psychometric institution was created in England an outstanding English psychologist by Galton. In 1884, he founded the anthropometric laboratory, one of whose tasks was to obtain statistical data on human abilities. Visitors to this laboratory had the opportunity to measure their abilities, and about 10,000 people passed through this psychometric experiment. Halton was the initiator of the application of statistics in psychology, and he owns merit in the development of the statistical methods.

One of the first statistically reasonable intelligence tests has developed and published in 1905-1907. French scientist A.bin. Later with another French scientist T. Simon, he improved this test, which entered the history of psychodiagnostics as a Test Bine - Simon.

In the second half of the 20s, new psychological, including intellectual and personal tests, allowing psychodiagnostics of various processes and human properties to produce psychodiagnostics. Historically, those associated with socio-psychological studies arose historically the last among psychodiagnostic means of quantitative nature. This is a sociometric test created by an American psychologist Ya. Lord, and many measuring techniques developed by the group of American social psychologists.

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Introduction

The concept of psychodiagnostics

The origins of psychodiagnostiki

The occurrence of testing

Other types of diagnostic techniques

List of sources used

Introduction

Studying the historical path of science - prerequisite understanding it contemporary state and urgent tasks, the forecast of its promising trends. The occurrence of psychodiagnostic rye cannot be explained, based on the internal logic of the development of general substitution problems. Public queries stimulated the emergence and rapid spread of applied psychology (and psychodiagnostics as its integral part), acute interest in methods promising in terms of practice. The history of science is the history of changes in the socio-economic living conditions of people; Science is woven into the life of society, it represents one of the forms of human activity and determined by the development of society. This also applies to psychological diagnostics.

Knowing the origin of psychological diagnosis caused by the conditionality of its stages and patterns of the historical path, the psychologist begins to realize the main directions of its development, the nature of the changes that takes place is better oriented on topical problems, appreciates its capabilities in solving different practical tasks. Historical vision, the inclusion of modern knowledge in the historical context will help new generations of scientists not to repeat old mistakes, get rid of past delusions and effectively use those promising ideas and developments that have predecessors.

It is no less important to know the history of psychodiagnostics to society, the representatives who are in their activities are asking for help from professional diagnosticities. It is impossible to put adequate tasks before the last, abstracting from the formation and development of concepts and psychodiagnostic methods, incorrectly assessing its capabilities. Thus, in the history of psychodiagnostics, there was already a period when unreasonably high expectations for it led to disappointments and sharp criticism from the Company for the inability to comply with the requirements of practice. This is the period of the so-called "epidemic of testing" (20th. XX century), when the huge demand from commercial and educational organizations He led to the emergence of acquired methods developed by methods and unsuccessful attempts to select personnel when many enterprises hired unqualified workers. The consequence of this was the loss of confidence and weakening attention to psychodiagnostics.

Appeal to historical experience allows not only not to repeat past mistakes, but also to choose the most promising development directions, based on the analysis of modern problems in historical perspective, in the context of a holistic historical process. And this is the guarantee of the effectiveness, practical effectiveness of psychodiagnostics.

The concept of psychodiagnostics

Psychological diagnosis is the science of designing methods for assessing, measuring, the classification of psychological and psychophysiological characteristics of people, as well as on the use of these methods for practical purposes.

You can highlight two functions of psychological diagnostics - scientific and practical.

The first characterizes it as a research area and is an activity on the design of psychodiagnostic techniques. Because they are used for practical purposes, they are subject to special requirements related to increasing accuracy and objectivity of indicators, they are developed by certain rules and are checked for a number of criteria. First of all, this is done in order to assess their quality and practical utility, suitability for solving applied tasks.

Psychodiagnostic techniques are specific psychological means designed to measure and evaluate the individual psychological characteristics of people.

The second function of psychodiagnostics is implemented by practical psychologists using diagnostic techniques. Psychodiagnostic practices are measured, analyzed, evaluate individual characteristics of a person or detect differences between groups of people united by any sign. These activities practical psychologists Called diagnosis and are carried out for solving certain applied tasks. The word "diagnosis" (from Greek. diagnosis) indicates recognition, detection.

Development of the diagnostic technique is a complex process that differs significantly from everyday ideas that it is enough to create tasks or formulate questions. An erroneous surface and simplified attitude towards psychodiagnostic tools, when a so-called "psychological test" is considered to be any set of tasks, which has no scientific substantiation and has not passed the necessary verification. In the captivity of such ideas was the inventor Thomas Edison, who proposed a random set of questions in 1921 as a test, which Edison himself considered extremely simple. Among them were, for example, such: "What is the telescope is the biggest in the world?", "What is the weight of the air in a room with a volume of 20x30x10 feet?", "What city in the United States is leading in the production of washing machines?". College graduates were able to give only a few correct answers to the questions of this "test", and this contributed to the fact that confidence was undermined to the most test method, the scientific authority of psychological diagnostics decreased.

Currently, it is generally recognized that the diagnostic technique can bring tangible useful results if it has a theoretical substantiation and comply with the established methodological criteria. Therefore, the creation of techniques requires a large research and methodical work. But such work is inevitable because the great social importance of psychological diagnosis is recognized, its practical value.

The origins of psychodiagnostiki

The need to experience and evaluate the individual psychological features of people to solve a variety of practical tasks was understood for a long time, at the dawn of the history of mankind. So, in the third millennium BC in ancient China, there was a system of checking persons who wanted to take places of government officials, and some qualities of graduates in schools were evaluated in the ancient Babylon. However, the history of scientific psychodiagnostics began significantly later. Psychodiagnostics as applied science was not immediately formed immediately, but passed a significant path of development and formation. Consider the main stages of this path.

Psychological diagnosis was separated from psychology and began to develop at the turn of the XX century. Under the influence of practice requirements. Her emergence was prepared in several areas in the development of psychology.

The first source was experimental psychology, since the experimental method underlies psychodiagnostic techniques, the development of which is one of the tasks of psychodiagnostics. Psychodiagnostics grew from experimental psychology.

The beginning of the emergence of experimental psychology is conditionally considered to be 1879, since it was this year that V. Wundt founded in Germany the first laboratory of experimental psychology. V. WundT (1832-1920), planning prospects for the construction of psychology as a whole science, assumed the development of two non-passing directions in it:

· Naturally scientific, relying on the experiment;

· Cultural and historical in which main role Psychological methods of studying culture ("psychology of peoples") are designed to play.

According to his theory, natural-scientific experimental methods could be used only to the elementary, lower level of the psyche. The experimental study is not the soul itself, but only its external manifestations. Therefore, in its laboratory, the sensations (visual, hearing, color vents, tactile) and the self-responses caused by them, the volume and distribution of attention, were mainly studied. According to the laboratory, V. Wundt began to create similar experimental laboratories and cabinets not only in Germany, but also in other countries (France, Holland, England, Sweden, America).

Developing experimental psychology came close to the study of more complex mental processes, such as speech associations. They became the subject of research F. Galton (1822-1911). English Anthropologist F. Galton in 1879 published the results of his associative experiments. By drawing a list of 75 words, he opened them one by one and turned on the stopwatch. As soon as the subject responded to the word-stimulus of the verbal association, the stopwatch stopped. So for the first time, the chronometry was used to study mental activities.

V. Wondt immediately after the publication of F. Galton used an associative technique in his laboratory, although he considered the highest functions not subject to experiment. The individual differences obtained in the experiments in the reaction time were explained by the nature of associations, and not the individual characteristics of the subjects.

The author, which created the first psychological experimental method actually, was the city of Ebbigauz (1850-1909), who studied the laws of memory using the sets of meaningless syllables (artificial sensor cells of speech that do not have a specific value). He believed that the results obtained did not depend on the consciousness of the subject, introspection (observation of the individual by what happens in his psyche) and, therefore, to a greater extent satisfied the requirement of objectivity. By this method, the city of Ebbigauz opened the way to experimental skills.

American psychologist J. Ketell(1860-1944) examined the amount of attention and reading skills. With the help of a tachistoscope (the device that allows you to present the test incentives for brief periods of time), it determined the time required in order to perceive and call various objects - forms, letters, words, etc. The amount of attention in his experiments was the amount of order five objects. Conducting experiments with reading letters and words on a rotating drum, J. kettell recorded the phenomenon of anticipation ("Running" perception forward).

So at the turn of the XX century. In psychology, an objective experimental method was approved, which began to determine the nature of psychological science as a whole. With the introduction into the psychology of the experiment and the appearance, due to this new criteria, its ideas were made prerequisites for the origin of knowledge about individual differences between people.

Differential psychology has another source of psychodiagnostics. Outside the ideas about the individual psychological features that differential psychology studies, it would be impossible to occur in psychodiagnostics as science on the methods of their measurement.

But the emergence of psychodiagnostics was not the result of a simple logical development of the experimental and psychological and differential-psychological study of man. It developed under the influence of practice requests, first a medical and pedagogical, and then industrial. One of the main reasons that caused the origin of psychodiagnostics should be considered a need for medical practice the need for the diagnosis and treatment of mentally retarded and mental people. The works of the French Escire and Semed doctors, which were engaged in the problems of the mental retardation of children, made a certain contribution to the development of methods that helped determine the mental backwardness.

The occurrence of testing

A close internal relationship is traced between the theoretical provisions developed within the framework of general psychology and the basics of psychodiagnosis. The ideas about the patterns of development and functioning of the psyche are a starting point when choosing a psychodiagnostic methodology, the design of psychodiagnostic techniques, their use in practice.

The history of psychodiagnostics is the history of the emergence of the main psychodiagnostic techniques, and the development of approaches to their creation on the basis of evolving views on the nature and functioning of the mental. In this regard, it is interesting to trace how some important psychodiagnostic methods were formed in the framework of the main schools of psychology.

Test (eng. Test - test, test, study) Experimental method in psychology and pedagogy, standardized tasks, allowing to measure psychophysiological and personal characteristics, as well as knowledge, skills and test skills.

Tests began to be applied in 1864 by J. Fisher in the UK to verify students' knowledge. Theoretical foundations were developed by the English psychologist F. Galton in 1883: the use of the series of identical tests to big number individuals, statistical processing of results, allocation of estimated standards.

The first standardized pedagogical test was compiled by an American psychologist E. Tornodike. The development of testing was one of the reasons that caused the penetration of mathematical methods into psychology and pedagogy.

American psychologist K. Speirman has developed the basic methods of correlation analysis to standardize tests and objective measurement of testological studies. Statistical methods of spirmena - the use of factor analysis - played a large role in the further development of testing.

Significant distribution testing received in psychotechnics for professional selection. Intensive development of psychotechnics falls for the period of the 1st World War of 1914-1918, when professional selection issues for the needs of the army and military production were priorities. In this regard, the test method of tests in psychotechnics has widespread use.

The highest development of testological research was obtained in the United States (for example, during the 2nd World War from 1939 to 45, about 20 million people were tested during mobilization to the army). In Russia, the compilation and application of tests refers to the 20s of the last century, in 1926 the first series of tests for schools was published.

From the end of the last century, the experiment began to be applied and in the study of higher mental processes (judgments, conclusions, thinking), although the conviction was repeatedly expressed that the experiment can only be applied to elementary mental processes.

Why do psychological tests need? To find out what the subject can, and which tasks are not yet able to solve. To do this, the test introduces some content in relation to those knowledge and skills that will be studied.

Drawing up tests is based on a single scheme: Determining the objectives of testing, drawing up tests in roughing, testing tests on a representative sample of subjects and correcting deficiencies, the development of the measurement scale (based on qualitative considerations and statistical processing of results) and the results of the interpretation of the results.

The quality of tests is determined by such characteristics as reliability, validity (compliance with the results of testing target), differentiating the power of tasks, etc.

The validity of the test is its psychometric characteristic, the actual ability of the test to measure the psychological characteristic, for the diagnosis of which it is declared and indicates the degree of compliance of the information received to the diagnosed mental property.

Quantitative test validity can be expressed through the correlation of the results obtained from it with other indicators, for example, with the success of the relevant activity. The combination of test validity characteristics obtained by experimentally statistical method - empirical validity.

The practical use of testing is mainly due to the diagnosis of personality characteristics of a person expressed through quantitative indicators.

Test techniques associated with the theoretical principles of behaviorism. The methodological concept of behaviorism was based on the fact that determining relations between the organism and the environment. The body, responding to the incentives of the external environment, seeks to change the situation into a favorable side and adapts to it. Biheviorism has introduced into psychology as a leading category of behavior, understanding it as a set of affordable objective observation of reactions to incentives. Behavior, according to the behavior concept, is the only object of studying psychology, and all internal mental processes must be interpreted according to objectively observed behavioral reactions. In accordance with these ideas, the purpose of the diagnosis was initially to fix behavior. This was what the first psychodiagnosities were engaged, which developed the test method (the term was introduced by F. Galton).

The first researcher who used the concept of "intellectual test" in the psychological experimental experimentation was J. Kettell. This term after article J. kettella "Intelligent tests and measurements", published in 1890 in the magazine "Mind" ("Thought"), has gained wide fame. In his article, J. Kettlell wrote that the use of a series of tests to a large number of individuals would allow the regularities of mental processes and thereby lead to the transformation of psychology to accurate science. At the same time, he expressed the idea that the scientific and practical value of tests would increase if the conditions for their conduct were monotonous. So for the first time, the need to standardize tests was proclaimed in order to make it possible to compare their results obtained by different researchers on different subjects.

J. Kettell suggested as a sample of 50 tests, including various sorts of measurements:

· Sensitivity;

· Reaction time;

· Time spent on collaboration;

· Time spent on climbing the number of sounds reproducible after one-time listening, etc.

He applied these tests in the laboratory (1891) at the Columbia University of Lab (1891). Following J. Kettlell and other American laboratories began to use the test method. There was a need to organize special coordination centers on the use of this method. In 1895-1896 In the US, two national committees were created, designed to unite the efforts of testologists and give the general direction to testological work.

Initially, conventional experimental psychological tests were used as tests. In shape, they resembled a laboratory testing, but the meaning of their use was fundamentally different. After all, the task of a psychological experiment is to determine the dependence of the mental act from external and internal factors, for example, the nature of perception from external stimuli, memorization - from the frequency and distribution of repetitions, etc.

When testing, a psychologist registers individual differences in mental acts, assessing the results obtained using a certain criterion and in no case changing the conditions for the implementation of these mental acts.

The new step in the development of the method of tests was made by the French doctor and psychologist L. Bina (1857-1911), the creator of the most popular at the beginning of the XX century. series of intelligent tests.

Prior to A. Bina, they were tested, as a rule, differences in sensorotor qualities - sensitivity, speed of the reaction, etc. But the practice required information about the highest mental functions indicated by usually the terms "mind", "intelligence". It is these functions that ensure the acquisition of knowledge and the successful implementation of complex adaptive activities.

In 1904, the French Ministry of Education instructed Bine to develop methods, with the help of which one could separate children who are able to teach from lazy and not want to learn from those who suffer from born defects and are not able to learn in a normal school. The need for this arose in connection with the introduction of universal education. At the same time, the creation of special schools for mentally defective children was required. Bina, in collaboration with Henri Simon, conducted a series of experiments on studying, memory, thinking in children of different ages (starting from three years). Conducted on many subjects experimental tasks were tested on statistical criteria and began to be considered as a means of determining the intellectual level. The reason for which A. Bina together with T. Simon began to develop the first in the history of psychodiagnosis of the intellectual test, became a practical request - the need to create a technique, with which it was possible to separate children capable of teaching, from those who suffer from born defects and not capable Learn in normal school.

The first series of tests - Bina-Simon (Binet-Simon Intelligence Development Echelle) appeared in 1905. It was then revised by the authors several times, which they sought to remove all tasks from it, requiring special training.

Tasks in Bine scales were grouped by the ages (from 3 to 13 years). For each age, certain tests were selected. They were considered relevant to this age step, if they solved most of the children of this age (80-90 %). Intellect in Bina's scales was mental agewhich could diverge with chronological. The mental age was determined by the level of the tasks that the child could solve. If, for example, a child whose chronological age is equal to 3 years, solves all the tasks for four-year-old children, then the mental age of this 3-year-old child was recognized as 4 years. The mismatch of mental and chronological age was considered an indicator either mental retardation (if the mental age is lower than chronological), or giftedness (if the mental age is higher than chronological).

The second editorial office of Bina's scale served as the basis for the work on verification and standardization conducted at the University of Stanford (USA) by the staff of the staff under the direction of L. M. Termen (1877-1956). The first version of the adaptation of the Bina test scale was proposed in 1916 and had so many serious changes compared with the main thing that was called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale intelligence scale. The main innovations compared to Bina tests were two:

1) Introduction as an indicator over the test of the intellectuality coefficient (Intelligence QUOTIENT - IQ), derived from the relationship between mental and chronological ages;

2) Application of test evaluation criterion, which introduced the concept of a statistical norm.

Stanford Bina scale is designed for children aged 2.5 to 18 years. It consisted of issues of different difficulties grouped by age criteria. For each age, the most typical, average execution rate was equal to 100, and the statistical measure of scattering, deviations of individual values \u200b\u200bfrom this average was equal to 16. All individual indicators on the test that came to the interval bounded by Numbers 84 and 116 were considered normal corresponding to the age norm execution. If the test indicator was higher than the test norm (more than 116), the child was considered gifted, and if below 84, then mentally retarded.

Stanford Bina's scale was popular worldwide. She had several editions (1937, 1960, 1972, 1986). In the last editor, it is also applied at present. The IQ indicator obtained on the Stanford Bina scale has become synonymous with intelligence for many years. The newly created intelligent tests began to be checked by comparing the results of the Stanford Bina scale.

The next stage of the development of psychological testing is characterized by a change in the form of test test. All tests created in the first decade of the XX century were individual and allowed to conduct experience with only one subject. Only specially trained psychologists who have high qualifications could use them.

These features of the first tests were limited to their distribution. The practice of the same demanded to diagnose large masses of people with the purpose of selection of the most prepared to one or another activity, as well as distribution different types People's activities in accordance with their individual peculiarities. Therefore, in the United States during the First World War, a new form of test tests appeared - group testing.

The need to selected as quickly as possible and distribute the semi-mounted army of recruits on various kinds of services, schools and schools forced the specially created committee to instruct the student L. Termen Otisus (1886-1963) the development of new tests. Thus appeared two forms of army tests - Alpha (Army Alpha) and Beta (Army Beta). The first of them was intended to work with people who know english. Second - for illiterate and foreigners. After the end of the war, these tests and their modifications continued to be widely used.

Group (collective) tests not only made real tests of large groups, but along with it allowed simplifying instruction, procedures for conducting and evaluating test results. People who do not have real psychological qualifications began to be involved in testing, and only trained test tests.

While individual tests, such as Stanford Bine scales, were mainly used in the clinic and for counseling, group tests were used mainly in the education system, in industry and in the army.

The twentieth years of the last century were characterized by a real test boom. The rapid and widespread testology was due primarily to its focus on the operational decision of practical problems. The intelligence measurement using tests was considered as a means allowing scientifically, and not purely empirically approach learning, trade protection, assessments of achievements, etc.

During the first half of the XX century. Specialists in the field of psychological diagnostics have created a variety of diverse tests. At the same time, developing the methodological side of the tests, they brought it truly to high perfection. All tests are thoroughly standardized on large samples; Testologists have sought that they all differed by high reliability and good validity.

Validation revealed limited features of intelligence tests: predicting on their basis the success of the specific, sufficient narrow activities often did not achieve. In addition to knowledge of the level of common intelligence, additional information about the features of the human psyche. A new direction emerged in testology - testing of special abilities, which was first intended only to supplement the estimates of the intellect tests, and subsequently it was released into an independent area.

The impetus for the development of tests of special abilities was the powerful development of professional counseling, as well as professional selection and distribution of personnel in industry and military business. Tests began to appear mechanical, stationery, musical, artistic abilities. Test batteries (kits) were created for the selection of entering medical, legal, engineering and other educational institutions. Comprehensive batteries of abilities are developed for use in counseling and distribution of personnel. The most famous among them by the battery of common abilities tests (GENERAL APTITUDE TEST BATTERY - GATB) and the battery tests of special abilities (Special Aptitude Test Battery - SATB), developed by the US employment service for use by consultants in state institutions. Tests and batteries of special abilities, differing in composition, methodological qualities, similar in one - they are characterized by low differential validity. Students choosing different areas of education or professional activity are slightly different from their test profiles.

The theoretical basis for constructing complex batteries of abilities was the use of special technology for processing data on individual differences and correlations between them - factor analysis. Factor analysis made it possible to more accurately determine and classify what was called special abilities.

A modern understanding of factor analysis makes some change in the Tu of his interpretation, which was in the 20-40s. XX century Factor analysis is the highest level linear correlations. But linear correlations cannot be considered a universal form of expression of mathematical communication between mental processes. Consequently, the lack of linear correlations cannot be interpreted as a lack of communication in general, the same applies to low correlation coefficients. Therefore, factor analysis and factors produced by this analysis do not always correctly reflect the dependencies between mental processes.

But, perhaps, the main thing that causes doubt is to understand the so-called special abilities. These abilities are not interpreted as individual features that have arisen as a product of the influences of the Company's requirements for an individual, but as features, begone inherent in this individual psyche. Such a interpretation generates a lot of logical difficulties. In fact, where did it suddenly be and manifested with a modern individual, such abilities, about which even the submission did not have previous generations? It is impossible to think that in the psyche there are abilities suitable for all future social requirements.

The said convinces that the possibilities of factor analysis and to its factors should be treated with great care and not consider this analysis by a universal tool for studying the psyche.

Along with the tests of intelligence, special and complex abilities there was another type of tests widely used in educational institutions - tests of achievements. They reflect not so much the impact of a diverse accumulated experience, how much the impact of special training programs for the effectiveness of test tasks. The history of the development of these tests can be traced from the moment of shifts in the Boston school of oral forms of writing exams (1845). In America, the tests of achievements are used in the selection of employees on public serviceSince 1872, since 1883 their use becomes regular. The most significant development of the elements of the design test techniques of achievements has been completed during the First World War and immediately after it.

Tests of achievements refer to the most numerous group of diagnostic techniques. One of the most famous and widely used tests of achievements is the Stanford Achievement Test - SAT, for the first time published in 1923, with its help, the level of training in different classes in secondary educational institutions is estimated. A significant number of tests of special abilities and achievements was created under the influence of practical requests from the industry and the economy. They were used for trade and professional counseling. Further development of achievement tests led to the appearance in the middle of the XX century. criterion-oriented tests.

Other types of diagnostic techniques

A special direction in psychological diagnosis is associated with the development of various identity diagnostics methods. For this purpose, not tests are most often used, and special methods, among which are allocated primarily questionnaires and projective techniques.

The questionnaires are likely to be the most first psychodiagnostic methods borrowed by psychologists from natural science, the questionnaires used C. Darwin.

The questionnaires are a large group of techniques whose tasks are presented in the form of questions or statements, and the task of the subject is an independent message of some information about yourself, about their experiences and relationships in the form of answers. The theoretical basis of this method can be considered introspectionism. Arriving in deep antiquity in the framework of religious ideology, he kept the thesis of unrecognizability spiritual world, on the impossibility of objective study mental phenomena. It follows the assumption that, besides self-surveillance, there are no other ways to study the consciousness of a person. The questionnaire method can be considered as a kind of self-surveillance (for example, A. Bina believed).

The appearance of the first psychodiagnostic questionnaires is associated with the name F. Galton, which used them not to study personal qualities, but to assess the cognitive sphere of a person (features of visual perception, mental images). At the end of the XIX century. Using the method of questionnaires, Memory Studies were conducted (A. Bina, E. Kurge), common concepts (T. Ribo), internal speech (O. Saint-Paul) and others. Printed questionnaires were usually sent at the addresses of future respondents, sometimes they were printed in magazines.

The prototype of personal questionnaires was a questionnaire developed by the American psychologist R. Woodvorts (1869-1962) in 1919 - a form of identity data form (Woodworth Personal Data). This questionnaire was designed to identify and screening from military service of persons with neurotic symptoms. Over the decades have passed since that time, the questionnaires received the broadest distribution as a psychodiagnostic personality research method.

The other known method of diagnosing personality is the projective techniques. And the method of verbal associations occurred on the basis of associative theories traditionally is traditionally considered. Associative concept as a leading principle of organizing a person's consciousness used the Association, the concept of which leads its origin from Aristotle. As a holistic system of associanism arose in the XVIII century, although some of its principles were open earlier.

The emergence of the method of free verbal associations (Word Association Techniques) is associated with the name F. Galton, which has already been reported above. Later, this technique was developed in the studies of E. Fucket (1892), K. Yung (1906), Kent and A. Rozanova (1910) and others. What is the method of verbal associations? Today it is customary to consider it as a reception to study the interests and attitudes of the personality. However, it should be noted that the interpretation of the results obtained is determined by theoretical views of the researchers. Therefore, the question of validity of a certain technique cannot be resolved unequivocally, out of correlation with the theoretical positions of its creators.

The associative experiment stimulated the emergence of such a group of projective techniques, such as the completion of proposals (Sentence-Complection Techniques). For the first time to study the personality, the completion of proposals was used by A. Paine in 1928

In addition to the Associanism, the theoretical origins of projective methods can be sought in psychoanalysis, the concept of unconscious in the head of the corner. The unconscious was originally accepted as a hidden engine, motive, blindly acting from the mysterious depths of the body. Mind relative to the unconscious serves as a camouflage mechanism. In order to penetrate the area of \u200b\u200bunconscious, to understand the trends hidden in it, it was necessary to send consciousness to solve special tasks that would allow involuntarily to manifest the unconscious in person. This type of task is included in the projective techniques.

One of the most popular projective techniques was developed in 1921 by the Swiss Psychiatrist. Rorshah (1884-1922). Creating this technique, G. Rorshah presented mentally sick test ink spots and as a result of his observations those characteristics of answers that could be correlated with various psychic diseases, gradually combined into the system of indicators. In the future, this technique was used by many researchers both from us and abroad.

Another of the most common methods in the world - thematic apperceptive test Thematic AppReption Test --Tat) -- created in 1935 by Murray (1893-1988) together with X. Morgan. TAT stimulus material consists of tables with images of vague, allowing ambiguous interpretation of situations. The subject is invited to come up with a small story about what led to the situation depicted in the picture, and how it will develop. Currently, there are many modifications of TAT, various approaches to the analysis and interpretation of data are known.

By the beginning of the 40s. XX century Diagnosis through projective techniques has become very popular in the West. Now it occupies a leading position in foreign studies of personality, despite the critical attitude to the data obtained by projective technique. Critical remarks to these techniques mostly reduced to instructions on their insufficient standardization, neglecting regulatory data, the disjunctivities of the traditional ways to determine reliability and validity, and most importantly, on great subjectivism in the interpretation of the results.

Completing a brief overview of the history of the development and formation of psychological diagnosis in the West, we note that it is distinguished by a wide variety of techniques used both in relation to the form and their content. The emergence of psychological diagnosis is caused by the requirements of practice, and its development is aimed at meeting these requirements. This is connected with the appearance of not always theoretically reasonable, but methodically perfect techniques and diagnostic methods.

FROMpikov.used sources

1. Burlachuk L.F. Psychodiagnostics. - St. Petersburg., 2003

2. Abramova G.S. Introduction to practical psychology. - Ekaterinburg, 1995

3. Schneider L.B. Basics of psychodiagnostics. - M., 1995

4. Basics of psychodiagnostics, sub. Shmeleva. - Rr., 1996

5. Nomov R.S. Psychology. - M., 1995

Prehistory of scientific psychodiagnostiki

Psychodiagnostics, as the holistic scientific industry, has a long history of development.
IN Ancient Egyptto training the art of the priest allowed the most capable peoplePast multi-stage hard testing.
In ancient Chinathe system of methods for determining the professional abilities of officials of the government apparatus was used.
In medieval Vietnamparticular attention was paid to the assessment of qualities in appointing civil and military officials. Psychological tests were actively used to determine the tendency to religious ministry.
IN endXVIin.(In 1575) Spanish doctor and philosopher Huartedesanjuan, 1530-1589) wrote the book "ExaMendegeniosparalaksciencias *. Dedicated to the study of human abilities to mastering certain sciences.
IN endXIX.- earlyXXexplosiverelated research areas (now called false scientific): phrenology, physiognomy, graphology, which are engaged in finding diagnostic criteria and predicting individual differences in behavior, psyche.
Phrenology- The doctrine on the relationship of the mental characteristics of a person or an animal with an outdoor shape of the skull. The teaching is popular at the end of the XIX. The concept of exercise is that in each of the many centers of the cerebral cortex any ability of a person is localized. The more expressed the ability, the more relief on the surface of the skull, the corresponding center is allocated. Founders of this teaching - F. Gall (1758-1828), K. Shpurtzheim (1776-1832).
With scientific insolvency for modern psychodiagnostics, the doctrine has made a certain contribution to its formation: he paid attention to the connection of the psyche with the cerebral cortex, the presence of individual differences between people, made the first steps towards finding objective criteria for the assessment of mental phenomena.
Physiognomy- In the middle of the XIX-late XIX. The doctrine of the uniqueness of the human appearance connection with the type of his personality. Thanks to this connection, the psychological features of a person can be established on external features. For a long time, the physiognomy served as the basis for the classifications of the characteristics and types of personality and played an important role in the history of psychodiagnota.
Graphology -the teaching of the handwriting, which was recognized as a type of expressive movements, reflecting the psychological properties and psycho-physiological states of the writing. The idea of \u200b\u200bcommunication of the handwriting with human mental qualities is attributed to Aristotle, Feofrast and other philosophers to scientific psychology. In modern psychology, the most reliably established the dependence of the Hand writing from emotional state and some typological properties of the highest nervous activity of the writing.
Chiromantia -one of the most ancient teachings on the individual characteristics of a person, the features of his character, experienced by the events determined by the skin relief of the palms. The drawing on the surface of the palms is called papillary (fingertips) and flexor (palm). In their origins, Hiromantia is closely related to astrology.

Factors of development of scientific psychodiagnostics

Next, we highlight in the history of psychodiagnostics the main factors determined its development.
Factor 1. Experimental psychology with new methods of statistical processing of laboratory research results .
The beginning of the formation of experimental psychology is associated with the creation of the first laboratory of experimental psychology in 1879. V. Wundt in Germany.
As part of the experimental psychology, F. Galton studied the features of speech associations.
American psychologist J. M. Kettlell suggested tests aimed at the diagnosis of various types of sensitivity, time of motor reaction, the time of perception of a certain color, the number of sounds reproduced after a single listening. It is using a tachistoscope (a device that allows you to impose visual incentives for brief periods of time) determined the time required in order to perceive and call various objects - forms, letters, words, etc. The amount of attention in his experiments was the amount of order five objects. Conducting experiments with reading letters and words on a rotating drum, J. M. kettell recorded the phenomenon of anticipation ("Running" perception forward). So in psychology, an objective experimental method was approved, which began to determine the nature of psychological science as a whole.
Thus, experimental psychology made it possible to obtain the first scientific knowledge of individual differences. In the first studies, the need to comply with standard conditions for research and wording instructions.
Following the kettell, American laboratories began to apply the method of tests.There was a need to organize special coordination centers on the use of this method.
In 1895-1896 In the US, two national committees were created to unite the efforts of testing specialists (testologists) and ensuring the overall concept of psychodiagnostics.
Factor 2. Development of differential psychology. In 1900, V. Stern published the work "On Psychology of Individual Differences". In the differential psychological aspect, psychodiagnostics studies the individual features of a person or groups of people allocated for certain criteria.
Factor 3. Industry requests in connection with the development of a market economy (personnel selection, reducing the time of professionalization, career guidance, etc.)
Factor 4. Inquiries of pedagogy and medicine on standards due to massive public education and the unification of the consultative medical support system (proficulation. Development of standards for contraindications to certain types of work).
In connection with this factor, attention should be paid to the first studies in the middle of the XIX., Associated with the differentiation of the phenomena of mental retardation and mental illness. French doctor J. Eskirol (1772-1840) introduced a clear differentiation criterion - the peculiarity of the speech development of the individual. After 50 years, at the beginning of XX. This criterion was used when developing a Bina-Simon scale.
Factor 5. Development of test diagnostics. The founder of test diagnostics is J. M. Kettell. The author of the mental tests and measurements in the magazine "Mind", which addresses the ideas of using psychometric methods in psychodiagnostics.

Stages of formation of scientific psychodiagnostics

Two stand out historical stage Formation of psychodiagnostics.
The first stage is "Clinical" - covers the period of the first half of the XIX. (1801 -1850). A key role in extracting and analyzing psychological knowledge belongs to the doctors who are interested in the causes of the origin of mental illness and neurosis. The first psychodiagnostic methods are formed: observation, survey, document analysis.
In general, psychodiagnostics is based on a qualitative analysis of the results. This clinical period of the formation of scientific psychological knowledge.
The central problem of experimental research was the problem of the dependence of the psyche from the brain of a person and the outside world.
The second stage is "Statistical", dated the second half of XIX. It is marked by the development of quantitative methods of psychodiagnostics. The formation of these psychodiagnostic methods was determined by three factors: the development of experimental and differential psychology, inquiries for the mass diagnosis of employees of the rapidly developed industry, the achievements of scientists in the field of statistics.
In 1878 R. V. Wundt created the laboratory of experimental psychology. Several later, similar laboratories were created in other countries: England. France, Sweden.
Practical implementation in psychodiagnostics of quantitative methods contributed to the work of F. Galton. Including: the introduction of statistical procedures, including the correlation method, the development of testology as part of psychodiagnostics, the fulfillment of the first studies of individual differences (according to visual acuity, the ability to distinguish between the color, psychomotor-engine reaction), the introduction of the first intelligence tests.
The development and application of quantitative methods in psychodiagnostics allowed scientific psychology to obtain accurate and objective knowledge of human mental phenomena.

Milestones of psychodiagnostic history

From the 1890s. In the United States, the development of psychodiagnostics (testology) in high school is obtained. In 1894, 27 laboratories were operating to study children, 4 specialized magazines were published.
In 1898, J. M. Kettell uses the term "test" for the first time. (The introduction of this term is also attributed to F. Galton.)
In 1885, Ebbigauz publishes a message about the method of testing the ability to memorize the missed words in the text.
In 1891, Münsterberg publishes a series of tests for the selection of car trams.
In 1908, A. Bina and T. Simon published the main version of the "Metric Intellect Scale". The American psychologist J. M. Kettell, being a successor of F. Galton's research on individual differences, first used the concept of an "intellectual test" and drew attention to the need to follow certain requirements: ensuring the unambiguity of understanding of the wording of instructions, compliance with standard conditions and procedures.
A decent scientific contribution to the development of psychodiagnostics was made by the French doctor and psychologist A. Bina. The creator is popular for its time series tests. The first test battery (having a Bina-Simon scale) appeared in 1905. The tasks in the Beane test were grouped by the ages (from 3 to 13 years). For each age, certain tests were selected. They were considered relevant to this age step, if they solved most of the children of this age (80-90%). For up to 6 years, it was offered for 4 tasks to 6 years, and for children over 6 years old - 6 tasks. The tasks were chosen by studying a large group of children (300 people).
Formation of group testing.At the beginning of XXV. All created tests were intended for individual testing procedure. The diagnosis was carried out specially trained specialists, and the complexity of processing and making a conclusion was determined by the duration of the procedure. Three factors of public life contributed to the formation of group testing: 1) the development of mass vocational education; 2) equipping the army with modern technical means; 3) the formation of technologically complex industrial production.
A new form of test tests - group testing appeared in the United States during the First World War.
During the First World War, A. S. Otis (USA) developed two series of group tests: Alfa series - intended for people who know English, and a series of "beta", addressed to foreigners and illiterate people. After the end of the war, these tests and their modifications continued to be widely used.
Advantages of group testing: 1) the ability to examine large groups of people; 2) simplicity instructions; 3) simplicity of the diagnostic procedure and evaluation of the results; 4) the possibility of applying in various areas of society (selection, vocational guidance) and new spheres of human activity (mass education, industrial production, modern army).
Psychodiagnostics in 1920-1930
By the 1920s. It is planned to develop the crisis of psychodiagnostics.
On the one hand, psychodiagnostics turns out to be in demand in various areas of public life: in the army, in industry, in education. The psychodiagnostic industry becomes the basis of psychotechnics, and in education - the basis of pedology.
On the other hand, within the framework of scientific psychology, psychodiagnostics as a discipline did not gain theoretical substantiations, methodological foundations of generalization of heterogeneous indicators.
In the 1930s. The confirmation of the relevance of psychodiagnostics in various spheres of life of society is the publication of a large number of modifications of previously created and new tests.
Two directions of psychodiagnostics are distinguished: diagnostics of personal properties and diagnosis of intelligence.
Updated versions and newly created tests are published:
. New version of the scale of Stanford-Bina Authors L. Termen and M. Meril;
. Test "Progressive matrices" Authors L. Penrose and J. Equal;
. Test intelligence D. Waxler;
. California tests for mental maturity;
. Test primary mental abilities L, N. TRSTONE, the developer of the method of multifactoric analysis and the generic team of the multifactor theory of intelligence, denying the concept of intelligence as a common base of abilities;
. Test of the town of Alport for the diagnosis of person's personal values: moral and ethetic, aesthetic, economic, social, etc.;
. Projective test of Rorschah;
. Test of the Olport of the tendency to dominate-subordination | 1926];
. Test. Strong "Card of Professional Interests";
. Test personal values \u200b\u200bof Olporta and F. Vernon 11928];
. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) of Murray and S. D. Morgana 11938);
. Test L. Sondi "eight deposits".
Since 1938, editors of O. Burosa (USA) and to the present, the world-famous "Mental Measurement Yearbook *, which includes a list and description of new diagnostic techniques.
In 1920-1930. The first tests of modern psychodiagnosis of individual properties of a person, personality, intelligence are formed.
Psychodiagnostics in 1940-1950.
During these years, a fundamentally new series of tests called situational tests is created. The demands of these tests in the United States are caused by the tasks of professional selection into the army. The essence of tests is the dosed admission of stressful impact on the person surveyed in order to diagnose its behavioral and organiser reactions.
Also during these years new tests of diagnostics of personal properties and intelligence are published.
The line of identity tests has been replenished with new developments. Among them should be called the first edition of the Minnesota multidimensional personal questionnaire (MMPI. TheirMinneSota.MultiPhasic.PersonalityInventory.S. R. Hatuey and J. Mac-Kinley).
Test S. Rosenzweig is published to assess the behavioral reactions of a person for the complex situation in which it turns out. It becomes public domain projective test M. Luscher. R. B. Kettlell represents a new variant of a multifactor personal questionnaire. In 1955, the J. Kelly technique "Methods of repertoire lattices" is published.
New techniques began to be used in the diagnosis of intelligence. In 1955, a loan scale is published for measuring the intelligence of adults (WAIS). In 1956, the US Employment Service publishes the GATB test (GENERAL.AptitudeTestBattery.) for use in professional advice and professional selection. Under the leadership of Ch. Osgood, a semantic differential test is created to study individual differences in understanding and interpreting the meaning of words, events.
Psycholiagnosis in the 1960-1980s.
These years are characterized by the further development of methodology, theoretical approaches to the understanding of psychodiagnostics, publishing new tests. Based on research by J. Horn, the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence is being developed. According to this theory, the structure of intelligence varies throughout the human life. If at young age, the intelligence is dominated, called "fluid" (as it reflects the operational capabilities of the brain activity), then in a more mature age, the predominance of intelligence called "crystallized" (reflecting the accumulated experience, knowledge, ideological position of a person) is growing.
These features of the change in the structure of intelligence associated with age should be taken into account in psychodiagnostics, conducted within the framework of solving a variety of issues: professional selection, team picking (brigades, shifts), conflict prevention. The psychodiagnostic customer together with a psychologist should clearly define the requirements for intelligence presented to the objects of psychodiagnostics. In other words, the head must answer the question: who do I need - an employee who is quickly converting, quickly reacting or accepting an adequate and optimal solution? Taking into account the requirements of collaboration, it may be necessary to combine employees with a rapid response and workers who can make an optimal solution.
In these years, a number of new psychodiagnostic techniques are published:
. Questionnaire "Local Control" J. Rotter;
. General Health Questionnaire D. Goldberg, designed to diagnose mental well-being, emotional stability.
At the same years, a scientific discussion on the relationship between the individual and ambient (social, environmental).
A characteristic feature of the 1970s. The computerization of psychodiagnostic techniques becomes a passion.
INforeign psychodiagnostics 1980-1990 The interest in the formation of the personality, the study of the influence of external (socio-economic, technological, social, etc.) of factors on the development and life of a person as a subject of social being is dominated.
In general, modern psychodiagnostics, both foreign and domestic, absorbed the best achievement of quantitative psychodiagnostics (testing) and clinical, based on a qualitative analysis of research results. These are the main aspects of the history of psychodiagnostics, which laid the basis of its modern development.

The formation of domestic psychodiagnostiki

In domestic psychology, the formation of psychodiagnostics began under the banner of materialistic ideas. In the works of I. M. Sechenov, a materialistic understanding of mental activity was developing consistently. The continuer of his scientific research was I. P. Pavlov, who created the theory of conditional reflexes and lasted the path from objective research on the physiology of the Central nervous system to the study of the material foundations of mental phenomena,
B, M. Bekhterev sought to discover the relationship of mental activity with the brain, with nervous processes, social being of a person. The experimental psychological laboratory, the first in Russia, was opened in 1885 under the clinic of nervous and mental diseases of the Kharkov University. In 1895, at the initiative of the Russian psychiatrist S. S. Korsakov, a psychological laboratory was established at the psychiatric clinic of Moscow University. In these and other laboratories, objective signs of mental phenomena were studied (pulse, arterial pressure, respiratory frequency), studied the speed of mental processes.
Thus, at the end XIX- early Xxv. The basis of the national psychodiagnostics was the study of the highest nervous activity (GND) of physiologists I. M. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlova, psychiatrists V. M. Bekhtereva. S. S. Korsakov First Russian psychologists-experimenters N. N. Lange. A. F. Lazur and others.
In the history of domestic psychodiagnostics, the memory of the works of many talented psychologists of pioneers have been preserved. For example. G. and, Rossolimo. The neuropathologist and the psychiatrist, is the author of the methodology (diagnostic), called the "Method of Individual Psychological Profile". The essence of the methodology was reduced to the determination of eleven mental processes, which were estimated on a 10-point scale based on the answers of the surveyed. In the methods, three groups of processes were distinguished: attention and will, accuracy and strength of perception, associative activity. Rossolimo sought to a holistic personality assessment. He was looking for a method of quantifying mental processes in normal and pathological conditions. Therefore, it is safe to consider Rossolimo to the first developers of the integrated psychodiagnostic personality.
Another Russian psychologist and teacher A. P. Boltunov in 1928 published the method of the "measuring scale of the mind" - the author's modification of the Bina-Simon scale. For the last years of his life, he devoted issues of the theory and techniques of pedagogical diagnosis.
A. F. Lazur. As a developer of scientific characterology, he conducted a diagnosis in accordance with its author's "personality research program."
Studies of the Russian psychologist M. Yu. Syrkina established a linear communication form between test estimates and social signs of persons examined.
Psychodiagnostics becomes popular in society: in the army, in pedagogy, in industry. Gets the development of testing special abilities. However, by the mid-1930s. Methodological errors are accumulated using psychodiagnostic tools. In 1936, the decision of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) is published "On the pedology perversions in the system of drug addresses". Further use of psychodiagnostics is limited by the solution of the applied tasks of psychophysiology, a psychiatric clinic.
The general condition of the domestic psychodiagnostics in the 1920-1930s. Allows you to draw conclusions:
. Psychodiagnostics in demand in various areas of society: school education, industrial production, military business;
. psychodiagnostics develops intensively within the framework of psychotechnics;
. The psychometric foundations of psychodiagnostics are being developed. Ideological existence of the occurrence of psychodiagnostics and in general
In 1950, the so-called "Pavlovskaya" session of the two academies (pedagogical and medical sciences) appeared on psychology. Legal right to existence remains for differential psychophysiology. Differential psychophysiology associated the diversity of mental phenomena with mechanisms of conditional reflexes, and the origin of individual psychological differences is exclusively with the types of the nervous system in the spirit of the teachings I. P. Pavlov.
Domestic differential psychophysiology, developed in the works of B. M. Teploon, B. G. Ananyeva, V. S. Merlin and their students for many years turned out to be the only legal form of the existence of psychodiagnostics in Russia.
The revival of psychodiagnostics as directions begins with the decision (March 1969) of the Central Council of the Society of Psychologists of the USSR, in which psychodiagnostics is recognized as the least developed area of \u200b\u200bpsychological knowledge.
In the early 1970s A new stage has started in the development of psychological diagnosis in our country, its revival began. The experience gained by this time abroad showed that its use can bring significantly useful results in the education system, in industry, in the clinic, other areas of public life. An important role in the formation of an adequate relationship to psychological diagnosis in general and to the diagnostic methods, in particular, the symposium was played, held in Tallinn in the fall of 1974. Decisions were made on it, which indicated that all the expansion and deepening of studies that promote the creation of a methodological foundation and methodical Arsenal of domestic psychological diagnostics. A significant event was the release in 1981 by a collective monograph "Psychological diagnostics. Problems and research ", written by the staff of the Psychological Institute of RAO, edited by K. M. Gurevich; There, for the first time in our country, general issues of designing, checking, applying diagnostic techniques were considered.
At the same time, adapted versions of foreign techniques began to appear (F. B. Berezin, I. N. Glyliasheva, M. K. Akimov. E. M. Borisova et al.), Work on clinical diagnosis (E. T. Sokolova, L. F. Burlachuk, L. N. Sobechik). According to psychometrist (V. S. Avanesov. V. M. Blaikher. V. K. Hyda. A. G. Shmelev). The original domestic techniques began to be developed (L. A. Wenger. A. E. Persheko. D. B. Bogoyavlenskaya. K. M. Gurevich et al.).
These are key aspects of the history of domestic and foreign psychodiagnostics.

The origins of psychodiagnostiki

The prehistory of psychodiagnostics has several millennia. The first "tests", defining individual psychological differences, appeared more than 4,000 years ago. In ancient China, in the third thousand to n. e. A testing system was created for the selection of officials, within which a very wide range of "personality manifestations" was identified and evaluated: to write from the ability to behave in everyday life.

The history of psychodiagnostics begins at the end of the XIX century. At this time, the idea of \u200b\u200bmeasuring is becoming a very popular psychology. The use of statistical methods leads to the opportunity to express individual differences in the figures. This causes the birth of psychodiagnostics, the formation of which as an independent field of research is completed in the 20s. XX century Considerable contribution to the formation of psychodiagnostics F. Galton, J. Kettella, G. Ebbigauza, E. Fantasy, A. Bina. Her emergence was prepared in several areas in the development of psychology.

The first source was experimental psychology. This is due to the fact that the experimental method is based on psychodiagnostic techniques. Psychodiagnostics grew from experimental psychology. Experimental psychology arises in 1878 this year V. WundT Found in Germany the first laboratory of experimental psychology. In its laboratory, there were mainly lower mental functions (sensations and self-causing motor acts - reactions, peripheral and binocular vision, color, and so on.). By laboratory pattern Wandta Experimental laboratories are created in France, Holland, England, Sweden, America.

One of the first to use the experimental method in psychology Herman Ebbigauz (1850-1909). With the help of the experimental method, he studied the laws of memory using the sets of meaningless syllables as a stimulus material (artificial sensor cells of speech that do not have a specific value). Among the well-known researchers of the time that used the experimental method was also an American psychologist James Katettel (1860-1944), which with its help investigated the scope of attention and reading skills. With the help of a tachistoscope (a device that allows you to present testing incentives for brief sections of time), it determined the time required in order to perceive and name various objects - forms, letters, words, etc. .

Thus, at the turn of the XX century, an objective experimental method is approved in psychology. His appearance largely determined the further development of psychology and contributed to the emergence of new regions within it, in particular psychodiagnostics.

Using the experiment method in psychological research He led to the emergence of differential psychology, which began to study the individual differences between people. Differential psychology has become another source of psychodiagnosis. Outside the ideas about individual psychological features that are the subject of differential psychology, it would be impossible to occur psychodiagnostics as science on the methods of their measurement.

The creation of psychodiagnostic techniques was due to the development of various methodological approaches in psychology. At the beginning of the last century, several methodological approaches took shape in psychology, as part of each of which was their understanding of what is a psyche and how it should be studied. In this regard, it is interesting to trace, as the formation of the most well-known psychodiagnostic methods in the framework of the main schools of psychology.

At the beginning of the XX century. Psychology covered the crisis. In the XIX century The main method of studying the psyche was the method introspecia (from lat. Introspecto - I look inside, peering). This method is to explore the person of his own experiences by observing them and their descriptions. At the beginning of the XX century. The serious criticism of this method begins for its subjectivity. Observing the phenomena of their psyche, a person often cannot understand their meaning, distorts their content, attributing to them insepting qualities and properties. In addition, not all phenomena of the psyche are given to a person in experiences.

In this regard, at the beginning of the last century, a new direction appears in opposition of introspective psychology, which received the name behaviorism (from English Behaviour - Behavior). Representatives of biheviorism believed that since it is impossible to study the psyche objectively, it should not be studied at all. Study need behavior. It is necessary to study the behavior of a person in order to understand how he will behave in a particular situation and why. The main method of studying behavior in behaviorism is the method "Stimulus → Reaction" (S → R). Stimulus is presented and its reaction is monitored. The subject of studies in behaviorism, therefore, is the connection of the incentive and reaction.

INTROSPETING PSYCHOLOGY AND BYEVIORISM In accordance with the peculiarities inherent on them led to the emergence of two types of psychodiagnostic techniques. Interviewing psychodiagnostic methods are obliged by introspective psychology. IN questionnaires A number of issues are submitted to which the person surveyed responds on the basis of monitoring its own experiences and behavior. The results of such self-surveillance sometimes are erroneous. In this regard, questionnaires refer to the group of subjective psychodiagnostic techniques.

Test Methodsit is customary to communicate with behaviorism. In accordance with the concept of behaviorism, the purpose of the diagnosis was initially for fixing behavior. This was the first psychodiagnosts that developed the test method (the term introduced F. Galton). The first researcher who used the term "intellectual test" in the psychological literature was J. Ketell. This term after article Kettella "Intellectual tests and measurements", published in 1890 in the magazine "Mind", acquired broad fame.

Tests give more objective information than questionnaires, since their results are not based on the subjective opinion of the examined, but on the objective indicators obtained during the implementation of test tasks. When testing, a psychologist registers individual differences in mental acts, assessing the results obtained using a certain criterion and in no case changing the conditions for the implementation of these mental acts.

At the beginning of the XX century. Psychoanalysis appears, aimed at identifying the essence of unconscious phenomena of the psyche. The founder of psychoanalysis was a psychiatrist Z. Freud.. Unconscious It was understood initially as a totality of seeking to satisfy unconscious motives, blindly acting from the mysterious depths of the body. Consciousness, with all the forces, seeks to prevent the satisfaction of these motives, displaces them. In order to understand hidden in the unconscious motive and desire, it is necessary to create an experimental situation that would allow them to manifest itself in spite of consciousness. To do this, as part of the psychoanalysis, the examined person was given a task, which was performed, which he involuntarily expressed hidden in his unconscious trend. This type of task was caused by the emergence of projective techniques.

Projective techniquesbased on the phenomenon of projections. The projection is a special phenomenon of mental life, which is expressed in attributing to external properties that are in a certain relationship with mental properties inherent in the individual. The methodological technique of projective methods is to present a subject not enough structured, indefinite, incomplete incentive. This generates fantasy processes, imagination, in which certain characteristics of the person are revealed. At the same time, the projection (assignment, transfer) of the mental properties of the test on the material of the task (drawing, ambiguous unfinished text, an ambiguous situation, etc.).

In addition to psychoanalysis, theoretical origins of projective techniques can be detected in the method of free verbal associations. The creator of this method was Francis Galton (1822-1911). In the experiments held by them, he suggested the subject to respond to the preventing word-stimulus of the first prominent association. As a result, the subject called the words having associative connections with a word. Having considered these connections, it was possible to say a lot about the unconscious aspirations of a person, about his subjective vision of a particular phenomenon. Later, this technique was developed in research E. Fantasy (1892), K. Yung (1906), Kent, A. Rozanova (1910) and others.

Thus, the origins of psychodiagnostics we discover in experimental and differential psychology. The origin of the basic groups of psychodiagnostic techniques is associated with introspective psychology, behaviorism and psychoanalysis.

The development of psychodiagnostics

The concept of psychological diagnostics appears in 1921. He introduces it G. Rorshahwho called so a survey with the help of the test created by him. However, soon under psychodiagnostics begin to understand everything that is associated with the measurement of individual psychological differences.

During the first half of the XX century. The main psychodiagnostic methods are created and improved. Already in the 20s. Wide distribution is obtained intellect tests, Prames are arising in projective techniques and questionnaires. With the development of psychodiagnostics, its main problems are issued. In particular, this period is marked by the formation of a gradually deepening gap between the practice and theory. The noticeable lag of theoretical level of reflection of phenomena, whose measurement is directed by psychodiagnostics, it remains from its methodical equipment today.

Development of testing in the beginning. XX century associated with the name of the French doctor and psychologist A. Bina(1857-1911), which created the most popular series of tests. Prior to A. Bina, the diagnosis was limited mainly by sensorobic qualities (sensitivity, the speed of the reaction, etc.). However, the practice required information about the highest mental functions, indicated usually the terms "mind", "Intellect". It is these functions that ensure the acquisition of knowledge and the successful implementation of complex adaptive activities.

Alfred Bina in collaboration with Theodore Simon. He conducted a series of experiments to study attention, memory, thinking in children of different ages (starting in three years). Conducted on many subjects experimental tasks were tested on statistical criteria and began to be considered as a means of determining the intellectual level. First Scale (test series) Bina Simon appeared in 1905. Then she was then revised by the authors who sought to remove all tasks from it, requiring special training. A. Bina He came out of the idea that the development of intelligence occurs independently of training as a result of biological ripening.

The next step in the development of psychological testing is associated with the advent of the new form of test tests. Tests created in the beginning. XX century, were individual. They could only use specially trained people who had high psychological qualifications. It limited their distribution. The developing economy of Western countries imposed new tests for testing. In particular, such a form of testing was needed, which would allow to diagnose large masses of people with the aim of selection of the most prepared for a particular activity, as well as distributions for various types of people's activities in accordance with their individual characteristics.

Therefore, in the United States during the First World War, a new form of test trials appeared - group testing. New tests were developed A. S. Otisova. They created two forms of army tests - "Alpha" and "Beta". The development of these tests was associated with the need to selected as quickly as possible and distribute the semi-mounted army of recruits. The first form of tests was designed to work with people who know English, the second - for illiterate and foreigners. After the end of the war, these tests and their modifications continued to be widely used.

Group (collective) tests not only created the ability to diagnose large groups of people. Since group tests allowed simplifying instruction, procedures for conducting and evaluating test results, people who do not have real psychological qualifications received access to psychodiagnostic surveys. Group tests were used mainly in the education system, in industry and in the army.

Despite the fact that with the help of intelligence tests, it was possible to detect the features of cognitive processes, to predict with their help the success of the fulfillment of specific, quite narrow activities was often failed. Additional information was required about the features of the human psyche. So, a new direction arose in testology - testing special abilitieswhich was first called only to supplement the estimates of the tests of intelligence, and subsequently it was released into an independent area. During the first half of the XX century. Tests of mechanical, stationery, musical, artistic abilities appear.

Along with the tests of intelligence, special and complex abilities, there was another type of tests widely used in educational institutions - tests achievements. Unlike intelligence tests, they reflect not so much the impact of a diverse accumulated experience, how much the impact of special training programs for the effectiveness of test tasks. Tests of achievements are focused on assessing the achievements of the individual after the completion of training.

Tests of achievements refer to the most numerous group of diagnostic techniques. One of the most famous and widely used tests of achievements is Stanford Test Achievements (SAT), first published in 1923 with its help, the level of training in different classes of average is estimated educational institutions. A significant number of tests of special abilities and achievements was created within the framework of psychotechnics under the influence of practical requests from the industry and the economy.

During the first half of the XX century. The development of and surveys psychodiagnostic techniques occurred. The appearance of the first psychodiagnostic questionnaires is associated with the name F. Galtonwhich used them not to study personal qualities, but to assess the cognitive sphere of a person (features of visual perception, mental images).

The prototype of personal questionnaires was developed by an American psychologist Robert Woodworth In 1919, the form of identity data form. This questionnaire was designed to identify and screening from military service of persons with neurotic symptoms. Over the decades have passed since that time, the questionnaires received the broadest distribution as a psychodiagnostic personality research method. One of the most famous is created R. Kettlell In 1950, this questionnaire is intended to study 16 traits of the person allocated by the author.

Simultaneously with questionnaires, the development and projective techniques went. The concept of projection for the designation of such techniques was first used by L. Frank in 1939 by the beginning of the 40s. XX century Diagnostics with the help of projective techniques became very popular in the West.

One of the most popular projective techniques was developed in 1921 by the Swiss Psychiatrist German Rorshahom. Creating this technique, G. Rorshah experimented with a lot of ink spotswhich he presented to various groups of mentally ill. As a result of his observations, the characteristics of the answers that could be correlated with various mental illness were gradually combined into the system of indicators. In the Rorschah test, 10 cards are used, each of which is printed a double-sided symmetric stain. As the subject show each spot, he is asked to clarify what could be depicted this stain. Based on the reactions of the test for this task, conclusions are made about the peculiarities of his psyche.

Another of the oldest and most common projective techniques in the world - Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - was created in 1935 X. Morgan and Murrey. Stimulus Material TAT.it consists of tables with images of vague, allowing ambiguous interpretation of situations. The subject is invited to come up with a small story about what led to the situation depicted in the picture, and how it will develop. Test stories are then analyzed to identify their mental features.

Currently psychodiagnostics with projective techniques It occupies a leading position in foreign studies of the individual, despite the critical attitude to the data obtained using these techniques. Critical notes The projective techniques are mostly reduced to instructions for their insufficient standardization, neglecting regulatory data, the disjunctivities of the traditional ways to determine reliability and validity, and most importantly, subjectivism in the interpretation of the results.

In the 40-50s. In world psychodiagnostics, basic diagnostic approaches were formed (objective, subjective, projective). At this time, the development of all the most famous tests was to varying degrees ( test Waxer, test Rorschaha, Thematic Apperception Test, sixteen personal factors questionnaire). In the following years created in subsequent years, despite the steady increase in their quantity, there are no fundamentally new ideas and solutions.

The period of temporary "clutch" in psychodiagnostics is terminated in the 60s. Applying researchers to analyze situations in which behavior is carried out. Works appear in which the provision was substantiated that the variability of behavior is due not to individual psychological differences, which first of all psychodiagnostics are aimed, and situational ( see the topic 4).

Although the discussions continue and today, most researchers consider it necessary to account for the interaction of individual-psychological and situational variables. This puts before psychodiagnosis the task of developing new research tools, more reliable and valid, rather than today.

Thus, psychodiagnostics has already been almost a century-old history, during which a significant number of methods have been created and substantiated, allowing to identify and study individual-psychological features of people. Further development of psychodiagnostics is associated with a resolution of a number of problems arising in the process of its development. One of the most relevant is the problem of the lag of theory of practice. Absence high level Theoretical reflection of phenomena, which is aimed at the measurement of psychodiagnostics, determines the skeptic relationship of researchers to the results obtained by various psychodiagnostic techniques.

Psychodiagnostics in the USSR

In the development of psychodiagnostics in the USSR, two periods can be distinguished. The first should be attributed to the beginning of the 20s-to the middle of the 30s. These are the years of mass use of tests in folk education, trade guidance. For the level of psychodiagnostic development, the wide borrowing of foreign tests is characteristic. Own techniques were created, but they, as a rule, lacked a serious theoretical and experimental justification. The results of test surveys were often considered as decisive, absolutized. At the same time, Soviet scientists have nominated a number of progressive ideas, the development of which could contribute to the development of psychodiagnostics in our country.

Huge contribution In the development of Soviet psychodiagnostics, the largest psychologist L. S. Vygotsky. His idea about a psychological diagnosis in the work "Diagnostics of the Development and Pedagogical Clinic of Hard Childhood", which was published in 1936, retains its meaning today. L. S. Vygotsky allocated three levels of psychological diagnosis and described each of them ( see theme 1).

A certain interest in the point of view of the development of new testing forms is a "mind measuring scale" A. P. Boltunova (1928), which put the basis of its work the scale of the Bina-Simon. The fundamental difference between the scale A. P. Boltunov from the Bina-Simon scales consists in the possibility of conducting group tests.

Special place In domestic testological studies, the work of M. Yu. Syrkina, specially studied the problem of conjugacy tests of testes and signs of social status. The connection between the peculiarities of speech development and test results by then was proved experimentally (the very first tests of testologists recorded this dependence). However, over time, the social aspect of the existence of intellectual differences between the layers and classes of the Company for testology has become becoming more acute and significant.

In this regard, the work of M. Yu. Syrkina is extremely important, since in domestic research on psychological testing, it has proven how contradictory is the test diagnosis of individual differences, which allows the opposite interpretation of the results of the study. Independent experimental work M. Yu. Syzkina show that there is any test estimates and social signs of subjects linear form Communications, in some cases fairly close, moreover, having high temporary stability.

In the 20s Of this century in our country, the psychology of labor and psychotechnics (Works I. N. Spielrene, S. G. Gellerstein, N. D. Levitova, A. A. Tolchinsky et al.). Within these sectors of psychology, psychodiagnostics developed, the results of which were used in a number of areas of the national economy, primarily in industry, in transport, in the vocational training system.

In many cities of the country, psychotechnical laboratories worked, personnel of psychotechnics were preparing, and the All-Union Society for Psychotechnics and Applied Psychophysiology was created, the Journal of Soviet Psychotechnics was published (1928-1934), psychotechnical conferences and congresses were held.

As a special industry of domestic psychology psychotechnics Organizationally issued by 1927-1928. It is made a lot in the field of searches for rational methods of psychotechnical and vocational training, organization of the employment process, the formation of professional skills and skills. At the same time, psychotechnics were criticized, especially for the formal use of some theoretically not reasonable tests. The result was the coagulation of work on psychotechnics to the mid-30s. .

In the 30s. Science occurs pedologywhich sought to synthesize all the existing knowledge about children. Pedology widely used testing to explore children. But the scientific synthesis of these psychology, physiology, anatomy and pedagogy was not implemented within the framework of pedology. Pretending to the role of the only "Marxist science of children", the pedology mechanically understood the influence of two factors (medium and heredity), determining the process of developing the psyche, reduced the qualitative features of a developing person to biological characteristics, was keen on the use of tests, considering them as a means of measuring mental gifting and method Selection of mentally retarded children.

In this regard, at the beginning of the 30s. The principal criticism of many positions of pedology began, which ended with the decision of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) dated July 4, 1936 "On the pedology perversion in the system of drug addicts". During this period, the sharp criticism of pedology was accompanied by the denial of all positive, which was made by scientists, one way or another connected with the pedology, in the field of psychology and psychological diagnostics. The resolution was imposed a ban on the use of tests in school. Essentially, all psychodiagnostic research was discontinued. It took about 40 years so that this direction of research was fully restored in their rights. Only in the late 60s. Work on psychological diagnostics is beginning to appear.

In the late 60s. The second period of development of Soviet psychodiagnostics, noted by stormy discussions about its place in the system of psychological knowledge, principles and methods, on attitudes towards foreign experiences. Gradually, the discussion is inferior to suspended scientific analysis existing problems, search for solutions. There were such modern researchers such as L. F. Burlachuk, K. M. Gurevich, V. M. Melnikov, N. F. Talisin, E. T Sokolova, N. I. Shevandrin, L. T . Yampolsky, etc.

Tasks currently before psychodiagnosis are complex and diverse. There is no such area of \u200b\u200ba practical application of psychological knowledge that would not need to help psychodiagnostics. At the same time, the methodological problems of psychodiagnostics associated with the development of both the general theory and individual areas of research are required.

Summing up the consideration of domestic works in the field of psychodiagnostics, it should be noted that, despite the large number of secondary studies that copy the Western, in the history there were interesting independent work trying to solve scientific and methodological problems of diagnosis.

Questions for self-test

1. Tell us about the origins of psychodiagnostics.

2. What psychodiagnostic techniques were created in the framework of introspective psychology?

3. What psychodiagnostic techniques are related to behavior methodologies?

4. Where are the origins of projective psychodiagnostic techniques?

5. Name the most famous psychodiagnostic techniques.

6. Tell us about the problems of psychodiagnostics.

7. Name Soviet psychologists who contributed to the development of psychodiagnostics in our country.