It is hardly possible to give an unambiguous assessment of the significance of the Consulate and the Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte for European history. On the one hand, the Napoleonic wars brought enormous human sacrifices to France and other European states. They were conducted for the sake of conquering foreign territories and plundering other peoples. By imposing huge indemnities on the defeated countries, Napoleon weakened and ruined their economies. When he arbitrarily redrawn the map of Europe or when he tried to impose a new economic order on it in the form of a continental blockade, he thereby interfered in the natural course of historical development, violating centuries-old boundaries and traditions. On the other hand, historical development always occurs as a result of the struggle between the old and the new, and from this point of view, the Napoleonic empire personified the new bourgeois order in the face of the old feudal Europe. As in 1792-94. French revolutionaries tried to carry their ideas across Europe with bayonets, and Napoleon also tried to introduce bourgeois order in the conquered countries with bayonets. Establishing French rule in Italy and German states, he simultaneously abolished the feudal rights of the nobility and the guild system there, carried out the secularization of church lands, extended the action of his Civil Code to them. In other words, he destroyed the feudal system and acted in this respect, according to Stendhal, as a "son of the revolution." Thus, the Napoleonic era in European history was one of the stages and one of the manifestations of the transition from the old order to the new times.

The victories won by France over the armies of the feudal-absolutist states were explained primarily by the fact that bourgeois France, which represented a more progressive social system, had an advanced military system created by the Great French Revolution. An outstanding military leader, Napoleon I perfected the strategy and tactics developed during the revolutionary wars. The army also included the troops of the states subordinate to Napoleon I and foreign corps put forward by the allied countries. The Napoleonic army, especially before the defeat of its best forces in Russia in 1812, was characterized by high combat training and discipline. Napoleon I was surrounded by a whole galaxy of talented marshals and young generals (L. Davout, I. Murat, A. Massena, M. Ney, L. Berthier, J. Bernadotte, N. Soult, etc.), many of whom were from soldiers or from the lower strata of society. However, the increasing transformation of the French army during the Napoleonic wars into an instrument for the implementation of the aggressive plans of Napoleon I, huge losses (according to rough estimates, in 1800-1815 3153 thousand people were called up for military service in France, of which only in 1804 - 1814 killed 1750 thousand people) led to a significant decrease in its fighting qualities.

As a result of continuous wars and conquests, a huge Napoleonic empire was formed, supplemented by a system of states directly or indirectly subject to France. Napoleon I plundered the conquered countries. The supply of the army in the campaign was carried out mainly with the help of requisitions or outright robbery (according to the principle "war must feed war"). Great damage to the countries that were dependent on the Napoleonic empire was caused by customs tariffs, favorable for France. The Napoleonic Wars were a constant and important source of income for the Napoleonic government, the French bourgeoisie, and the top of the military.

Wars of the French Revolution began as national wars. After the defeat of Napoleon, feudal reaction was established in many European countries. However, the main result of fierce wars was not a temporary victory of reaction, but the liberation of European countries from the rule of Napoleonic France, which ultimately contributed to the independent development of capitalism in a number of European states.

Thus, we can say that Napoleon's wars were not just a pan-European character, but a worldwide one. They will forever remain in history.

(Condensed sketch)

1. The second Italian company of Bonaparte. Battle of Marengo

May 8, 1800 Bonaparte left Paris and went to a new major war. His main enemy was still the Austrians, who, after the departure of Suvorov, occupied Northern Italy. The Austrian commander-in-chief Melas expected that Napoleon would lead his army along the coast, as before, and concentrated his troops here. But the first consul chose the most difficult path - through the Alps and the Saint Bernard pass. The weak Austrian barriers were overturned, and at the end of May the entire French army suddenly emerged from the Alpine gorges and deployed in the rear of the Austrian troops. On June 2, Bonaparte took Milan. Melas hastened to meet the enemy, and on June 14, the main forces met at the village of Marengo. All the advantage was on the side of the Austrians. Against 20 thousand French they had 30, the advantage in artillery was generally overwhelming, almost tenfold. Therefore, the beginning of the battle was unfortunate for Bonaparte. The French were driven out of their positions and retreated with heavy losses. But at four o'clock a fresh division of Deset arrived, which had not yet taken part in the battle. Directly from the march, she entered the battle, and the whole army went on the attack after her. The Austrians could not withstand the onslaught and fled. Already at five o'clock, Melas's army was utterly defeated. The triumph of the victors was overshadowed only by the death of Dese, who died at the very beginning of the attack. Upon learning of this, Napoleon cried for the first time in his life.

2. French victories in Germany

In early December 1800, General Moreau defeated the Austrians at Hohenlinden. After this victory, the road to Vienna was opened for the French. Emperor Franz II agreed to peace negotiations.

3. Luneville world

On February 9, 1801, the Peace of Luneville was concluded between France and Austria, which confirmed the main provisions of the Campoformian Treaty of 1797.The Holy Roman Empire was completely ousted from the left bank of the Rhine, and this territory was completely transferred to France, which, in addition, acquired the Dutch possessions of Austria ( Belgium) and Luxembourg. Austria recognized the Batavian Republic (Netherlands), the Helvetic Republic (Switzerland), as well as the restored Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics (Lombardy and Genoa), which all remained virtually French possessions. Tuscany was taken from the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand III and converted to the Kingdom of Etruria. Following Austria, the Neapolitan Bourbons concluded peace with France. Thus, the Second Coalition fell apart.

4. Treaty of Aranjuez. Louisiana's return to France

March 21, 1801 Bonaparte signed the Treaty of Aranjuez with the Spanish king Charles IV. Under its terms, Spain returned West Louisiana in America to France. In return, Bonaparte gave the kingdom of Etruria (former Tuscany) to the son-in-law of the Spanish king Charles IV the Infante of Parma Luigi I. Spain had to start a war with Portugal in order to force her to abandon her alliance with Great Britain.

5. Surrender of the French corps in Egypt

The position of the French army, abandoned by Bonaparte and blocked in Egypt, became more and more difficult with each passing month. In March 1801, after the English army allied to the Turks landed in Egypt, its defeat became inevitable. On August 30, 1801, the French corps surrendered to the British.

6. Italian Republic

In December 1801, the Cisalpine Republic was renamed the Italian Republic. The republic was headed by the president, who had practically unlimited powers. Bonaparte himself was elected to this post, but in fact, the current affairs were dealt with by the vice-president, the Duke of Melzi. Thanks to the good financier Prina, whom Melzi made the Minister of Finance, it was possible to eliminate the budget deficit and replenish the treasury.

7. Amiens

On March 25, 1802, a treaty of peace with Great Britain was signed in Amiens, ending the nine-year Anglo-French war. Later the Batavian Republic and the Ottoman Empire joined this treaty. The French troops had to leave Naples, Rome and the island of Elba, the British - all the ports and islands they occupied in the Mediterranean and the Adriatic. The Batavian Republic ceded its possessions to Great Britain in Ceylon (Sri Lanka). The island of Malta, occupied by the British in September 1800, was to be abandoned by them and returned to the former owner, the Order of St. John of Jerusalem

8. State and legislative reforms of Bonaparte

Bonaparte devoted two years of peaceful respite, which France received after the conclusion of the Peace of Luneville, to state and legislative reforms. The law of February 17, 1800 abolished all elective offices and assemblies. Under the new system, the minister of the interior appointed a prefect to each department, who became sovereign and sovereign here, and in turn appointed the mayors of the cities.

On July 15, 1801, a concordat was signed with Pope Pius VII (1800-1823), by virtue of which the state Catholic Church of France was restored in April 1802; bishops were to be appointed by the first consul, but receive approval from the pope.

On August 2, 1802, a new constitution of X year was adopted, according to which Bonaparte was declared "first consul for life". Thus, he finally became a complete and nothing unlimited dictator.

In March 1804, the development of the civil code was completed, which became the main law and the basis of French jurisprudence. At the same time, work was underway on the Commercial Code (finally adopted in 1807). Here, for the first time, regulations were formulated and codified that regulate and legally ensure trade transactions, the life of the exchange and banks, bill of exchange and notary law.

9. "Final Resolution of the Imperial Deputation"

The Luneville world recognized the annexation of the left bank of the Rhine by France, including the lands of three spiritual electors - Cologne, Mainz and Trier. The decision on the issue of territorial compensation to the injured German princes was submitted to the imperial deputation. After lengthy negotiations, under pressure from France, the final project for the reorganization of the empire was adopted, which was approved on March 24, 1803 at the imperial Reichstag. According to the "Final Decree", church estates in Germany were secularized and for the most part became part of large secular states. Almost all (with the exception of six) imperial cities also ceased to exist as subjects of imperial law. In total, not counting the lands annexed by France, 112 small state formations were abolished. 3 million of their subjects were distributed among a dozen major principalities. The largest increments were received by the French allies Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria, as well as Prussia, under whose rule most of the possessions of the church in Northern Germany passed. After the completion of the territorial demarcation by 1804, about 130 states remained within the Holy Roman Empire. The liquidation of free cities and ecclesiastical principalities - traditionally the main pillar of the empire - led to the complete fall of the influence of the imperial throne. Franz II had to approve the Reichstag decree, although he understood that he was thus sanctioning the actual destruction of the institution of the Holy Roman Empire.

10. "Louisiana Purchase"

The most important event during the reign of the third US President Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809) was the so-called. The Louisiana Purchase is an acquisition by the United States of French possessions in North America. On April 30, 1803, an agreement was signed in Paris, according to which the first consul Bonaparte ceded West Louisiana to the United States. For an area of ​​2,100,000 square kilometers (almost a quarter of the current US), the federal government paid 80 million French francs, or 15 million US dollars. The American nation took possession of New Orleans and the vast desert that lay west of the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains (which served as the border of Spanish possessions). The following year, the United States laid claim to the Missouri and Columbia Basin.

11. The beginning of a new Anglo-French war

The Amiens Peace was only a short-term truce. Both parties constantly violated the obligations assumed under this agreement. In May 1803, diplomatic relations between Great Britain and France were broken, and the Anglo-French war resumed. English territory proper was out of reach for Bonaparte. But on the other hand, in May-June 1803, the French occupied English king Hanover.

12. Execution of the Duke of Enghien. The gap between Russia and France

At the beginning of 1804, a conspiracy against the first consul, organized by the Bourbons expelled from France, was uncovered in Paris. Bonaparte was furious and thirsty for blood. But since all the main representatives of the Bourbon family lived in London and were out of his reach, he decided to take revenge on the last offspring of the Condé family, the Duke of Enghien, who, although he had nothing to do with the conspiracy, but lived nearby. On the night of March 14-15, 1804, a detachment of the French gendarmerie invaded Baden, arrested the Duke of Enghien at his house and took him to France. On the night of March 20, a trial over the arrested took place at the Vincennes castle. 15 minutes after the death sentence was passed, the duke was shot. This massacre had a huge public response and its consequences were very sensitive, both in France itself and throughout Europe. In April, outraged Alexander I broke off diplomatic relations with France.

13. Proclamation of the French Empire. Napoleon I

In 1804, institutions that represented the representation of the French people, but in fact filled with the minions and executors of the will of the first consul - the Tribunate, the Legislative Corps and the Senate - raised the question of converting the life-long consulate into a hereditary monarchy. Bonaparte agreed to fulfill their wish, but did not want to accept the royal title. Like Charlemagne, he decided to declare himself emperor. In April 1804, the Senate issued a decree giving the First Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte, the title of Emperor of the French. On December 2, 1804, Pope Pius VII solemnly crowned and anointed Napoleon I (1804-1814, 1815) at the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris.

14. Proclamation of the Austrian Empire

In response to the proclamation of Napoleon I as emperor, the Austrian Empire was proclaimed on August 11, 1804. King of Hungary and Bohemia, Holy Roman Emperor Franz II took the title of hereditary emperor of Austria (under the name of Franz I).

15. Italian kingdom

In March 1805, the Italian Republic was transformed into the Italian Kingdom. Napoleon arrived in Pavia and on May 26 was crowned with the iron crown of the Lombard kings. The government of the country was entrusted to the Viceroy, who became Napoleon's stepson Eugene Beauharnais.

16. Petersburg Treaty. The folding of the Third Coalition

The beginning of the Third Anti-French Coalition was laid by the Petersburg Union Treaty concluded on April 11 (23), 1805 between Russia and Great Britain. Both sides had to try to attract other powers to the union. Britain pledged to help the coalition with its navy and to provide the Allied powers with a cash subsidy of £ 1,250,000 annually for every 100,000 people. Subsequently, Austria, Sweden, the Kingdom of Naples and Portugal entered the Third Coalition. Spain, Bavaria and Italy fought on the side of France. The Prussian king remained neutral.

17. Liquidation of the Ligurian Republic

On June 4, 1805, Napoleon liquidated the Ligurian Republic. Genoa and Luca were annexed to France.

18. The beginning of the Russian-Austro-French war of 1805

Until the end of the summer of 1805, Napoleon was confident that he was going to cross to England. At Boulogne, on the banks of the English Channel, everything was ready for the landing. However, on August 27, the emperor received news that the Russian troops had already moved to join the Austrian forces, and that the Austrians were ready for an offensive war against him. Realizing that there was now nothing to dream of landing, Napoleon raised an army and moved it from the shores of the English Channel to the east. The allies did not expect such impetuosity and were taken by surprise.

19. The Ulm disaster

In early October, the corps of Soult, Lannes and Murat's cavalry crossed the Danube and appeared in the rear of the Austrian army. Some of the Austrians managed to escape, but the main mass was thrown by the French into the Ulm fortress. On October 20, the commander-in-chief of the Austrian army, General Mack, surrendered to Napoleon with all his military supplies, artillery and banners. In total, about 60 thousand Austrian soldiers were captured in a short time.

20. Battle of Trafalgar

On October 21, 1805, a naval battle between the English and Franco-Spanish fleets took place at Cape Trafalgar near Cadiz. The French admiral Villeneuve lined up his ships in one line. However, the wind that day made it difficult for them to move. The English Admiral Nelson, taking advantage of this, moved forward several of the fastest ships, followed by the British fleet in two columns in marching formation. The enemy's chain of ships was broken in several places. Having lost their ranks, they became easy prey for the British. Of the 40 ships, the Allies lost 22, the British - none. But during the battle, Admiral Nelson himself was mortally wounded. After the Trafalgar defeat, the dominance of the English fleet at sea became overwhelming. Napoleon had to forever abandon plans for crossing the English Channel and for a war on English territory.

21. Battle of Austerlitz

On November 13, the French entered Vienna, crossed to the left bank of the Danube and attacked Kutuzov's Russian army. With heavy rearguard battles, having lost up to 12 thousand people, Kutuzov retreated to Olmutz, where the emperors Alexander I and Franz I were located and where their main forces were preparing to take battle. On December 2, a general battle took place in the hilly area around the Prazen Heights, west of the village of Austerlitz. Napoleon foresaw that the Russians and Austrians would try to cut him off from the road to Vienna and from the Danube, in order to surround him or drive him north into the mountains. Therefore, he seemed to leave this part of his positions without cover and protection and deliberately pushed back his right flank, placing Davout's corps on it. As the direction of his main blow, the emperor chose the Pratzen Heights, opposite which he concentrated two-thirds of all his forces: the corps of Soult, Bernadotte and Murat. At dawn, the Allies launched an offensive against the French right flank, but met stubborn resistance from Davout. Emperor Alexander, by his order, sent to the aid of the attackers the Kolovrat corps located on the Prazen Heights. Then the French went on the offensive and delivered a powerful blow to the center of the enemy position. Two hours later, the Pratsen Heights were captured. Deploying batteries on them, Napoleon opened deadly fire on the flanks and rear of the allied forces, which began to retreat in disorder across Lake Zachan. Many Russians were killed by canister shot or drowned in ponds, others surrendered.

22. Schönbrunn Treaty. Franco-Prussian Union

On December 15, a treaty of alliance between France and Prussia was concluded in Schönbrunn, according to which Napoleon ceded Hanover, taken from Great Britain, to Frederick William III. For the patriots, this agreement seemed offensive. Indeed, the acceptance of Hanover from the hands of the enemy of Germany, while most Germans mourned the defeat at Austerlitz, looked unseemly.

23. The world of Presburg. Collapse of the Third Coalition

On December 26, in Pressburg, a peace treaty was signed between France and Austria. Franz I ceded the Venetian region, Istria and Dalmatia to the Italian Kingdom. In addition, Austria was deprived of all its possessions in southwestern Germany and Tyrol in favor of Napoleon's allies (the former were divided between Baden and Württemberg, the latter annexed to Bavaria). Emperor Franz recognized the titles of kings for the sovereigns of Bavaria and Württemberg.

24. French influence in Germany

Close rapprochement with France entailed major changes in internal relations in Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and other states - the elimination of medieval zemstvo ranks, the abolition of many noble privileges, the facilitation of the plight of the peasants, increased religious tolerance, the restriction of the power of the clergy, the destruction of the mass of monasteries, various kinds of administrative , judicial, financial, military and educational reforms, the introduction of the code of Napoleon.

25. Expulsion of the Bourbons from Naples. Joseph Bonaparte

After the conclusion of the Peace of Presburg, King Fernando IV of Naples fled to Sicily under the protection of the English fleet. In February 1806, the French army invaded southern Italy. In March Napoleon, by his decree, deposed the Neapolitan Bourbons and transferred the crown of Naples to his brother Joseph Bonaparte (1806-1808).

26. Dutch kingdom. Louis Bonaparte

On June 5, 1806, Napoleon abolished the Batavian Republic and announced the creation of the Dutch Kingdom. He proclaimed his younger brother Louis Bonaparte (1806-1810) king. Against expectations, Louis turned out to be a good sovereign. Having settled in The Hague, he began to take lessons in the Dutch language, and generally took to heart the needs of the people subject to him.

27. Formation of the Rhine Union

The Austerlitz victory made it possible for Napoleon to extend his power to all of western and part of central Germany. On July 12, 1806, sixteen German sovereigns (including Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden) announced their secession from the Holy Roman Empire, signed an agreement on the creation of the Rhine League and elected Napoleon as their protector. In case of war, they pledged to send 63 thousand soldiers to help France. The formation of the union was accompanied by a new mediatization, that is, the subordination of the small immediate (immediate) rulers of the supreme power of the large sovereigns.

28. Liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire

The Confederation of the Rhine made the further existence of the Holy Roman Empire meaningless. On August 6, 1806, Emperor Franz, at the request of Napoleon, renounced the title of Roman emperor and released all members of the empire from the duties imposed on them by the imperial constitution.

29. Cooling Between France and Prussia

The Schönbrunn Treaty did not lead to a rapprochement between France and Prussia. The interests of the two countries constantly clashed in Germany. Napoleon stubbornly interfered with the formation of the "Northern German Union", which Frederick Wilhelm III tried to organize. The fact that, having made an attempt at peace negotiations with Great Britain, Napoleon expressed his readiness to return Hanover to her, also caused considerable annoyance in Berlin.

30. Folding the Fourth Coalition

Great Britain and Russia did not give up their attempts to win over Prussia to their side. Their efforts were soon crowned with success. On June 19 and July 12, secret allied declarations were signed between Russia and Prussia. In the fall of 1806, the Fourth Anti-French Coalition was formed consisting of Great Britain, Sweden, Prussia, Saxony and Russia.

31. The beginning of the Russian-Prussian-French war of 1806-1807.

Every day the party of the war in Prussia grew in number. Prompted by her, the king dared to take decisive action. On October 1, 1806, he turned to Napoleon with an arrogant ultimatum, in which he ordered him to withdraw his troops from Germany. Napoleon rejected all the demands of Friedrich Wilhelm, and on October 6, the war began. The moment for her was extremely poorly chosen, since Russia had not yet had time to transfer its troops to the west. Prussia found itself alone with the enemy, and the emperor took full advantage of his position.

32.Battles of Jena and Auerstedt

On October 8, 1806, Napoleon gave the order to invade the allied Prussia of Saxony. On October 14, the main forces of the French army attacked the Prussians and Saxons near Jena. The Germans stubbornly defended themselves, but, in the end, they were overturned and fled. At the same time, Marshal Davout at Auerstedt defeated another Prussian army under the command of the Duke of Braunschweig. When the news of this double defeat spread, the panic and disintegration in the Prussian army became complete. No one thought about resistance anymore, and everyone fled in front of the rapidly advancing Napoleon. First-class fortresses, abundantly equipped with everything necessary for a long siege, surrendered at the first demand of the French marshals. On October 27, Napoleon entered Berlin solemnly. On November 8, the last Prussian fortress, Magdeburg, surrendered. The whole campaign against Prussia took exactly one month. Europe, which still remembered the Seven Years' War and the heroic struggle of Frederick II against numerous enemies, was shocked by this lightning massacre.

33. Continental Blockade

Impressed by his triumph, Napoleon signed on November 21 the Berlin decree on the "blockade of the British Isles", which prohibited all trade and all relations with Great Britain. This decree was sent to all states dependent on the empire. However, at first the blockade did not have the consequences for Great Britain that the emperor had hoped for. Complete domination over the ocean opened up a huge market for the American colonies to the British manufacturers. Industrial activity not only did not stop, but continued to develop feverishly.

34. Battles of Pultusk and Preussisch-Eylau

In November 1806, the French, following the retreating Prussians, entered Poland. On the 28th, Murat occupied Warsaw. On December 26, the first major battle with the Russian corps of Bennigsen near Pultusk took place, which ended in vain. Both sides were preparing for a decisive battle. It took place on February 8, 1807 near Preussisch-Eylau. However, a complete victory again did not work - despite the huge losses (about 26 thousand people) Bennigsen retreated in perfect order. Napoleon, having laid down up to 30 thousand of his soldiers, was as far from being successful as last year. The French had to spend a hard winter in a ravaged Poland.

35. Battle of Friedland

The Russo-French War resumed in June 1807 and this time was very short. Napoleon moved to Königsberg. Bennigsen had to rush to protect him and concentrated his troops near the town of Friedland. On June 14, he had to take battle at a very disadvantageous position. The Russians were driven back with huge losses. Almost all of their artillery was in the hands of the French. Bennigsen took his frustrated army to the Niemen and managed to retreat across the river before the French approached. Napoleon stood on the border of the Russian Empire. But he was not yet ready to cross it.

36. Peace of Tilsit

An armistice was signed on June 19. On June 25, Napoleon and Alexander I met for the first time on a raft in the middle of the Nemunas, and for about an hour talked face to face in a covered pavilion. Negotiations then continued in Tilsit, and a peace treaty was signed on 7 July. Alexander I was supposed to break off relations with Great Britain and join the continental blockade. He also promised to withdraw his troops from Moldova and Wallachia. The conditions that Napoleon dictated to the Prussian king were much harsher: Prussia lost all its possessions on the western bank of the Elbe (on these lands Napoleon formed the kingdom of Westphalia, assigning it to his brother Jerome; Hanover and the cities of Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck were annexed directly to France) ... She also lost most of the Polish provinces, united in the Duchy of Warsaw, which went into a personal union to the King of Saxony. An exorbitant indemnity was imposed on Prussia. Until its full payment, the occupation troops remained in the country. It was one of the harshest peace treaties ever negotiated by Napoleon.

37. The beginning of the Anglo-Danish war of 1807-1814.

After the conclusion of the Peace of Tilsit, a persistent rumor appeared that Denmark was ready to enter the war on the side of Napoleon. In view of this, the British government demanded that the Danes transfer their navy as a "deposit" to the British government. Denmark refused. Then on August 14, 1807, an English landing landed near Copenhagen. The Danish capital was blocked by land and sea. On September 2, a brutal bombardment of the city began (in three days, 14 thousand gun and rocket volleys were made; the city burned out by a third, 2000 civilians died). On September 7, the Copenhagen garrison laid down its arms. The British captured the entire Danish navy, but the Danish government refused to surrender and turned to France for help. At the end of October 1807, a Franco-Danish military alliance was concluded, and Denmark officially joined the continental blockade.

38. The beginning of the Franco-Spanish-Portuguese war 1807-1808.

Having finished with Russia and Prussia, Napoleon demanded from Portugal that she also join the continental blockade. Prince Regent João (who actually ruled the country from 1792 after his mother Queen Mary I began to show signs of insanity) refused. This was the reason for the start of the war. Portugal was invaded by the French corps of General Junot, supported by Spanish troops. On November 29, Junot entered Lisbon without a fight. Two days earlier, Prince Regent João left the capital and sailed to Brazil. The whole country was ruled by the French.

39. The beginning of the Anglo-Russian war of 1807-1812.

On November 7, 1807, Russia declared war on Great Britain, forced to this step by the terms of the Treaty of Tilsit. Although formally the war lasted five years, there were no real military actions between the adversaries. Great Britain's ally Sweden suffered much more from this war.

40. The beginning of the Russian-Swedish war 1808-1809.

Having joined the Fourth Coalition in April 1805, the Swedish king Gustav IV Adolf (1792-1809) held firmly to the alliance with Great Britain. Thus, after the conclusion of the Tilsit Peace Treaty, he found himself in a camp hostile to Russia. This circumstance gave Alexander I a convenient excuse to take Finland away from Sweden. On February 18, 1808, Russian troops suddenly captured Helsingfors. Svartholm was occupied in March. On April 26, after the siege, Sveaborg surrendered. But then (largely thanks to the bold attacks of the Finnish partisans) the Russian troops began to suffer defeat. The war became protracted.

41. Aranjuez performance. Abdication of Charles IV

Under the pretext of military action against Portugal, Napoleon sent more and more troops to Spain. The almighty favorite of the Queen, Godoy, surrendered San Sebastian, Pamplona and Barcelona to the French. In March 1808 Murat approached Madrid. On the night of 17-18 March in the city of Aranjuez, where the Spanish court was located, an uprising broke out against the king and Godoy. It soon spread to Madrid. On March 19, Godoy resigned, and Charles abdicated in favor of his son Fernando VII, who was considered the leader of the patriotic party. On March 23rd Madrid was occupied by the French.

Napoleon did not recognize the coup that had taken place in Spain. He summoned Charles IV and Fernando VII to France, ostensibly to settle the issue of succession to the throne. In Madrid, meanwhile, a rumor spread that Murat intended to take out of Spain the last heir to the king, the Infante Francisco. This was the reason for the uprising. On May 2, the townspeople led by patriotic officers opposed 25 thousand. French garrison. Fierce street fighting continued throughout the day. By the morning of May 3, the uprising was suppressed by the French, but news of it rocked the whole of Spain.

43. Deposition of Fernando VII. King of Spain Joseph

Meanwhile, the worst fears of the Spanish patriots have come true. On May 5, in Bayonne, Charles IV and Fernando VII, under pressure from Napoleon, abdicated in his favor from the throne. On May 10, Napoleon proclaimed his brother Joseph (1808-1813) King of Spain. However, even before his arrival in Madrid, a powerful war of liberation broke out in the country.

44.Byonne Constitution of 1808

To reconcile the Spaniards with the accomplished coup, Napoleon granted them a constitution. Spain was declared a constitutional monarchy with a Senate, Council of State and Cortes. Of the 172 deputies of the Cortes, 80 were appointed by the king. The rights of the Cortes were not precisely established. The constitution limited the primacy, abolished internal customs and established a unified tax system; eliminated feudal legal proceedings, introduced a unified civil and criminal legislation for Spain and its colonies.

45. Accession of Tuscany to France

After the death of King Luigi I (1801-1803) in May 1803, Etruria was ruled by his widow Queen Maria Luisa, daughter of King Charles IV of Spain, for four years. On December 20, 1807, the kingdom was liquidated. On May 29, 1808, Etruria, which was returned to its former name Tuscany, was annexed to the French Empire. In March 1809, the administration of this area was entrusted to Napoleon's sister Princess Elise Baciocchi, who received the title of Grand Duchess of Tuscany.

46. ​​National uprising in Spain

It seemed that with the accession of Joseph Bonaparte, the conquest of Spain was over. But in fact, everything was just beginning. After the suppression of the May uprising, the French constantly encountered in this country countless, almost daily manifestations of the most violent fanatical hatred. In June 1808, a powerful uprising began in Andalusia and Galicia. General Dupont, moved against the rebels, but was surrounded by them and on July 20 surrendered along with his entire detachment near Baylen. The impression made by this event on the conquered countries was enormous. On July 31, the French left Madrid.

47. The landing of the British in Portugal. Battle of Vimeiro

In June 1808, an uprising broke out in Portugal. On June 19, the Supreme Government Junta was established in Porto. In August, British troops landed in Portugal. On August 21, the English General Wellesley (the future Duke of Wellington) defeated the French Governor-General of Portugal Junot at Vimeiro. On August 30, Junot signed an agreement in Sintra to evacuate all French troops from Portuguese territory. The British occupied Lisbon

48. Murat on the Neapolitan throne

After Joseph Bonaparte moved to Spain, Napoleon on August 1, 1808 proclaimed his son-in-law Marshal Joachim Murat (1808-1815) king of Naples.

49. Erfurt meeting of Napoleon and Alexander I

September 27 - October 14, 1808 in Erfurt, negotiations were held between the French and Russian emperors. Alexander firmly and decisively expressed his demands to Napoleon. Under his pressure, Napoleon abandoned plans to restore Poland, promised not to interfere in affairs Danube principalities, agreed to join Finland to Russia. In return, Alexander pledged to support France against Austria and forged an offensive alliance against Britain. As a result, both emperors achieved their goals, but at the same time made such concessions that they could not and did not want to excuse each other.

50. Hike of Napoleon to Spain. French victories

In the fall of 1808, all of southern Spain was engulfed in rebellion fire. A real rebel army was formed here, armed with British weapons. The French retained control only over the northern part of the country up to the Ebro River. Napoleon gathered an army of 100,000 and personally led it beyond the Pyrenees. On November 10, he inflicted a crushing defeat on the Spaniards at Burgos. On December 4, the French entered Madrid. On January 16, 1809, Marshal Soult defeated General Moore's English expeditionary force at La Coruña. But the resistance did not weaken. For several months Zaragoza stubbornly repelled all attacks of the French. Finally, in February 1809, Marshal Lann entered the city over the bodies of its defenders, but after that, for another three weeks, there were stubborn battles for literally every house. The brutalized soldiers had to kill everyone indiscriminately - women, children and the elderly. Looking out over the streets littered with corpses, Lann said: "Such a victory brings only sadness!".

51. Russian offensive in Finland

By November 1808, the Russian army had occupied all of Finland. March 2, 1809, advancing on the ice of the frozen Botanical Bay, General Bagration captured the Aland Islands. Another Russian detachment under the command of Barclay de Tolly crossed the bay at Kvarken. After that, the Åland armistice was concluded.

52. Fifth Coalition

In the spring of 1809, the British managed to put together a new anti-French coalition. In addition to Great Britain and the rebel Spanish army, Austria joined it.

53. Austro-French War of 1809

On April 9, the Austrian army under the command of Archduke Charles invaded Bavaria from Bohemia. On April 19-23, great battles took place at Abensberg, Eckmühl and Regensburg. Having lost about 45 thousand people in them, Charles retreated to the left bank of the Danube. Pursuing the enemy, Napoleon occupied Vienna on May 13 and tried to cross the Danube. On May 21-22, a fierce battle took place near the villages of Aspern and Essling, in which the French suffered great damage. Marshal Lann was mortally wounded, among many others. After this defeat, hostilities ceased for a month and a half. Both sides were preparing for a decisive battle. It took place on July 5-6 on the banks of the Danube near the village of Wagram. Archduke Charles was defeated, and on July 11, Emperor Franz offered Napoleon an armistice.

54. Liquidation of the papal state by Napoleon

In February 1808, French troops again occupied Rome. On May 17, 1809, Napoleon annexed the papal state to France and declared Rome a free city. Pope Pius VII condemned the “robbers of St. Peter ". In response, on July 5, the French military authorities took the pope to Fontainebleau near Paris.

55. Peace of Friedrichsgam. Finland's accession to Russia

Meanwhile, Russia brought the war with Sweden to victory. On May 20, 1809, the Swedes were defeated at Umeå. After that fighting were sluggish. On September 5 (17), a peace treaty was signed in Friedrichsgam. Sweden ceded Finland and the Aland Islands to Russia. She had to break the alliance with Great Britain and join the continental blockade.

56. Schönbrunn world. End of the Fifth Coalition

On October 14, 1809, a peace treaty was signed between Austria and France in Schönbrunn. Austria ceded Salzburg and some neighboring lands - in favor of Bavaria, Western Galicia, Krakow and Lublin - in favor of the Duchy of Warsaw, Eastern Galicia (Tarnopolsky district) - in favor of Russia. Western Carinthia, Carinthia, Gorizia, Istria, Dalmatia and Ragusa, torn away from Austria, formed the autonomous Illyrian provinces under the supreme rule of Napoleon.

57. Marriage of Napoleon to Maria Louise

On April 1, 1810, Napoleon married the eldest daughter of Emperor Franz I, Marie Louise, after which Austria became France's closest ally.

58. Accession of the Netherlands to France

The attitude of King Louis Bonaparte to the continental blockade has always remained sharply negative, since it threatened the Netherlands with a terrible decline and desolation. Louis closed his eyes for a long time to the flourishing smuggling, despite the severe reprimands of his brother. Then on June 9, 1810, Napoleon announced the incorporation of the kingdom into the French Empire. The Netherlands was divided into nine French departments, and suffered severely from submission to the Napoleonic regime.

59. Election of Bernadotte heir to the Swedish throne

Since the Swedish king Charles XIII was old and childless, the Riksdag deputies were concerned about the election of the heir to the throne. After some hesitation, they settled on the French Marshal Bernadotte. (In 1806, during the war in Northern Germany, more than a thousand Swedes were taken prisoner to Bernadotte, who commanded one of the imperial corps; he treated them with emphasized attention; the Swedish officers were received by the marshal with such courtesy that later on this learned all over Sweden). On August 21, 1810, the Riksdag elected Bernadotte as crown prince. He converted to Lutheranism and, upon his arrival in Sweden on November 5, was adopted by Charles XIII. Later, due to illness (dementia), the king withdrew from public affairs, entrusting them to his stepson. The choice of the Riksdag was very successful. Although Karl Johan (as they now began to call Bernadotte) did not learn to speak Swedish until his death, he was very good at defending Swedish interests. While most of his subjects dreamed of returning Finland, captured by Russia, he set himself the goal of acquiring Danish Norway and began to methodically strive for it.

60. Fighting in 1809-1811. in the Iberian Peninsula

On July 28, 1809, General Wellesley's English army, with the support of the Spanish and Portuguese, had a fierce battle with the French at Talavera de la Reina. Success was on the side of the British (Wellesley received the title of Viscount of Talawer and Lord Wellington for this victory). Then the stubborn war went on with varying success. On November 12, 1809, Marshal Soult defeated the Anglo-Portuguese and Spanish forces at Ocania. In January 1810, he took Seville and laid siege to Cadiz, although he could not capture the city. In the same year, Marshal Massena invaded Portugal, but was defeated on September 27, 1810 by Wellington at Vusaco. In March 1811, Soult captured the strong fortress of Badajoz, which guarded the road to Portugal, and on May 16, 1811, was defeated by the British and Portuguese at Albuer.

61. The maturing of a new Franco-Russian war

Already in January 1811 Napoleon began to think seriously about the war with Russia. This, among other things, was prompted by the new customs tariff introduced by Alexander I in 1810 and imposing high duties on French imports. Then Alexander allowed the ships of neutral countries to sell their goods in his ports, which nullified all the huge costs of Napoleon to maintain the continental blockade. Added to this were the constant clashes of interests of the two powers in Poland, Germany and Turkey. On February 24, 1812, Napoleon concluded an allied treaty with Prussia, which was supposed to send 20 thousand soldiers against Russia. On March 14, a military alliance was concluded with Austria, according to which the Austrians pledged to send 30 thousand soldiers against Russia.

62. Napoleon's invasion of Russia

The Patriotic War of 1812 began on June 12 (24) with the passage of the French army across the Niemen. At that time, about 450 thousand soldiers were directly subordinate to Napoleon (another 140 thousand arrived in Russia later). Russian troops (about 220 thousand) under the command of Barclay de Tolly were divided into three independent armies (1st - under the command of Barclay himself, 2nd - Bagration, 3rd - Tormasov). The emperor hoped to separate them, surround and destroy each one separately. Trying to avoid this, Barclay and Bagration began to hastily retreat inland. On August 3 (15), they successfully united near Smolensk. 4 (16) August Napoleon pulled the main forces to this city and began its assault. For two days the Russians fiercely defended Smolensk, but on the evening of 5 (17) Barclay ordered to continue the retreat.

63. Peace of Erebru

On July 18, 1812, in the city of Orebro (Sweden), Great Britain and Russia signed a peace treaty that ended the Anglo-Russian war of 1807-1812.

64. Kutuzov. battle of Borodino

On August 8 (20), Alexander gave the main command over the army to General Kutuzov. (On September 11, he was promoted to field marshal). On August 23 (September 4), Napoleon was informed that Kutuzov had taken up a position near the village of Borodino, and his rearguard was protecting the fortified redoubt near the village of Shevardino. On August 24 (September 5), the French drove the Russians out of Shevardino and began to prepare for a general battle. At Borodino, Kutuzov had 120 thousand soldiers with 640 guns. Its position was 8 kilometers long. Its center rested on the Kurgan Heights. Flushes were raised on the left flank. Having examined the Russian fortifications, Napoleon, who by this time had 135 thousand soldiers with 587 guns, decided to strike the main blow in the area of ​​the flush, break through the position of the Russian army here and go to its rear. In this direction, he concentrated the corps of Murat, Davout, Ney, Junot and the guard (a total of 86 thousand with 400 guns). The battle began at dawn on August 26 (September 7). Beauharnais launched a diversionary attack on Borodino. At six in the morning, Davout began an assault on the flushes, but, despite the triple superiority in forces, he was repulsed. At seven in the morning, the attack was repeated. The French took the left flush, but were again repulsed and driven back. Then Napoleon brought the corps of Ney, Junot and Murat into battle. Kutuzov also began to transfer reserves and troops to Bagration from the right flank. At eight o'clock in the morning the French broke into the flush for the second time, and were again driven back. Then, before 11 o'clock, four more unsuccessful attacks were made. The deadly fire of Russian batteries from Kurgan Heights inflicted severe damage on the French. By 12 o'clock Napoleon concentrated two-thirds of his army against the left flank of Kutuzov. Only after that did the French finally manage to take possession of the flushes. Bagration, who defended them, was mortally wounded. Building on the success, the emperor transferred his blow to Kurgan Hill, moving 35 thousand soldiers against it. At this critical moment, Kutuzov sent the cavalry corps of Platov and Uvarov around Napoleon's left flank. Fighting off this attack, Napoleon delayed the assault on Kurgan Heights for two hours. Finally, at four o'clock, the Beauharnais corps captured the hill from the third attack. Contrary to expectations, there was no breakthrough in the Russian position. The Russians were only pushed back, but continued to stubbornly defend themselves. Napoleon failed to achieve decisive success in any direction - the enemy retreated, but was not defeated. Napoleon did not want to move the guard into battle and at six o'clock in the evening withdrew the troops to their starting positions. In this unresolved battle, the French lost about 40 thousand people, the Russians - about the same. The next day, Kutuzov refused to continue the battle and retreated further east.

65. Napoleon in Moscow

2 (14) September Napoleon entered Moscow without a fight. The very next day, violent fires broke out in the city. By the evening of September 6 (18), the fire, having destroyed most of the houses, began to weaken. However, from that time on, the French began to experience severe food shortages. Foraging outside the city due to the actions of the Russian partisans also proved to be difficult. Hundreds of horses died a day. Discipline in the army was falling. Meanwhile, Alexander I stubbornly did not want to make peace and was ready to make any sacrifices for the sake of victory. Napoleon decided to leave the burnt-out capital and move the army closer to the western border. The surprise attack by the Russians on October 6 (18) on Murat's corps, which stood in front of the village of Tarutino, finally strengthened him in this decision. The next day, the emperor gave the order to leave Moscow.

66. The retreat of the French

At first, Napoleon intended to retreat along the New Kaluga road through the still not ruined provinces. But Kutuzov prevented this. On October 12 (24), a stubborn battle took place near Maloyaroslavets. The city passed from hand to hand eight times. In the end, he remained with the French, but Kutuzov was ready to continue the battle. Napoleon realized that without a new decisive battle he would not enter Kaluga, and ordered to retreat along the old ruined road to Smolensk. The country was terribly devastated. In addition to an acute shortage of food, Napoleon's army was plagued by severe frosts (winter in 1812 began unusually early). The French were greatly disturbed by the Cossacks and partisans. The morale of the soldier was falling every day. The retreat turned into a real flight. The wounded and sick were no longer paid attention to. Frost, hunger and partisans killed thousands of soldiers. The whole road was littered with corpses. Kutuzov several times attacked the retreating enemies and inflicted heavy damage on them. On November 3-6 (15-18), a bloody battle took place near Krasnoye, which cost Napoleon 33 thousand soldiers.

67. Crossing the Berezina. The death of the "Great Army"

From the very beginning of the French retreat, a plan appeared to encircle Napoleon on the banks of the Berezina. Chichagov's army, approaching from the south, captured the crossing near Borisov. Napoleon ordered to build two new bridges near the village of Studenki. On November 14-15 (26-27), the most combat-ready units managed to move to the western coast. On the evening of 16 (28), the crossing was attacked from both sides by the approaching Russian army. A terrible panic set in. One of the bridges collapsed. Many of those who remained on the eastern bank were killed by the Cossacks. Thousands of others have surrendered. In total, Napoleon lost about 35 thousand people on the Berezina prisoners, wounded, killed, drowned and frozen. However, he himself, his guards and his marshals managed to escape from the trap. The transition from the Berezina to the Neman due to severe frosts, hunger and constant attacks by partisans also turned out to be terribly difficult. As a result, on December 14-15 (26-27), no more than 30 thousand practically unfit soldiers crossed the frozen ice across the Neman - the pitiful remnants of the previous half-million "Great Army".

68. Kalisz union treaty with Prussia. Sixth coalition

The news of the death of the Napoleonic army in Russia caused a patriotic upsurge in Germany. On January 25, 1813, King Frederick Wilhelm III fled from Berlin, occupied by the French, to Breslau and from there secretly sent Field Marshal Knesebek to the headquarters of Alexander I in Kalisz to negotiate an alliance. On February 28, an alliance agreement was signed, which marked the beginning of the Sixth Coalition. On March 27, Frederick Wilhelm declared war on France. The Prussian army was actively involved in hostilities and made a significant contribution to the final victory over Napoleon.

69. Rebirth of the French Army

The Moscow campaign caused irreparable damage to the power of the empire. 100 thousand of Napoleon's soldiers remained in captivity in Russia. Another 400 thousand - the color of his troops - were killed in battles or died in the retreat. However, Napoleon still had colossal resources and did not consider the war to be lost. All the first months of 1813 he worked on the creation and organization of a new army. Two hundred thousand people gave him a call for recruits and the National Guard. Another two hundred thousand did not participate in the Russian campaign - they were garrisoned in France and Germany. Now they were strapped into corps, equipped and supplied with everything necessary. By mid-spring, the grandiose work was completed, and Napoleon left for Erfurt.

70. War in Saxony. Poischwitz truce

Meanwhile, the Russians continued to gain ground. By the end of January 1813, the entire territory of Poland up to the Vistula was cleared of the French. In February - the Russian army reached the banks of the Oder, took Berlin on March 4. The French retreated beyond the Elbe. But the appearance at the front of Napoleon dramatically changed the situation. On May 2, near Lutzen, the Russians and the Prussians suffered their first defeat, losing up to 10 thousand people. The commander of the allied army, Wittgenstein retreated to the Spree at Bautzen. After a stubborn battle on May 20-21, he withdrew even further east beyond the Lebau River. Both sides were very tired. On June 4, by mutual consent, an armistice was concluded in Poischwitz. It lasted until August 10.

71. Expansion of the Sixth Coalition

The Allies spent a two-month respite on active diplomatic contacts with all European countries. As a result, the Sixth Coalition expanded and strengthened significantly. In mid-June, Great Britain pledged to support Russia and Prussia with large subsidies to continue the war. On June 22, the Swedish Crown Prince Bernadotte joined the anti-French alliance, who had previously negotiated Norway for Sweden (since Denmark retained an alliance with Napoleon, this claim met with no objections). But it was much more important to win over to our side Austria, which possessed significant military resources. Emperor Franz I did not immediately dare to break up with his son-in-law. The final choice in favor of the coalition was made only on August 10. On August 12, Austria officially declared war on France.

72. Battles of Dresden, Katzbach, Kulm and Dennewitz

Soon after the resumption of hostilities, on August 26-27, a big battle took place near Dresden. Austrian Field Marshal Schwarzenberg was defeated and retreated. But on the very day of the Battle of Dresden, the Prussian General Blucher defeated Marshal MacDonald's corps on the banks of the Katzbach. On August 30, Barclay de Tolly defeated the French at Culm. Marshal Ney tried to break through to Berlin, but on September 6, he was defeated by Bernadotte at the battle of De Nnevitz.

73. Battle of Leipzig

In mid-October, all the Allied armies met at Leipzig. Napoleon decided not to surrender the city without a fight. On October 16, the Allies attacked the French along the entire front. Napoleon stubbornly defended himself and repelled all attacks. Having lost 30 thousand people each, neither side succeeded. There was no battle on 17 October. The opponents were pulling up reserves and changing positions. But if only 15 thousand people approached Napoleon, then two armies arrived to the allies, totaling 110 thousand. Now they had a great numerical superiority over the enemy. On the morning of October 18, the Allies simultaneously launched an attack from the south, north and east, but the main attack was delivered from the south. In the midst of the battle, the entire Saxon army (reluctantly fighting for Napoleon) suddenly went over to the enemy's side and, deploying its cannons, began to shoot at the French. A little later, the Württemberg and Baden units behaved in the same way. On October 19, the emperor began to retreat. In just three days of fighting, he lost more than 80 thousand people and 325 guns.

74. Expulsion of the French from Germany. Collapse of the Rhine Union

The defeat at Leipzig deprived Napoleon of his last allies. Saxony surrendered. Württemberg and Bavaria joined the Sixth Coalition. The Rhine Union collapsed. When the emperor crossed the Rhine on November 2, he had no more than 40 thousand soldiers left under arms. In addition to Hamburg and Magdeburg, by the beginning of 1814 the garrisons of all French fortresses in Germany surrendered.

75. Liberation of the Netherlands

Shortly after the Battle of Leipzig, the Prussian corps of General Bülow and the Russian corps of Winzingerode were moved against the French garrisons in Belgium and the Netherlands. On November 24, 1813, the Prussians and Cossacks occupied Amsterdam. At the end of November 1813, Prince Willem of Orange (son of the stadtholder Willem V) landed in Scheveningen. On December 2, he arrived in Amsterdam and was proclaimed here sovereign sovereign of the Netherlands.

76. Swedish-Danish war. Kiel Peace Treaties

In December 1813, Crown Prince Bernadotte, at the head of Swedish troops, invaded Holstein, Denmark. On December 7, in the battle of Bornhoved (south of Kiel), the Swedish cavalry forced the Danish troops to retreat. On January 14, 1814, the Danish king Frederick VI (1808-1839) concluded peace treaties with Sweden and Great Britain in Kiel. The Anglo-Danish Treaty officially ended the Anglo-Danish War of 1807-1814. Under the Swedish-Danish treaty, Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden, and in return received the island of Rügen and the right to Swedish Pomerania. The Norwegians themselves categorically refused to recognize this agreement.

77. Liberation of Spain

In April 1812 Wellington took Badajoz. On July 23, the British and Spanish partisans under the command of Empesinado defeated the French at the Battle of Arapiles (near Salamanca). On August 12, Wellington and Empesinado entered Madrid (in November 1812, the French returned the Spanish capital, but at the beginning of 1813 they were finally expelled from it). On June 21, 1813, the French gave the enemy a stubborn battle at Vittoria and retreated, abandoning all their artillery. By December 1813, the main forces of the French army had been driven out of Spain.

78. War in France. Fall of Paris

In January 1814, the Allies crossed the Rhine. The 200-thousandth army of his opponents, Napoleon could oppose no more than 70 thousand soldiers. But he fought with desperate tenacity and managed in a whole series of small battles to inflict tangible damage on the armies of Schwarzenberg and Blucher. However, it was no longer in his power to turn the tide of the company. In early March, Napoleon was pushed back to Saint-Dizier. Taking advantage of this, the allied armies approached Paris and on March 25 defeated at Fer-Champenoise the corps of Marshals Marmont and Mortier, left by the emperor to protect the capital. On the morning of March 30, fierce fighting began in the suburbs. They were stopped by Marmont and Mortier, who agreed to surrender the city without a fight. On March 31, Paris surrendered.

79. The abdication of Napoleon and the restoration of the Bourbons in France

In early April, the French Senate issued a decree overthrowing Napoleon and established a provisional government. On April 6, the emperor at Fonteblo abdicated the throne. On the same day, the Senate proclaimed Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI, who was executed in 1793, as king. Napoleon himself set off on April 20 for an honorary exile to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean. On April 24, Louis landed at Calais and went to the Castle of Saint-Ouen. Here he negotiated with a deputation of the Senate and concluded a compromise agreement with her on the transfer of power. They agreed that the Bourbons will reign over France on the basis of Divine Right, but they grant their subjects a Charter (Constitution). All executive power was to remain in the hands of the king, and he agreed to share the legislative with a bicameral parliament. On May 3, Louis made a ceremonial entry into Paris, accompanied by bells ringing and a cannon salute.

80. War in Lombardy. Murat and Beauharnais

In the summer of 1813, 50 thousand people entered Italy. Austrian army. She was opposed by 45 thousand. army of the Viceroy of Italy Eugene de Beauharnais. However, until the end of the year, no serious events took place on this front. On January 8, 1814, the King of Naples, Joachim Murat, went over to the groan of the Sixth Coalition. On January 19, he occupied Rome, then Florence and Tuscany. However, Murat acted sluggishly, and his entry into the war did little to help the Austrians. Upon learning of Napoleon's abdication, Beauharnais wanted to be crowned Italian king himself. The Italian Senate strongly opposed this. On April 20, an uprising broke out in Milan, raised by the liberals and disorganizing the entire defense of the Viceroy. On April 24, Beauharnais made peace with the Austrians in Mantua, handed over Northern Italy to them, and he himself left for Bavaria. Lombardy returned to Austrian rule. In May Murat withdrew his troops back to Naples.

81. Restoration of the Savoy dynasty

In May 1814, King Victor Emmanuel I (1802-1821) of Sardinia returned to Turin. The next day after the restoration, the king promulgated an edict that abolished all French institutions and laws, returned noble positions, positions in the army, feudal rights and the payment of tithes.

82. Paris Peace Treaty of 1814

On May 30, 1814, a peace was signed between the members of the Sixth Coalition and Louis XVIII, who returned from emigration, which returned France to the borders of 1792. It was specifically stipulated that all the details of the post-war structure of Europe would be discussed in two months at the Vienna Congress.

83. Swedish-Norwegian War. The Mosse Agreement

Sweden's allies in the Sixth Coalition did not recognize the independence of Norway. With their approval, on July 30, 1814, Crown Prince Bernadotte began a war against the Norwegians. On August 4, the Fredriksten fortress was taken. The Norwegian fleet was blocked in the Oslofjord. This was the end of the fighting. On August 14, in Moss, a truce and a convention were concluded between the Norwegians and the Swedes, according to which Bernadotte promised to respect the Norwegian constitution, and the Norwegians agreed to elect the Swedish king to the Norwegian throne.

84. Opening of the Vienna Congress

In September 1814, the coalition allies gathered in Vienna to discuss the postwar structure of Europe.

85. Swedish-Norwegian Union

On November 4, 1814, the Storting adopted the amended Norwegian constitution. The king's military and foreign policy powers were limited, but the foreign policy of the united kingdoms fell entirely under the jurisdiction of the Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The king received the right to appoint a governor to Norway, who represented the absent monarch. On the same day, the Storting elected King Charles XIII of Sweden as king of Norway.

86. France after restoration

Few of the French sincerely welcomed the restoration, but the Bourbons did not meet with organized opposition. But the nobles who returned from emigration caused strong indignation. Many of them were tough and irreconcilable. The Royalists demanded a massive displacement of officials and the dissolution of the army, the restoration of "former liberties", the dispersal of chambers and the abolition of freedom of the press. They also sought the return of the lands sold during the revolution and compensation for the hardships they suffered. In short, they wanted a return to the regime of 1788. The majority of the nation could not agree to such huge concessions. Passions in society were heating up. The irritation in the army was especially great.

87. "One Hundred Days"

Napoleon was well aware of the changing public mood in France and decided to take advantage of this. On February 26, 1815, he put the soldiers he had (there were about 1000 of them in total) on ships, left the Elbe and sailed to the shores of France. On March 1, the detachment landed in the Bay of Juan, from where it moved to Paris. The troops sent against Napoleon, regiment after regiment, went over to the side of the rebels. News came from all sides that cities and entire provinces were gladly surrendering to the rule of the emperor. On March 19, Louis XVIII fled the capital, and the next day Napoleon solemnly entered Paris. The new constitution was published on April 23rd. Compared to the charter of Louis XVIII, the electoral qualification was significantly reduced and more liberal freedoms were given. On May 25, the new chambers opened their sessions, but did not have time to make any important decisions.

88. Hike Murat. Battle of Tolentin

Upon learning of the landing of Napoleon, the King of Naples Murat declared war on Austria on March 18. With an army of 30 thousand, he moved to the north of Italy, occupied Rome, Bologna and a number of other cities. A decisive battle with the Austrians took place on May 2, 1815 at Tolentino. In southern Italy, a rebellion broke out in favor of the former king of Naples, Fernando. Murat's power collapsed. May 19, disguised as a sailor, he fled from Naples to France.

89. Seventh coalition. Battle of Waterloo

All the powers participating in the Congress of Vienna immediately formed the Seventh Coalition against Napoleon. But in reality, only the armies of Prussia, the Netherlands and Great Britain took part in the hostilities. On June 12, Napoleon went to the army to start the last company in his life. On June 16, there was a big battle with the Prussians at Linyi. Having lost 20 thousand soldiers, the Prussian commander-in-chief Blucher retreated. He, however, was not defeated. Napoleon ordered the 36,000-strong Pears corps to pursue the Prussians, and he turned against Wellington's army. The decisive battle took place on June 18, 22 kilometers from Brussels, near the village of Waterloo. At that moment Napoleon had 69 thousand soldiers with 243 guns, Wellington had 72 thousand with 159 guns. The fight was extremely stubborn. For a long time, neither side was successful. Around noon, the vanguard of the Prussian army appeared on the right flank of Napoleon - it was Blucher, who had managed to break away from Grusha and was now rushing to help Wellington. The emperor sent Lobau's corps and guards against the Prussians, and he himself threw his last reserve against the British - 10 battalions of the old guard. However, he failed to break the stubbornness of the enemy. Meanwhile, the onslaught of the Prussians grew ever stronger. Three of their corps (about 30 thousand people) arrived in time, and Blucher, one by one, led them into battle. At about 8 pm Wellington launched a general offensive, and the Prussians finally overturned Napoleon's right flank. The French retreat soon turned into a flight. The battle, and with it the whole company, were hopelessly lost.

90. Napoleon's Second Abdication

On June 21, Napoleon returned to Paris. The next day he abdicated the throne. At first, the emperor intended to flee to America, but realizing that he would never be allowed to escape, on July 15 he went to the English ship "Bellerophon" and surrendered himself into the hands of the victors. It was decided to send him into exile on the remote island of St. Helena. (Napoleon died here in May 1821).

91. Decisions of the Vienna Congress

The congress in the Austrian capital lasted until June 9, 1815, when the representatives of the eight leading powers signed the "Final Act of the Vienna Congress".

According to its terms, Russia received most of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, formed by Napoleon, with Warsaw.

Prussia gave up the Polish lands, retaining only Poznan, but acquired North Saxony, a number of areas on the Rhine (Rhineland), Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen.

Southern Saxony remained under the rule of King Frederick August I.

In Germany, instead of the Holy Roman Empire abolished by Napoleon in 1806, the German Confederation arose, which included 35 monarchies and 4 free cities, under the leadership of Austria.

Austria regained Eastern Galicia, Salzburg, Lombardy, Venice, Tyrol, Trieste, Dalmatia and Illyria; the thrones of Parma and Tuscany were occupied by representatives of the House of Habsburgs.

In Italy, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (which included the island of Sicily and southern Italy), the Papal States, the Duchies of Tuscany, Modena, Parma, Luca and the Kingdom of Sardinia were restored, to which Genoa was handed over and Savoy and Nice were returned.

Switzerland received the status of an eternally neutral state, and its territory expanded at the expense of Wallis, Geneva and Neufchâtel (thus, the number of cantons reached 22). There were no central governing bodies, so Switzerland again turned into a union of small sovereign republics.

Denmark lost Norway, which passed to Sweden, but received Lauenburg and two million thalers for this.

Belgium was annexed to the Kingdom of the Netherlands and came under the rule of the Orange dynasty. Luxembourg also joined this kingdom on the basis of a personal union.

Great Britain secured itself in the Mediterranean Sea - the Ionian Islands and Malta, in the West Indies - the islands of Saint Lucia and Tobago, in the Indian Ocean - the Seychelles and the island of Ceylon, in Africa - the Cape Colony; she achieved a complete ban on the slave trade.

92. "Sacred Union"

At the end of the negotiations, Emperor Alexander I proposed that the Prussian king and the Austrian emperor sign another agreement between themselves, which he called the "Holy Alliance" of the sovereigns. Its essence was that the sovereigns mutually pledged to stay in eternal peace and always "give each other aid, reinforcement and help, and govern their subjects like fathers of families" in the same spirit of brotherhood. The union, according to Alexander, was to become the beginning of a new era for Europe - an era of eternal peace and unity. "There can be no more English, French, Russian, Austrian politics," he said later, "there is only one policy - a common one, which must be adopted by peoples and sovereigns for common happiness ..."

93. Paris Peace Treaty of 1815

On November 20, 1815, a peace treaty was signed in Paris between France and the powers of the Seventh Coalition. According to him, France returned to the borders of 1790, and an indemnity of 700 million francs was imposed on it.

Event, result: In France, there is a military coup on 18 Brumaire. In a total coup, Napoleon came to power in France, taking the post of First Consul of the republic.

Event, result: Napoleon defeats Italian and Austrian forces at the Battle of Marengo. As a result of this battle, the Italian region of Lombardy departs to France.

Event, result: Defeated Austria is forced to cede its lands to Napoleon. The border between states now runs along the Rhine and Ech rivers.

Event, result: The English fleet defeated Napoleon's fleet in the famous Battle of Trafalgar off the coast of Spain

Event, result: Napoleon defeated his opponents from the Third Coalition at the legendary Battle of Austerlitz. In it, the Russian Empire and Austria-Hungary opposed Napoleon. The battle is called in history "the battle of the three emperors"

Event, result: A toy Union of the Rhine was created, with which Napoleon “crushed” Germany. He received the right to keep his troops there and to direct German affairs from France.

Event, result: Joined with troops in Warsaw (Poland)

Event, result: The Peace of Tilsit was concluded, which fully consolidated the rule of Napoleon in Germany, and now in Poland

The date: February 1808

Event, result: Napoleon's troops occupied the "eternal city" Rome and annexed it to the possessions of their commander

Event, result: He defeated the troops of the Austrian emperor, who, after so many years, did not want to surrender, at the battle of Wagram

The date: July 1810

Event, result: Napoleon annexed Holland to France

Event, result: Napoleon attacked Russia. His troops crossed the border river Neman without any declaration of war.

Event, result: Battle for Smolensk. The beginning of a nationwide war against the invader. Smolensk was taken by Napoleon only with great efforts.

Event, result: The battle at the Borodino field near Moscow. Huge losses of both armies. Actual draw.

Event, result: Commander-in-Chief Mikhail Kutuzov decided to surrender Moscow to Napoleon. Bonaparte enters the city with an army. But there is no food in the city and it was set on fire by the retreating ones.

Event, result: Bonaparte and the French are leaving the burnt empty Moscow, which has become unnecessary for them. The retreat of the French begins through half of Russia back to Europe. Bonaparte's army suffers severely from malnutrition, surprise attacks by Kutuzov's army, partisans and bad weather.

Event, result: Battle of the Berezina. Napoleon throws into the will of the enemy 21 thousand (more than half of the army) of his soldiers at the crossing over the Berezina River, ordering to burn the bridges. And goes to the border.

Event, result: Bonaparte returns to Europe with nothing. Less than 10 percent of his soldiers are with him. The French army thrown by him almost all died in the Russian snows from frost and hunger. France is seething with indignation. Napoleon's authority has been destroyed.

Event, result: The Battle of Waterloo with the Seventh Coalition of European Powers, where Russia was not involved. Complete defeat of Bonaparte.

Event, result: The Paris Peace Treaty has been signed in Europe. In France, following its results, the royal throne was returned to the earlier reigning Bourbon dynasty. Bonaparte is forced to leave for exile on the remote island of St. Elena. Where he died later.

Almost the entire Napoleonic era passed for France in wars with the European powers, of which the most stubborn enemy was England, which formed several coalitions against France (Table 1). These wars were very successful for the French in the first ten years, thanks to them France became a powerful power. Most of Western Europe recognized French rule over itself. Moreover, some lands and states became part of France, others became the personal possessions of Napoleon and his relatives, others recognized his supremacy over themselves and pledged to obey his demands.

In 1800 Napoleon set out on his second Italian campaign. The French won a brilliant victory at the Battle of Marengo, forcing Austria to withdraw from the war. In 1801, the Peace of Luneville was concluded, according to which Austria was completely ousted from Italy and recognized the borders of France along the Rhine. In 1802, peace was signed with England in Amiens. France regained its possessions in the West Indies, but withdrew from Egypt. Thus ended a series of wars with the second French coalition.

Anti-French coalitions during the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars

Table 1

The situation with England was much more complicated. In 1805, the third anti-French coalition was formed, which included England, Austria, Russia and the Kingdom of Naples. England was the core of the coalition, and Napoleon set out to inflict the main blow on it. Preparations for the invasion army began. However, in naval battle at Cape Trafalgar off the coast of Andalusia, an English squadron under the command of Admiral Nelson inflicted a serious defeat on the combined Franco-Spanish fleet. France lost the war at sea.

Napoleon, seeking to strengthen his position in the center of Europe, defeated the Austrian and Russian armies at Austerlitz. Austria was forced to withdraw from the coalition, and made peace with France in Presburg (1805), having ceded part of its possessions in West Germany, Tyrol and the Venetian region with the Adriatic coast.

After that, Napoleon carried out transformations that affirmed French and his personal dominance in Europe. He annexed Tuscany and Piedmont directly to France, the Venetian region to his Italian kingdom. He declared his elder brother Joseph the king of Naples. The Batavian Republic was turned into the Dutch kingdom, the throne of which was given to another brother of Napoleon - Louis Bonaparte.

Major changes have been made in Germany. On the site of numerous German states, the Union of Rhine was formed (1806), the protector of which was Napoleon himself. This meant, in fact, the establishment of French power over a significant part of Germany.

In the occupied territories, reforms were carried out, serfdom was abolished, and the Napoleonic Civil Code was introduced.

By establishing the Confederation of the Rhine, Napoleon hurt the interests of Prussia, which in 1806 joined the coalition against France.

In the same year, the Prussian and Russian troops, which had already formed the fourth coalition against Napoleon, were defeated. Prussian troops were defeated in one day in two great battles: at Jena by Napoleon himself and at Auerstedt by his marshal Davout. Within ten days, the entire western half of Prussia with the capital Berlin was occupied by the French. Since Prussia was unable to continue the war, the Russians were left without an ally. With them, Napoleon fought several battles, which ended in the complete defeat of the Russian army at Friedland. This war ended with the signing in 1807 of the Tilsit Peace Treaty, which was concluded at a personal meeting of the emperors Alexander I and Napoleon in a floating pavilion on the river. Neman. Under the terms of this peace, Napoleon "out of respect for the All-Russian Emperor" and out of "mercy" spared Prussia's independence, taking from her only the lands between the Elbe and the Rhine and the Polish regions acquired by Prussia through two partitions of Poland. From the lands taken from Prussia, the Kingdom of Westfalskos was formed, which he gave to his younger brother Jerome, as well as the Duchy of Warsaw.

Russia was obliged to enter into a continental blockade against England, which began in 1806. According to Napoleon's decree, trade with England was prohibited throughout the empire and in countries dependent on it.

The continental blockade, the purpose of which was to inflict maximum damage on English trade, put France itself in a quandary. It is for this reason that Napoleon carried out the seizure of Portugal in 1807. For Portugal, as a predominantly coastal country, the termination of trade with England was very unprofitable. When Napoleon in an ultimatum demanded that the country join the blockade, he was refused. Portuguese ports remained open to British ships. In response, Napoleon sent his troops to Portugal. The Portuguese House of Braganza was stripped of the throne, and its representatives left the country. A long-term war began, during which British troops arrived to the aid of the Portuguese.

In 1808 France invaded Spain. The Spanish king from the Bourbon dynasty was overthrown, in his place Napoleon put his brother Joseph (Joseph) on the throne. However, the Spanish people launched a guerrilla war against Napoleonic troops. Napoleon himself went to Spain, but he also failed to completely suppress popular resistance. The war in Spain was continued with varying success by its marshals and generals, until in 1812 the French were expelled from Spain by the combined forces of the British, Spanish and Portuguese.

Back in 1808, under the pretext of non-observance by the Papal region of the continental blockade, the emperor sent troops into the Papal region and issued a decree according to which the Pope was deprived of secular power and was transported to live in France. The ecclesiastical area was annexed to France, and Rome was declared the second city of the empire. Therefore, Napoleon gave his son, born in 1811, the title of Roman king.

Austria decided to take advantage of Napoleon's predicament on the Iberian Peninsula. In 1809, together with Great Britain, she formed the fifth anti-French coalition and declared war on Napoleon. During the hostilities, French troops occupied Vienna. In the battle of Wagram, the Austrians were defeated and were forced to sign a peace treaty that was difficult for them. Austria lost a number of territories: Galicia, annexed to the Duchy of Warsaw, the Adriatic coast (Illyria, Dalmatia, Rauza), which, under the name of the Illyrian province, became part of Napoleon's own possessions, Salzburg with neighboring lands, which became part of Bavaria. This world was sealed by Napoleon's marriage to the daughter of the Austrian Emperor Franz II, Marie-Louise.

The completion of all the conquests of Bonaparte was the annexation to France of Holland, taken from King Louis for non-compliance with the continental blockade, and the entire German coast between the Rhine and the Elbe.

By 1810 Napoleon had achieved extraordinary power and glory. France now consisted of 130 departments instead of 83. It included Belgium, Holland, Northern Germany to the Elbe, West Germany to the Rhine, part of Switzerland, Piedmont with Genoa, Tuscany and the Papal States. Napoleon personally owned the Kingdom of Italy with the Venetian region and the Illyrian province. His two brothers and a son-in-law owned three kingdoms (Spanish, Westphalian and Neapolitan) and were subordinate to him. The entire Confederation of the Rhine, which included most of central Germany and the Duchy of Warsaw, was under his protectorate.

However, for all the apparent power, the country was going through an internal crisis. Severe crop failures followed for two years in a row. The continental blockade caused a decline in trade and industry.

In France, dissatisfaction with the continuous wars and conscriptions grew. Society is tired of constant turmoil. The finances were in disarray, the economy was working to the limit. It was obvious that France needed to stop its expansion.

Relations with the conquered countries were also difficult. On the one hand, the French authorities were carrying out bourgeois reforms. On the other hand, Napoleonic levies and indemnities were a heavy burden for the peoples of the conquered countries. The "blood tax" was especially painful (tens of thousands of soldiers were supplied to the army of the emperor). The rise of French influence and Napoleon's desire to unify Europe according to his own model provoked resistance.

In many countries, secret societies were formed: in Spain and Germany - a society of Freemasons ("free masons"), in Italy - carbonarii ("coal miners"). All of them set the goal of overthrowing French rule.

However, Napoleon persistently sought to establish complete control over the continent. He saw Russia as the main obstacle on this path. Complications in relations with Russia began immediately after the Peace of Tilsit. According to France, Russia did not fulfill the conditions of the continental blockade in good faith. Napoleon's matchmaking to the Russian princess, the sister of Emperor Alexander I, turned out to be unsuccessful. The contradictions between the two powers reached such a level that it became obvious that war could not be avoided.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FEDERAL EDUCATION AGENCY

RUSSIAN FEDERATIONS

GOU VPO "BLAGOVESCHENSKY STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY"

Faculty of History and Philology

Department world history

COURSE WORK

on the topic

Analysis of the era of the Napoleonic wars

Blagoveshchensk

Introduction

1 the personality of Napoleon Bonaparte

2. Napoleonic Wars

2.1 War of the second coalition (1798-1802)

2.2 War of the third coalition (1805)

2.3 War of the fourth coalition (1806-1807)

2.3 War of the Sixth Coalition (1813-1814)

2.4 The capture of Paris and the end of the campaign (March 1814)

3. Results and significance of the Napoleonic wars

Conclusion

List of used sources and literature

Application

INTRODUCTION

The relevance of the topic is due to the rapid development of public international law in connection with the periodically occurring in recent decades, cardinal changes in the international situation. Modern world like Europe during the Napoleonic wars, it is shaken by a series of grandiose events: international conflicts, civil wars, natural, man-made and humanitarian disasters.

The Napoleonic Wars made the whole world shudder. And at the same time, they contributed to the unification of many countries against Napoleonic rule.

A significant number of works have been written on this topic.

The study of the era of Napoleon Bonaparte in Soviet historiography went in two directions. One of the directions was the study of personality and political biography (E.V. Tarle, A.Z. Manfred). The work of E.V. Tarle "Napoleon", was published in 1936. and then underwent more than 10 reprints. E. V. Tarle worked on it for almost 20 years. The main task of the author was “to give a possibly clear picture of the life and work of the French emperor, his characterization as a person, as a historical figure, with his properties, natural data and aspirations. Monograph by E.V. Tarle influenced the formation of views on the history of Europe for many Novist historians, and was simply popular among non-specialists.

A.Z. worked in the same direction. Manfred. In 1971. published his monograph "Napoleon Bonaparte". In the preface to it, he writes that the work of E.V. Tarle had a huge impact on him. However, he considers it necessary to revert to this topic in connection with the fact that the source base has expanded. A.Z. Manfred, for the first time in the history of research on the life of Bonaparte, drew on his literary legacy to study political views. He pays great attention to Napoleon's desire for self-education, his talent as a commander and a man who, in a difficult situation, can lead the masses with him.

From the first direction, gradually towards the end of the 70s. the second stands out, where there was a study of the role in the formation of Bonapartism and the political regime of France during the period of the consulate and empire (D. M. Tugan-Baranovsky).

Currently, the problem of the significance of the Napoleonic wars has been fully investigated. But this does not prevent researchers from finding other approaches to the study of that era. Today's historians are more interested in Napoleon's diplomacy (V.G. Sirotkin), the military history of Napoleonic campaigns (websites and forums dedicated to Bonaparte's army), his psychological state at different periods of his life. The range of methods used in conducting research has significantly expanded due to contacts between Russian and foreign researchers; after the fall of the “Iron Curtain”, it became possible to work in European archives.

The subject of the course covers the time of the Napoleonic wars, namely 1799 -1814. The upper limit is determined by the fact that in 1799. Napoleon came to power in France. In 1814, Napoleon abdicated the throne, the era of the Napoleonic wars ended.

The geographical scope of this work covers the entire territory of Europe.

The purpose of this work is to analyze the era of the Napoleonic wars

Examine Napoleon's personality as a military leader

Describe the wars of the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth coalitions

Reveal the significance of the Napoleonic Wars for France, and for Europe in general.

We can judge about Napoleon's foreign policy by the normative documents of that time, as well as by the problematic works of historians. Thus, it is assumed that it is possible to combine sources into groups. The first group includes the personal works of Napoleon, namely, the composition "17 remarks" on the work entitled "Discourse on the art of war" (Napoleon. Selected works) reflects the personal position of Napoleon on the successes and not successes of his foreign policy.

We will refer to the second group, international treaties of the Napoleonic era. According to the treaty establishing the Rhine League, Napoleon was proclaimed King of Italy ("Protector"). "Protectorate" consisted in the unquestioning fulfillment of the will of the autocratic ruler. As for the Peace of Amiens, it turned out to be only a brief truce. On the whole, this treaty did not infringe on the interests of France. The Treaty of Presburg finally buried the Franco-Russian agreements, strengthened Napoleon's power over Austria and served as Napoleon's first step towards world domination. The creation of the Rhine Union made sixteen German states completely dependent on France, thus expanding Napoleon's sphere of influence over the German principalities.

With the signing of the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807. Napoleon became the complete ruler of Germany, in addition, a continental blockade was created, which caused considerable damage to the economy of England. Those. in general, the treaty was of a pro-Napoleonic character. According to the Schönbrunn Peace Treaty of 1809. Austria actually turned into a state dependent on France. In addition, Prussia pledged to close its ports to England, which is a continuation of the policy of continental blockade by Napoleon. All this undoubtedly strengthens the position of France.

The Paris Peace of May 30, 1814 brilliantly crowned the efforts of England. Napoleon fell, France was humiliated; all the seas, all the harbors and the shores have opened again. When writing term paper these works were used to the fullest.

1. The meteoric rise of Napoleon is due to the "concentration" in one person of genius, ambition, a correct understanding of the situation around him.

2. As a result of continuous wars and conquests, a huge Napoleonic empire was formed, supplemented by a system of states directly or indirectly subject to France.

3. Despite a number of private victories won at the beginning of 1814 by the French army over the Allied troops who entered French territory, it was ultimately defeated.

1. PERSONALITY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE

Napoleon is a French statesman and commander, first consul of the French Republic (1799 - 1804), Emperor of the French (1804 - 14 and March - June 1815). Born on August 15, 1769 in the family of a poor Corsican nobleman, lawyer Carlo Buonaparte, Napoleon's character from early childhood was impatient and restless. “Nothing appealed to me,” he later recalled, “I was prone to quarrels and fights, I was not afraid of anyone. I beat one, scratched the other, and everyone was afraid of me. Most of all, my brother Joseph had to endure for me. I beat and bit him. And he was scolded for this, as it used to be before he came to himself from fear, I would already complain to my mother. My deceit was beneficial to me, because otherwise mother Letizia would have punished me for my pugnacity, she would never have tolerated my attacks! " ... Napoleon grew up as a gloomy and irritable child. His mother loved him, but she gave him and her other children a rather harsh upbringing. They lived frugally, but the family did not feel the need. The father was a man, apparently kind and weak of character. The true head of the family was Letizia, a firm, strict, hardworking woman in whose hands was the upbringing of children. Napoleon inherited his love for work and strict order in affairs from his mother. The atmosphere of this island, secluded from the whole world, with its rather wild population in the mountains and forest thickets, with endless inter-clan clashes, with ancestral blood feuds, with carefully hidden but stubborn enmity towards the French newcomers, strongly influenced the young impressions of little Napoleon. At the age of ten he was placed in the Autun College in France, and then in the same 1779 he was transferred to a state scholarship to the Brienne military school. In 1784 he successfully graduated from college and transferred to the Paris military school (1784 - 85). In February 1785, his father, Carlo Bonaparte, died from the very disease from which Napoleon himself later died: from stomach cancer. The family was left almost without funds. Hope for Napoleon's older brother, Joseph, was bad: he was both incapable and lazy, the 16-year-old cadet took care of his mother, brothers and sisters. After a year at the Paris Military School, on October 30, 1785, he entered the army with the rank of second lieutenant and went to a regiment stationed in the south, in Walesa. Life was difficult for the young officer. (Appendix 1) He sent most of his salary to his mother, leaving himself only for the most meager food, not allowing himself the slightest entertainment. In the same house where he rented a room, there was a second-hand bookseller's shop, and Napoleon began to spend all his free time reading the books that the second-hand bookseller gave him. He was averse to society, and his clothes were so plain that he did not want and could not lead any kind of social life. He read voraciously, with unprecedented greed, filling out his notebooks with notes and synopses. Most of all he was interested in books on military history, mathematics, geography, travel descriptions. He also read philosophers.

Raised on the advanced ideas of the French Enlightenment, a follower of J.J. Rousseau, G. Raynal, Bonaparte received the Great French Revolution with warm approval; in 1792 he joined the Jacobin Club. His activities developed mainly in Corsica. This gradually led Bonaparte into conflict with the Corsican separatists led by Paoli, and in 1793 he was forced to flee Corsica. During a long and unsuccessful siege by the republican army of Toulon, captured by monarchist rebels and British interventionists, Bonaparte proposed his plan to capture the city. December 17, 1793 Toulon was taken by storm. For the capture of Toulon, the 24-year-old captain was promoted to brigadier general. From this time, Bonaparte's rapid ascent began. After a short disgrace and even arrest during the days of the Thermidorian reaction for closeness with O. Robespierre, Napoleon again drew attention - already in Paris - with his energy and decisiveness in suppressing the monarchist revolt of the 13th Vendemier (October 5) 1795. Subsequently, he was appointed commander Parisian garrison and in 1796 - the commander-in-chief of an army created for operations in Italy. [1 p. 45].

In the subsequent military campaigns of Napoleon, the aggressive tendencies intensified. The Campoformian world of 1797 revealed Napoleon's diplomatic ability. He 9-10 November 1799 (18-19 Brumaire VIII) produced coup d'état, who established the regime of the consulate and actually provided him, although not immediately, all the power.

In 1802. Napoleon achieved his appointment as consul for life (Reader on modern history, ed., And on April 18, 1804, the Senate issued a decree giving the first consul, Napoleon Bonaparte, the title of hereditary emperor of the French (Appendix 2) [9 p.130]. , the bourgeois monarchy and give it an external splendor, Napoleon I created a new imperial nobility, a magnificent imperial court, divorced his first wife Josephine and in 1810 married Maria Louise, the daughter of the Austrian emperor Franz I.

The victorious wars with the coalitions of powers, the huge expansion of the empire's territory and the transformation of Napoleon I into the de facto ruler of all Western (except Great Britain) and Central Europe contributed to his extraordinary glory. The fate of Napoleon I, who in 10 years reached unparalleled power, forcing the monarchs of Europe to reckon with his will, seemed inexplicable to many of his contemporaries and gave rise to all sorts of "Napoleonic legends." A man of tremendous personal talent, exceptional efficiency, strong, sober mind and unyielding will, merciless in achieving his goal, Napoleon I was an outstanding representative of the bourgeoisie at the time when it was still a young, rising class; he most fully embodied all the strengths inherent in her then, as well as her vices and shortcomings - aggressiveness, self-interest, adventurism.

In the field of military art, Napoleon I developed and improved what was previously created by the armies of revolutionary France. The merit of Napoleon I was that he found the most expedient, in the given historical conditions, tactical and strategic use of the colossal armed masses, the appearance of which became possible thanks to the revolution.

Napoleon knew the map and knew how to handle the map like no one else, he surpassed his chief of staff and learned cartographer Marshal Berthier in this, surpassed in this all the generals who had thundered in history before him, and at the same time the map never connected him, and when he broke away from it, leaving for the field, inspiring the troops with his appeals, issuing orders, tossing huge thick columns, then here too he found himself in his, that is, in the first and inaccessible place. His orders, his letters to the marshals, some of his sayings still have the meaning of the main treatises on the issue of fortresses, artillery, rear organization, flank movements, detours, about the most diverse subjects of military affairs.

He proved to be a remarkable master of strategy and agile tactics. Fighting against a numerically superior enemy, Napoleon I strove to separate his forces and destroy them piece by piece. His principle was: "to compensate for the numerical weakness by the speed of movements." On the march, Napoleon I led the troops dispersed, but in such a way that they could be assembled at the necessary time at any point. This is how the principle “go separately, fight together” was formed.

Napoleon I perfected the new maneuverable tactics of the columns in combination with the loose formation, based on the clear interaction of various types of troops. He made extensive use of rapid maneuver in order to create superiority in decisive directions, knew how to deliver surprise strikes, carry out rounds and rounds, and increase efforts in decisive sectors of the battle. Considering the defeat of the enemy's forces as his main strategic task, Napoleon always strove to seize the strategic initiative. The main method of defeating the enemy for him was a general engagement. Napoleon strove to develop the success achieved in the general battle by organizing the persistent pursuit of the enemy. Napoleon provided a broad opportunity for initiative to the commanders of units and formations. He knew how to find and promote capable, talented people [8 p. 70].

But the rapid rise of Napoleonic France and the victory of French arms were explained not so much by the personal qualities of Napoleon and his marshals, but by the fact that, in the collision with feudal-absolutist Europe, Napoleonic France represented a historically more progressive, bourgeois social system. This was reflected in the military sphere, where the military leadership of Napoleon had an undoubted advantage over the backward, routine strategy and tactics of the armies of feudal Europe, and in the superiority of the system of bourgeois social relations, boldly introduced in the countries of Western Europe by Napoleonic legislation, over the backward patriarchal-feudal relations. However, over time, the Napoleonic wars lost their earlier (despite their aggressive character) progressive elements and turned into purely aggressive ones. In these conditions, no personal qualities and efforts of Napoleon could bring victory. The Patriotic War of 1812 not only destroyed the "great army" of Napoleon, but also gave a powerful impetus to the national liberation struggle against Napoleonic oppression in Europe. The inevitable defeat of Napoleon under these conditions, completed by the entry of allied troops into Paris (March 1814), forced him to abdicate (April 6, 1814). The victorious allies retained the title of emperor to Napoleon and gave him into the possession of Fr. Elbe. The landing of Napoleon in France (March 1, 1815) and "One Hundred Days" (March 20 - June 22, 1815) of his second reign again showed not only his talent, but to an even greater extent the importance of the social forces behind him. The unprecedented "conquest" in 3 weeks without a single shot of France became possible only because the people considered Napoleon capable of expelling the Bourbons and aristocrats, hated by the masses, from France.

The tragedy of Napoleon was that he did not dare to fully rely on the people who supported him. This led to his defeat at Waterloo and a second abdication (June 22, 1815). Referred to about. St. Helena, he died 6 years later as a prisoner of the British (May 5, 1821).

Thus, the era in which Napoleon Bonaparte lived contributed to his meteoric rise, his brilliant career. Napoleon was certainly a talented person. Having set himself a goal in his distant youth - to achieve power, he walked consistently and patiently towards it, using all his potential. The Great French Revolution, republican wars made it possible for a number of talented, but not noble commanders to rise, including Bonaparte. Napoleon's meteoric rise was due to the "concentration" in one person of genius, ambition, and a correct understanding of the situation around him.

2. NAPOLEON WARS

2.1 War of the Second Coalition (1798-1802)

The conditional date of the beginning of the Napoleonic wars is the establishment in France during the coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9) 1799 of the military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte, who became the first consul. At this time, the country was already at war with the 2nd anti-French coalition, which was formed in 1798 - 1799 by England, Russia, Austria, Turkey and the Kingdom of Naples (the 1st anti-French coalition consisting of Austria, Prussia, England and a number of other European states fought against revolutionary France in 1792-1793). Having come to power, Bonaparte sent the English king and the Austrian emperor a proposal to start peace negotiations, which they rejected. Then Napoleon set himself the task of a war with England, which was to be fought not on the English coast, in the face of the mighty British fleet, but on the European continent. , against the allies of England, primarily against the Austrian Empire. ... France began to form a large army on the eastern borders under the command of General Moreau. At the same time, in an atmosphere of secrecy, a so-called "reserve" army was being formed on the Swiss border, which struck the first blow at the Austrian troops in Italy. Having made a difficult crossing over the Saint Bernard Pass in the Alps, on June 14, 1800, at the battle of Marengo, Bonaparte defeated the Austrians, who were operating under the command of Field Marshal Melas. In December 1800, Moro's Rhine army defeated the Austrians at Hohenlinden (Bavaria). In February 1801 Austria was forced to conclude peace with France and recognize her conquests in Belgium and on the left bank of the Rhine. After that, the 2nd coalition actually disintegrated.

On March 27, 1802, the Amiens Peace Treaty was concluded between England, on the one hand, and France, Spain and the Batavian Republic, on the other. Peace negotiations took place in Amiens, dragged on for a little less than six months, but from October 1, 1801, all hostile actions between France and England ceased after the signing of a "preliminary peace" in London. In Amiens, Napoleon and Talleyrand managed to achieve favorable peace terms. True, Napoleon agreed to the evacuation of French troops from Egypt and to the return of Egypt to Turkey. But England gave up almost all of its colonial conquests (except for Ceylon and the island of Trinidad on the Atlantic Ocean). But, most importantly, England committed itself not to interfere in the affairs of Holland, Germany, Italy (the Apennine Peninsula), Switzerland ("Helvetic Republic"). She even pledged to evacuate Malta over time. Peace of Amiens could not be very long, England did not feel so defeated yet. But at that moment, when in Paris and in the provinces they learned about the signing of a peace treaty with England, satisfaction was complete. The most formidable, the richest, the most stubborn and implacable enemy, it seemed, recognized himself as defeated, confirmed with his signature all the conquests of Bonaparte. The long, difficult war with Europe ended, and ended in complete victory on all fronts.

Thus, the second anti-French coalition disintegrated. The fierce war between France and England became the focus of all diplomatic combinations and intrigues in the near future.

2.2 Third anti-French coalition

War of the Third Coalition (also known as the Russo-Austro-French War of 1805) - a war between France, Spain, Bavaria and Italy, on the one hand, and the Third Anti-French Coalition, which included Austria, Russia, Great Britain, Sweden, the Kingdom of Naples and Portugal - with another. In 1805, Russia and Great Britain signed the Petersburg Union Treaty, which laid the foundation for the third coalition. In the same year, Great Britain, Austria, Russia, the Kingdom of Naples and Sweden formed a third coalition against France and its allied Spain. While the coalition fleet successfully fought at sea, the armies acted unsuccessfully and were defeated, so the coalition disintegrated rather quickly - in December. Napoleon had been planning an invasion of England beginning with the Peace of Amiens of 1802, signed by Cornwallis for England and Joseph Bonaparte for France. At this time (summer 1805), Napoleon's 180,000-strong army ("Grand Army") was stationed on the French coast of the English Channel, in Boulogne, preparing to land in England. These ground forces were quite enough, but Napoleon did not have enough navy to cover the landing, so it was necessary to pull the British fleet away from the English Channel. As for military operations at sea, an attempt to distract the British, threatening their dominance in the West Indies, failed: the Franco-Spanish fleet under the command of the French admiral Villeneuve was defeated by an English squadron on its way back to Europe at Cape Finisterre, and retreated to Spain. to the port of Cadiz, where it was blocked. Admiral Villeneuve, despite the poor condition of the fleet, to which he himself had brought him, and having learned that he was going to be replaced by Admiral Rossilla, went out, following Napoleon's instructions, at the end of October at sea. At Cape Trafalgar, the Franco-Spanish fleet took a fight with Admiral Nelson's English squadron and was completely defeated, despite the fact that Nelson was mortally wounded in this battle. The French fleet never recovered from this defeat, having ceded supremacy at sea to the English fleet. As for military operations on land, in order to finally protect itself from the French invasion, England hastily put together another anti-French coalition, unlike the first and second, not anti-republican, but anti-Napoleonic. Having joined the coalition, Austria, taking advantage of the fact that most of Napoleon's army was concentrated in the north of France, planned to unleash hostilities in northern Italy and Bavaria. To help the Austrians, Russia moved two armies under the command of Generals Kutuzov and Buxgewden. Having received information about the actions of the coalition forces, Napoleon was forced to postpone the landing on the British Isles for an indefinite period and move his troops to Germany. It was then that Napoleon said: “If I am not in London in 15 days, then I should be in Vienna in mid-November” [9 p.150]. Meanwhile, the 72,000-strong Austrian army under the command of Baron Karl Mack von Leiberich invaded Bavaria without waiting for the Russian troops, who had not yet reached the theater of operations. Napoleon left the camp of Boulogne and, making a march southward, quickly reached Bavaria. The Austrian army surrendered at the Battle of Ulm. The corps of General Jelachich managed to avoid captivity, however, he was subsequently overtaken by the French Marshal Augereau and surrendered. Left alone, Kutuzov was forced to retreat with rearguard battles (Battle of Merzbach, Battle of Hollabrunn) to join the army of Buxgewden, which had not yet approached. Napoleon occupied Vienna without serious resistance. Of the entire Austrian army, only the formations of Archduke Karl and Archduke John continued the war, as well as a few units that managed to join the army of Kutuzov. Russian Emperor Alexander I and Austrian Emperor Franz II arrived at the army. At the insistence of Alexander I, Kutuzov's army stopped the retreat and, without waiting for the approach of Buxgewden's troops, entered the battle with the French at Austerlitz, in which it suffered a heavy defeat and retreated in disarray. The French victory was complete.

Emperor Franz humbly asked Napoleon for an armistice, to which the winner agreed, but on condition that Russian troops be removed from Austrian territory (December 4). On December 26, Austria concluded the Treaty of Presburg with France, depriving the Habsburg monarchy of possessions in southwestern Germany, Tyrol and the Venetian region (the first were divided between Baden and Württemberg, the second annexed to Bavaria, the third to the Italian kingdom), finally abolishing the Holy Roman Empire and granted the royal crowns of Naples and Holland to the brothers of Napoleon.

Russia, despite heavy losses, continued military operations against Napoleon as part of the fourth anti-French coalition, also organized with the active participation of England. On July 12, 1806, an agreement was concluded between Napoleon and many German sovereigns (Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Darmstadt, Klöve-Berg, Nassau, etc.), under the terms of which these sovereigns entered into an alliance, which received the name of the Rhine, under the protectorate of Napoleon and with the obligation to keep for him a sixty thousandth army [2 p.215]

The formation of the union was accompanied by a new mediatization, that is, the subordination of the small direct rulers of the supreme power to the large sovereigns. The mediatization of 1806 had the same effect in Germany as it did in 1802-1803. - secularization: Paris again became the center for the distribution of all sorts of favors, where the German princes used all possible means, some to prevent their own mediatization, others to mediatize in their favor other people's possessions. The Ligurian Republic (Genoa) and the Kingdom of Etruria were annexed to France. The very next day after the conclusion of the Treaty of Presburg, Napoleon announced by a simple decree that "the Bourbon dynasty in Naples ceased to reign", because Naples, contrary to the previous treaty, joined the coalition and allowed the landing of the troops that arrived in the Anglo-Russian fleet. The movement of the French army to Naples forced the local court to flee to Sicily, and Napoleon granted the Kingdom of Naples to his brother Joseph. Benevent and Pontecorvo were given, as fiefdoms of the duchies, Talleyrand and Bernadotte. In the former possessions of Venice, Napoleon also established a significant number of fiefs, which were combined with the ducal title, gave large incomes and complained to French dignitaries and marshals. Napoleon's sister Eliza (by her husband Bacciocchi) even earlier received Lucca, then Massa and Carrara, and after the destruction of the kingdom of Etruria she was appointed ruler of Tuscany. To his other sister, Paulina Borghese, Napoleon also gave ownership. In the Kingdom of Italy, Lucca, Tuscany and Naples, many French orders were introduced. In Holland, Napoleon's brother, Louis, reigned.

Thus, Napoleon's wars with England at sea were unsuccessful, but Bonaparte won a number of significant victories on land, as a result of which Austria withdrew from the anti-French coalition, Napoleon was declared emperor of Italy.

2.3 War of the fourth coalition (1806-1807)

The war against Napoleon was continued by England and Russia, which were soon joined by Prussia and Sweden, worried about the strengthening of French rule in Europe. In September 1806, the 4th anti-French coalition of European states was formed. A month later, in the course of two battles, on the same day, October 14, 1806, the Prussian army was destroyed: near Jena Napoleon defeated the units of Prince Hohenlohe, and at Auerstedt Marshal Davout defeated the main Prussian forces of King Friedrich Wilhelm and the Duke of Braunschweig. Napoleon entered Berlin solemnly. Prussia was occupied. The Russian army, moving to help the allies, met with the French, first near Pultusk on December 26, 1806, then at Preussisch-Eylau on February 8, 1807. Despite the bloody battles, these battles did not give an advantage to either side, but in June 1807 Napoleon won the battle at Friedland over the Russian troops commanded by L.L. Bennigsen.

On July 7, 1807, a meeting between the French and Russian emperors took place on a raft in the middle of the Neman River, and the Peace of Tilsit was concluded, under which Prussia lost half of its possessions. [3 p. 216] From the Polish lands inherited by Prussia in the first two sections of the Commonwealth, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was organized, which came under the rule of the King of Saxon. Prussia was deprived of all of its possessions between the Rhine and the Elbe, in conjunction with the Elector of Hesse, Braunschweig and southern Hanover, formed the Kingdom of Westphalia, at the head of which was put Napoleon's brother, Jerome, who also joined the Rhine alliance. In addition, Prussia had to pay a huge indemnity, maintain French garrisons at its own expense until the final reckoning, and observe various constraining conditions favorable to France (regarding, for example, military roads). ... Napoleon became the complete ruler of Germany. In many places, the French order was introduced, which was the fruit of the revolution and the organizational activities of Napoleon. The despotism of Napoleon and local rulers, constant recruits into the army, high taxes responded heavily to the German people, who felt their humiliation before a foreign ruler. After the Peace of Tilsit, Napoleon left the city of Erfurt as a rallying point for the troops of the Rhine Union. By agreeing that France should dominate the West, Emperor Alexander I had in mind the same dominance in the East. An alliance was created between the two emperors against England, whose trade Napoleon sought to strike a blow with the so-called continental system. Russia had to close its ports to the British, recall its ambassadors from London. [6 p.84] Both powers pledged to demand from Sweden, Denmark and Portugal, acting until then in agreement with England, to join the continental system. To this England responded by ordering her fleet to seize neutral ships leaving the ports of France or allied states with her.

Thus, consistent, merciless observance of the rules of the "continental blockade" becomes the focus of all diplomatic and military activities of Napoleon.

Meanwhile, Austria decided to try her luck in the war of liberation. In April 1809, the Austrian emperor moved his military forces at once to Bavaria, Italy and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, but Napoleon, reinforced by the troops of the Rhine Union, repulsed the attack and in mid-May was already in Vienna. The Habsburg monarchy, apparently, had to collapse: the Hungarians were already invited to restore their former independence and elect a new king. Soon thereafter, the French crossed the Danube and won a victory on July 5-6 at Wagram, which was followed by the Znaim Armistice (July 12), which was the eve of the Vienna or Schönbrunn Peace (October 14). Austria lost Salzburg and some neighboring lands - in favor of Bavaria, western Galicia and part of eastern Galicia with Krakow - in favor of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and Russia and, finally, lands in the southwest (part of Carinthia, Carinthia, Trieste, Friul, etc. .), which together with Dalmatia, Istria and Ragusa, the possession of Illyria, under the supreme power of Napoleon. At the same time, the Viennese government pledged to join the continental system. This war was marked by a popular uprising in Tyrol, which, at the conclusion of the Vienna Peace, was pacified and divided between Bavaria, Illyria and the Kingdom of Italy. On May 16, 1809, in Schönbrunn, Napoleon signed a decree abolishing the secular power of the pope: the ecclesiastical region was annexed to France, Rome was declared the second city of the empire. Austria had to acknowledge this change as well. In July 1810, Napoleon, dissatisfied with his brother Louis, who poorly followed the continental system, annexed Holland to France; Hamburg, Bremen and Lubeck, the Duchy of Oldenburg and other lands between the Elbe and the Rhine, as well as the Swiss canton of Wallis, with a mountain road through Simplon, were also annexed.

The French empire reached its largest size, and, together with the vassal and allied states, included almost all of Western Europe. It included, in addition to present-day France, Belgium, Holland and the strip of northern Germany to the Baltic Sea, with the mouths of the Rhine, Ems, Weser and Elbe, so that the French border was only two hundred miles from Berlin; further, the entire left bank of the Rhine from Wesel to Basel, some parts of present-day Switzerland, finally, Piedmont, Tuscany and the Papal States. Part of northern and central Italy was the Kingdom of Italy, where Napoleon was the sovereign, and further, on the other side of the Adriatic Sea, on the Balkan Peninsula, Illyria belonged to Napoleon. As if by hand, in two long strips from both the north and the south, Napoleon's empire embraced Switzerland and the Rhine Union, in the center of which the French emperor owned the city of Erfurt. The heavily curtailed Prussia and Austria, bordering on the Rhine Union and Illyria, had the first - on its eastern border, the second - on the northern Great Duchy of Warsaw, which was under the protectorate of Napoleon and was put forward as a French outpost against Russia. Finally, Napoleon's son-in-law Joachim I (Murat) reigned in Naples, and his brother Joseph reigned in Spain. (Appendix 3) Denmark since 1807 was in alliance with Napoleon.

Thus, only England and Russia remained rivals of France, one at sea, the other on land, which determined the further foreign policy Napoleon.

2.5 War by the sixth coalition (1813-1814)

The formation of the sixth coalition was preceded by Napoleon's campaign in Russia, where the fate of his empire was decided. Napoleon counted on support from Turkey, which was at war with Russia, and from Sweden, which was ruled as crown prince by the former Napoleonic Marshal Karl Bernadotte. With Turkey, Kutuzov, who turned out to be not only a remarkable strategist, but also a brilliant diplomat, managed to conclude just on the eve of the war - in May 1812 - a very beneficial peace for Russia, skillfully driving the grand vizier to panic. Upon learning of this sudden reconciliation between Russia and Turkey, Napoleon exclaimed in a rage that he did not know hitherto which fools were in control of Turkey. With regard to Sweden, two proposals were made to Bernadotte. Napoleon offered Finland to Sweden if Sweden opposed Russia, and Alexander - Norway if Sweden opposed Napoleon. Bernadotte, having weighed the benefits of both proposals, leaned on Alexander's side not only because Norway is richer than Finland, but also because the sea protected Sweden from Napoleon, and nothing from Russia. Napoleon later said that he should have abandoned the war with Russia at the very moment when he learned that neither Turkey nor Sweden would fight with Russia. Immediately after the outbreak of the war, England entered into an alliance with Alexander. With such an alignment of forces, the war of 1812 began and ended. Diplomats from all over Europe watched with intense attention the behind-the-scenes struggle that was going on, especially at the very end of the war, between Alexander and Field Marshal Kutuzov. It was, in fact, a struggle between two mutually exclusive diplomatic attitudes, with Kutuzov pursuing his views in a number of strategic actions, and the tsar triumphed over Kutuzov only in Vilna, in December 1812 and January 1813. Kutuzov's point of view, expressed by him to the British agent General Wilson, and in front of General Konovnitsyn, and other persons of his headquarters, was that the war began on the Neman, and there must end there. As soon as there is no armed enemy left on Russian soil, the struggle should be stopped and stopped. There is no need to shed more blood to save Europe - let it save itself by its own means. There is no need, in particular, to strive to completely crush Napoleon - this will bring the greatest benefit not to Russia, but to England. If this "cursed island" (as Kutuzov called England) had completely sunk through the earth, it would have been the best. So Kutuzov believed. Alexander, on the contrary, believed that the business of reckoning with Napoleon was just beginning. England struggled to support the king in his aspirations.

During the war of 1812, the strategy of the Russian army, led by Field Marshal MI Kutuzov, the partisan movement contributed to the death of more than 400,000 strong "Great Army" [4 p. 90]. After Napoleon's defeat in Russia, the Russian army crossed the Neman, then the Vistula. This caused a new upsurge in the national liberation struggle in Europe, in a number of states began to create a militia.

In 1813, the 6th anti-French coalition was formed, which included Russia, England, Prussia, Sweden, Austria, and a number of other states. In October 1813, near Leipzig, the "Battle of the Nations" took place - Napoleon fought with a coalition of Russians, Austrians, Prussians and Swedes [1 p. 702]. In his own army, besides the French, there were Poles, Saxons, Dutch, Italians, Belgians, Germans of the Rhine Union. (Appendix 4)

As a result of the "battle of the peoples" the territory of Germany was liberated from the French. Napoleon retreated from Leipzig to the borders of France, to the line that separated it from the German states before the beginning of the Napoleonic conquests, to the Rhine line. [9 p. 300]. For the first time, Napoleon had to understand that the great empire was crumbling, that the motley conglomerate of countries and peoples had disintegrated, which he had been trying for so many years to weld together with fire and sword into a single empire. On the way to the Rhine, even at Hanau (October 30), he had to fight his way with weapons in his hands through the Bavarian-Austrian troops, and when the emperor entered Mainz on November 2, 1813, he had only about 40 thousand combat-ready soldiers with him. The rest of the crowds of unarmed, exhausted, sick people who entered Mainz, who were also still in the army, could be safely ignored. Napoleon was in Paris in mid-November. The 1813 campaign ended and the 1814 campaign began.

Thus, in 1812, the decline of Napoleon's military power begins, prepared by the failures of French weapons in Portugal and Spain (see the war on the Iberian Peninsula, etc.). The Patriotic War, which was followed by the immediate war for the liberation of Germany and Europe, was the "beginning of the end."

2.6 The capture of Paris and the end of the campaign (March 1814)

The general situation by the end of February 1814 was difficult for Napoleon, but not hopeless. He set himself the task of making peace with the allies on the condition of preserving the borders of France by the beginning of the era of the Napoleonic wars, that is, along the Rhine and the Alps.

On March 24, the Allies agreed on a plan for further action in the campaign, deciding, after controversy, to resume the offensive on Paris. A 10-thousandth cavalry corps was sent against Napoleon under the command of the Russian general Vintzingerode in order to mislead Napoleon about the intentions of the allies. The Wintzingerode corps was defeated by Napoleon on March 26, but this did not affect the course of further events. On March 30, the Russian and Prussian corps attacked and, after fierce fighting, captured the suburbs of Paris. Wanting to save the city of many thousands from bombing and street battles, the commander of the right flank of the French defense, Marshal Marmont, sent a parliamentarian to the Russian emperor by 5 o'clock in the afternoon. Alexander I gave the following answer: "He will order to stop the battle if Paris is surrendered: otherwise, by evening, they will not recognize the place where the capital was." [9 p.331] The battle for Paris became in the 1814 campaign one of the bloodiest for the Allies, who lost more than 8 thousand soldiers in one day (more than 6 thousand Russians). On March 31, at 2 a.m., the surrender of Paris was signed. By 7 o'clock in the morning, according to the agreement, the French regular army was to leave Paris. At noon on March 31, the Russian and Prussian guards, led by Emperor Alexander I, triumphantly entered the capital of France. In early April, the French Senate issued a decree overthrowing Napoleon. Napoleon learned about the surrender of Paris on the same day at the entrance to the capital. He went to his palace at Fonteblo, where he awaited the approach of his lagging army. Napoleon pulled together all the available troops (up to 60 thousand) to continue the war. However, under pressure from his own marshals, taking into account the mood of the population and soberly assessing the balance of forces, on April 4, Napoleon wrote a statement of conditional abdication in favor of his son Napoleon II under the regency of his wife Marie-Louise. While negotiations were underway, part of the French army went over to the side of the allies, which gave Tsar Alexander I a reason to toughen the conditions of abdication. On April 6, Napoleon wrote an act of abdication for himself and his heirs from the throne of France. On the same day, the Senate proclaimed Louis XVIII king. Napoleon himself set off on April 20 for an honorary exile to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean. “The grandiose heroic epic of world history has ended - he said goodbye to his guard,” - this is how English newspapers later wrote about this day [9 p. 345].

Thus ended the era of the Napoleonic wars. On April 6, Napoleon I signed the abdication of the throne and was expelled from France.

3. RESULTS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE NAPOLEON WARS

It is hardly possible to give an unambiguous assessment of the significance of the Consulate and the Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte for European history. On the one hand, the Napoleonic wars brought enormous human sacrifices to France and other European states. They were conducted for the sake of conquering foreign territories and plundering other peoples. By imposing huge indemnities on the defeated countries, Napoleon weakened and ruined their economies. When he arbitrarily redrawn the map of Europe or when he tried to impose a new economic order on it in the form of a continental blockade, he thereby interfered in the natural course of historical development, violating centuries-old boundaries and traditions. On the other hand, historical development always occurs as a result of the struggle between the old and the new, and from this point of view, the Napoleonic empire personified the new bourgeois order in the face of the old feudal Europe. As in 1792-94. French revolutionaries tried to carry their ideas across Europe with bayonets, and Napoleon also tried to introduce bourgeois order in the conquered countries with bayonets. Establishing French domination in Italy and the German states, he simultaneously abolished the feudal rights of the nobility and the guild system there, carried out the secularization of church lands, extended the action of his Civil Code to them. In other words, he destroyed the feudal system and acted in this respect, according to Stendhal, as a "son of the revolution." Thus, the Napoleonic era in European history was one of the stages and one of the manifestations of the transition from the old order to the new times.

The victories won by France over the armies of the feudal-absolutist states were explained primarily by the fact that bourgeois France, which represented a more progressive social system, had an advanced military system created by the Great French Revolution. An outstanding military leader, Napoleon I perfected the strategy and tactics developed during the revolutionary wars. The army also included the troops of the states subordinate to Napoleon I and foreign corps put forward by the allied countries. The Napoleonic army, especially before the defeat of its best forces in Russia in 1812, was characterized by high combat training and discipline. Napoleon I was surrounded by a whole galaxy of talented marshals and young generals (L. Davout, I. Murat, A. Massena, M. Ney, L. Berthier, J. Bernadotte, N. Soult, etc.), many of whom were from soldiers or from the lower strata of society. However, the increasing transformation of the French army during the Napoleonic wars into an instrument for the implementation of the aggressive plans of Napoleon I, huge losses (according to rough estimates, in 1800-1815 3153 thousand people were called up for military service in France, of which only in 1804-1814 died 1,750 thousand people) led to a significant decrease in its fighting qualities.

As a result of continuous wars and conquests, a huge Napoleonic empire was formed, supplemented by a system of states directly or indirectly subject to France. Napoleon I plundered the conquered countries. The supply of the army in the campaign was carried out mainly with the help of requisitions or outright robbery (according to the principle "war must feed war"). Great damage to the countries that were dependent on the Napoleonic empire was caused by customs tariffs, favorable for France. The Napoleonic Wars were a constant and important source of income for the Napoleonic government, the French bourgeoisie, and the top of the military.

Wars of the French Revolution began as national wars. After the defeat of Napoleon, feudal reaction was established in many European countries. However, the main result of fierce wars was not a temporary victory of reaction, but the liberation of European countries from the rule of Napoleonic France, which ultimately contributed to the independent development of capitalism in a number of European states.

Thus, we can say that Napoleon's wars were not just a pan-European character, but a worldwide one. They will forever remain in history.

CONCLUSION

The era in which Napoleon Bonaparte lived contributed to his meteoric rise and his brilliant career. Napoleon was certainly a talented person. Having set himself a goal in his distant youth - to achieve power, he walked consistently and patiently towards it, using all his potential. The Great French Revolution, republican wars allowed a number of talented, but not noble commanders to rise, including Bonaparte.

The meteoric rise of Napoleon is due to the "concentration" in one person of genius, ambition, and a correct understanding of the situation around him. In one of his interviews, the now famous Edward Radzinsky said: "Napoleon is a man who lived, correlating himself only with History." Indeed, he is right - the attention of the whole world to the life and death of Napoleon has been riveted for two centuries. For example, if you type "Napoleon Bonaparte" in any Internet search engine, you will receive over 10 million links. These links will be different: from historical and literary portals and forums of historians studying the era of the Napoleonic wars, to sites that are completely ordinary and in no way related to history, intended for lovers of crossword puzzles. Is this not a confirmation that the first emperor of France became a kind of mega-figure in the history of mankind? Napoleon Bonaparte and his role in the development of European civilization will be the subject of close attention for many more generations of historians, and readers all over the world will turn to his image in literature for many years, trying to understand what the grandiosity of this person is.

In general, Napoleon's wars up to 1812. were successful, almost all of Europe was in his hands. But the general situation by the end of February 1814 was difficult for Napoleon. As a result, "the most grandiose heroic epic of world history ended - he said goodbye to his guard," - this is how the English newspapers later wrote about this day.

However, I would like to finish with the words of E.V. Tarle about the importance of Napoleon in world history: “In the memory of mankind, there has forever been an image that in the psychology of some echoes the images of Attila, Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, in the soul of others - with the shadows of Alexander the Great and Caesar, but which, as historical research grows more and more more is revealed in its unique originality and striking individual complexity. "

LIST OF USED SOURCES AND REFERENCES

1. Sources

1. From the treaty on the creation of the Rhine Union under the protectorate of France // Reader on modern history, ed. A.A. Huber, A.V. Efimova. - M .: Education, 1963.Vol. 1 1640-1815. - with. 768.

2. From the Tilsit Peace Treaty between France and Prussia // Reader on modern history, ed. A.A. Huber, A.V. Efimova.

- M .: Education, 1963.Vol. 1 1640-1815. - with. 768.

3. Napoleon. Selected works. - M .: Oborongiz, 1956 .-- p. 788.

4. Expansion of the power of the first consul. From senatus - consultation from 6 Thermidor X year // Reader on modern history 1640-1870. Compiled by Sirotkin V.G. - M .: Education, 1990. - p. 286.

5. Tilsit Peace Treaty between France and Prussia // Reader on modern history 1640-1870. Compiled by Sirotkin V.G. Enlightenment - M .: Enlightenment, 1990. - p. 286.

6. Tilsit offensive and defensive alliance agreement between France and Russia // Reader on modern history 1640-1870. Compiled by Sirotkin V.G. - M .: Education, 1990 .-- p. 286.

7. Tolstoy L.N. on the role of partisans in World War II// Reader on modern history 1640-1870. Compiled by Sirotkin V.G. - M .: Education, 1990 .-- p. 286.

2. Literature

8. Zhilin P.A. The death of the Napoleonic army in Russia. - M .: Nauka, 1989 .-- p. 451.

9. Manfred A.Z. Napoleon Bonaparte. - Sukhumi: Alashara, 1980 .-- p. 712.

10. New history of the countries of Europe and America: Textbook. for universities / Krivoguz I.M. - M .: Bustard, 2003 .-- 912 p.

11. New history, 1640-1870. Textbook. for students of history faculty. ped. in-tov / Narochnitskiy A.L. - M .: Education, 1986 .-- 704s.

12. Tarle E.V. Napoleon. M .: Nauka, 1991. - p. 461.

13. Tarle E.V. Essays on the history of the colonial policy of Western European states (late 15th - early 19th centuries) M .: Nauka, 1965. - p. 428.

ANNEXES

Annex 1

Napoleon in his youth

Appendix 2

Emperor Napoleon

Source -Straubing / napoleonovskie voyny / ru.

Appendix 3

napoleon war army commander

Napoleonic Empire, 1811. France is shown in dark blue.

Source - Wikipedia / napoleon / ru.