The ability of one microorganisms to suppress the lives of others ( antibiosis) was first installed I. I. MesnikovWho suggested using this property for therapeutic purposes: in particular, it applied to suppress the life of harmful peeling bowel bacteria to the lactic acid wand, which he offered to introduce with the procreel.

IN 1868-1871 V. A. Manassein and A. G. Tolebnov indicated the ability of green mold to suppress the growth of various pathogenic bacteria and successfully applied it to treat infected wounds and ulcers.

Research N. A. Krasikov, A. I. Koreniako, M. I. Nakhimovskaya and D. M. Novogrudsky, who have established widespread mushrooms producing various antibiotic substances in the soil of mushrooms, were of great importance.

IN 1940methods of cure and obtaining antibiotic substances from the culture fluid in pure form were developed. Many of these antibiotic substances proved very effective in the treatment of a number of infectious diseases.

The greatest value The following antibiotics obtained in medical practice:

Penicillin,

Streptomycin,

Levomycetin,

Syntomicin,

Tetracyclines,

Albomycin,

Gramscidine s

Mycerine et al.

Currently, the chemical nature of many antibiotics is known, which allows to obtain these antibiotics not only from natural products, but also synthetic.

Antibiotics, possessing the ability to suppress the development of pathogenic microbes in the body, at the same time are low toxic for the human body. Laying the development in the body of pathogenic microbes, they thereby contribute to the strengthening of the protective properties of the body and the fastest recovery of the patient. That is why the right choice of antibiotic is required for the treatment of various infectious diseases. In some cases, you can use the combination of antibiotics or conduct comprehensive treatment antibiotics, sulfonilamides and other drugs.

Peniciline

Penicillin - The substance produced by Penicillium mold with growth in liquid nutrient media. For the first time, it was obtained by the English scientist A. Fleming in 1928. In the USSR, Penicillin was obtained by 3. V. Yermolyeva in 1942. To obtain Penicillina, the mold falls into a special nutrient medium, where Penicillin is accumulated as it reproduces it. The optimal growth temperature of Penicillium 24-26 °. The maximum accumulation of penicillin occurs after 5-6 days, and with intensive access to oxygen (aeration) - more quickly. The nutrient fluid is filtered and subjected to special processing and chemical cleaning. As a result, a purified preparation is obtained as a crystalline powder. In the liquid form of penicillin messengers, the powder is more stable, especially at a temperature of 4-10 °. Powder is quickly and completely dissolved in distilled water or saline saline saline.

Penicillin has the ability to delay reproduction in the body of many pathogenic microbial-staphylococci, streptococcal, gonococci, anaerobic bacilli, syphilis spirocht. Penicillin on sticks of abdominal typhoid, dysentery, brucella, tuberculosis wand. Penicillin is widely used to treat valve "processes, septic diseases, inflammation of lungs, gonorrhea, cerebrospinaline meningitis, syphilis, anaerobic infections.

Unlike most synthetic chemical preparations, Penicillin has little toxic to humans and can be administered in large doses. Penicillin is administered normally intramuscularly, since when administered through the mouth, it is rapidly destroyed by gastric and intestinal juice.

In the body, Penicillin is rapidly excreted by the kidneys, therefore it is prescribed in the form of intramuscular injections every 3-4 hours. The amount of penicilline administered is calculated in units of action (units). The amount of it is taken per unit of penicillin that fully delays the growth of gold staphylococcus in 50 ml of broth. Penicillin preparations manufactured by the domestic industry contain in one bottle from 200,000 to 500,000 units of Penicillin.

To eliminate the validity period of penicillin in the body, a number of new preparations containing penicillin in a complex with other substances are made, which contribute to the slow suction of penicillin and even slower release from the body from the kidney (novocylin, EKMOPENIOLLIN, Bicyllin 1, 2, 3, etc.). Some of these drugs can be taken inward, as they do not destroy under the action of gastric and intestinal juice. Such preparations include, for example, phenoxymethylpenicillin; The latter is produced in the form of tablets for receiving orally.

Currently, a large group of new preparations of Penicillin - semi-synthetic penicillins were obtained. The basis of these drugs is 6-amino-penicil-linic acid, which is the penicillin core, to which various radicals are joined by chemical. New penicillins (methicillin, oxacillin, etc.) act on microorganisms resistant to benzylпenicillin.

The largest number of antibiotics is produced by radiant mushrooms - actinomycetes. Of these antibiotics, streptomycin, chloromycetin (levomycetin), biomycin (aureomycin), terrarsicin, tetracycline, amount, mitceral, etc. were widely used.

Streptomycin

Streptomycin - The substance produced by a rainy rush Actinomyces Globisporus Streptomycini. It has the ability to suppress the growth of many gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, as well as tuberculosis sticks. The lack of streptomycin is that microbes get used to it quickly and become resistant to its action. The activity of streptomycin is tested on an intestinal chopper (BACT. Coli). The practical application of streptomycin received for the treatment of some forms of tuberculosis, especially tuberculous meningitis, Tularemia, as well as in surgical practice.

Chloromycetin

Chloromycetin Received in 1947 from the culture fluid of actinomycetes. In 1949, scientists were synthesized a similar drug called Levomycetin. Levomycetin is a crystallized powder, very resistant both in a dry condition and solutions. Levomycetin solutions withstand boiling for 5 hours. Levomycetin is active in relation to many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, as well as to rickettsia. Take leftomycetin through the mouth. Levomycetin recommend applying for the treatment of the following diseases: abdominal typhoids and parathy, raw typhus, brucellosis, cough, dysentery and surgical infections caused by gram-negative bacteria.

Along with the Levomycetin, another synthetic preparation is widely used - syntomicin, which is a crude leftomycetin. In its action, syntomicin is similar to Levomycetin; It is appointed at a dose 2 times greater than Levomycetin.

Tetracyclines

These include chloretteracycline (aureomycin, biomycin), oxytetracycline (terra Micin) and tetracycline. Chlortotracycline is obtained from the culture fluid of the Actinomyces aureofaciens mushroom, it has a wide range of action against most gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, simplest, rickettsis and some large viruses (ornithosis), well absorbed when taking orally and diffuses in tissue. It is used for the treatment of dysentery, brucellosis, ricketsiosis, syphilis, ornithosis and other infectious diseases. Oxytetracycline and tetracycline in their properties resemble chlorothetracycline and close to the mechanism of action on the microbe.

Neomycins

Neomycins- A group of antibiotics obtained from the culture fluid of actinomycetes, active in respect of many gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, including mycobacteria. Their activity is not reduced in the presence of blood proteins or enzymes. Preparations are poorly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, relatively little toxic. It is mainly applied to the local treatment of surgical and skin infections caused by staphylococci, resistant to other antibiotics.

The neomycin group includes Soviet drugs of MITERIN and Kolimycin, which have been widely used to treat colidents in children caused by intestinal chopsticks or staphylococci, resistant to other antibiotics.

Nistastine

Nystatin- Antibiotic, effective not against bacteria, but against mushrooms. It is poorly dissolved in water, so it cannot be applied parenterally, and it is necessary to introduce inside in the form of tablets or locally in the form of ointments.

Nystatin is often part of the tablets along with another antibiotic - tetracycline - in order to prevent candidiasis as complications with prolonged use of tetracycline.

Among the antibiotics of bacterial origin pan is more important to gramicidine.

Gramicidin

Gramicidin- Substance obtained from the culture of the soil spore stick V. Brevis. The name of its drug was received due to the fact that it suppresses the growth of predominantly gram-positive bacteria. In 1942, scientists opened the antibiotic in the USSR, called gramicidine C (Soviet gramicidine). It has a wide range of action, overwhelming bacteria. Gramsicidin C is used in the form of water-alcohol, alcohol and oil solutions only for local treatment of valuable and ulcerative processes.

Antibiotics of animal origin are of great interest.

IN 1887 N. F. Gamaley pointed out the antibacterial effect of animal organism tissues. Then in 1893 O. O. O. Uspensky proved the bactericidal effect of liver extracts against chopsticks of Siberian ulcers, spa, staphylococci and other microbes.

Animal antibiotics received the use of the following.

1. Lizozyme- substance produced by animal and human cells. For the first time, P. N. Laschenkov in 1909 in Belka chicken egg. Lizozyme is contained in tears, secrets of mucous, in the liver, spleen, kidneys, serum. It has the ability to dissolve both alive and dead microbes. The lysozyme in purified form was applied 3. V. Ermolyeva and I. S. Bujanovskaya in clinical, industrial and agricultural practice. There is an effect from the use of lysozyme for diseases of the ear, throat, nose and eyes, when after influenza complications.

2. ECMOLINit was obtained from fish tissue, biologically active in relation to typhoid and dyneseter chopsticks, staphylococcal and streptococci, there is also a flu virus. Ekmolin enhances the effect of penicillin and streptomycin. Reports about the positive results of the integrated use of ECMOLIN with streptomycin for the treatment of acute and chronic dysentery and ecmoline with penicillin - for the treatment and prevention of coccal infections.

3. Phytoncides.- substances secreted by plants. Opened by the Soviet researcher B. P. Tokin in 1928 these substances have an antimicrobial effect on many microorganisms, including the simplest. The most active phytoncides produce onions and garlic. If you see for a few minutes onions, the oral cavity is quickly cleaned from microbes. Fitoncides are used for local treatment of infected wounds. Antibiotics were extremely widely used in medical practice and contributed to a sharp decrease in the number of fatal outcomes in various infectious diseases (ingenious processes, meningitis, anaerobic infection, abdominal and rapid typhoids, tuberculosis, children's infections, etc.).

However, some side and unwanted influence should also be indicated.

With the improper use of antibiotics (small doses, short-term treatment), the microbes-pathogens-resistant antibiotic may appear. As a result, for medical practice has great importance Determining the sensitivity of the causative agent of the infectious disease to a particular antibiotic.

There are 2 ways to determine the sensitivity of the selected microbes to antibiotics

1) Serial breeding method

2) Diffusion method.

First the method is more complexand consists in the following: in a row of tubes with 2 ml of broth poured multiple antibiotic dilution, then 0.2 ml (weathered 18-hour) bouillon culture of the test microbe are siled into each tube; Test tubes are placed in a thermostat for 16-18 hours. The last test tube, where there is no growth of microbes, and determines the degree of sensitivity of the microbe to this antibiotic.

A simpler method is the diffusion method. For this purpose, in the laboratories there is a set of special discs from filter paper impregnated with solutions of different antibiotics. Make sowing a highlighted culture on a cup of Petri, with meat supporting agar. We impose these discs on the seed surface.

Cups are placed in a thermostat for 24-48 hours, after which the result mark.

Other complications in the use of antibiotics include a decrease in immunological reactivity. In this case, sometimes recurrences of the disease occur, for example, in the abdominal title.

With too long intake of antibiotics and in large doses, toxic phenomena are often observed. In some patients, the reception of one or another antibiotic causes an allergic reaction in the form of rashes on the skin, vomiting, etc.

In some cases, as a result of long-term use of biomycin, leftomycetin, syntomicin, the normal microflora of the person is possible, which leads to the activation of the conditionally pathogenic microbes that live on the mucous membranes of the oral cavity or intestines: enterococcus, yeast-like microorganisms, etc. This flora in a weakened organism can cause various nature of the disease (candidiasis, etc.). All this indicates that medical workers Antibiotics should be applied, strictly guided by existing instructions and instructions, observing carefully for the state of the patient, if the need to stop treating it with antibiotics or replace this drug to others.

The listed complications do not reduce the values \u200b\u200bof antibiotics as medicinal preparations. Thanks to antibiotics, medical workers currently have specific medicines for the treatment of most infectious diseases.

Moscow Medical Academy. THEM. Sechenov

Department of General Surgery based on GKB№23 (2 purulent compartment)

"The history of the opening of antibiotics."

Executor:

Student III Course

Therapeutic faculty

4th group

Labutina Julia Olegovna

Lecturer: Vavilova G.S.

Moscow 2004.

Antimicrobial preparations.

Coherence or cessation of microbial growth is achieved by various methods (sets of measures): antiseptic, sterilization, disinfection, chemotherapy. Accordingly, chemicals that are used to implement these measures are called surveying agents, disinfectants, antiseptics and antimicrobial chemotherapy. Antimicrobial chemicals are divided into two groups: not possessing the vitality of action - are destructive with respect to most microbes, but at the same time toxic for cells of macroorganism (antiseptics and disinfectants), and possessing the vitality of action (chemotherapeutic agents).

Chemotherapeutic antimicrobial drugs are chemical preparations that are used in infectious diseases for etiotropic treatment (i.e., a microbe directed to the cause of the disease), as well as for the prevention of infections.

The antimicrobial chemotherapeutic agents include the following groups of drugs:

Antibiotics (act only on cellular forms of microorganisms; antitumor antibiotics are also known)

Synthetic chemotherapy products of a different chemical structure (among them there are drugs that act or on cellular microorganisms, or on non-tire forms of microbes)

Antibiotics - These are chemotherapeutic preparations from chemical compounds of biological origin (natural), as well as their semi-synthetic derivatives and synthetic analogues, which at low concentrations have a selective damaging or destructive effect on microorganisms and tumors. Antibiotics used in medical practice are produced by actinomycetes (radiant mushrooms), mold mushrooms, as well as some bacteria. As already mentioned, the antimicrobial effect of antibiotics has a selective nature: they act more in one organisms, and they are less or not operating at all. The effects and effects of antibiotics and animal cells, as a result of which they differ in the degree of toxicity and influence on blood and other biological fluids. Some antibiotics are considerable interests for chemotherapy and can be used to treat various microbial infections in humans and animals.

The problem of treating infectious diseases has the same long history as the study of the diseases themselves. From the point of view of a modern man, the first attempts in this direction were naive and primitive, although some of them were not deprived of common sense (for example, ignition wounds or insulation of patients). The fact that some microbes can somehow delay the growth of others, was well known long ago. IN folk medicine For the processing of wounds and the treatment of tuberculosis, lichen extracts were used. Later in the composition of ointments for processing surface wounds began to include bacteria extracts Pseudomonas Aeruginosa.. The experience gained by heavy by trial and mistakes armed the knowledge of the healing properties of the hoods of herbs and animal tissues, as well as various minerals. The manufacture of nastock and bravery from vegetable raw materials was widespread in the ancient world, they were promoted by Claudius Gallen. In the Middle Ages, the reputation of drugs from drug raw materials has significantly reduced all sorts of potions, the "research" of alchemists and, of course, the conviction in the incurability of "car of the Lord". In this regard, it is necessary to refer to the healing effect of the hands of the "Anointers of God", the crowds of patients took place through the touch of the reign. For example, Louis XIV laid hands on 10,000 patients, and Karl II Stewart - by 90,000. As the doctors understand the correctness of the concept, the treatment of diseases took an increasingly "etiotropic" character. The founder of chemotherapy with full right must be considered paraceteshels, called A. I. Herzenov "The first professor of chemistry from the creation of the world." Paracels did not apply various inorganic substances (for example, mercury and arsenic salts for the treatment of infections of human and animals). After the opening of the new light, it became known about the properties of the cortex of the Kina - Kina tree, used by Indians for the treatment of malaria. The popularity of this fund was promoted by the wonderful cure of the wife of Vice-King America, Countess Zincon, and the bark arrived already under the name "Countess Powder", and later her name was assigned to the chinen tree. The other overseas remedy - Ipecacuana, used by Indians for the treatment of "bloody" diarrpendes.

Back in 1871-1872. Russian scientists V.A. Manasine and A.G. The fields observed the effect in the treatment of infected wounds with applying mold, although why they help, no one knew, and the phenomenon of the antibiosis was unknown.

However, some of the first microbiological scientists managed to detect and describe the antibiosis (the oppression of one organisms of the growth of others). The fact is that antagonistic relations between different microorganisms are manifested with their growth in mixed culture. Prior to the development of clean cultivation methods, different bacteria and mold were grown together, i.e. In optimal conditions for manifestation of antibios. Louis Paster in 1877, when studying the Siberian ulcers, noticed that an animal infection with a mixture of pathogen and other bacteria often interferes with the development of the disease, which made it possible to assume that competition between microbes can block pathogenic properties of the pathogen. He described the antibiosis between soil bacteria and pathogenic bacteria - the pathogens of Siberian ulcers and even suggested that the antibiosis can be the basis of treatment methods. The observations of L. Pasteur (1887) confirmed that the antagonism in the world of microbes is a common phenomenon, but his nature was unclear.

The first antibiotics were highlighted even before their ability to coal the growth of microorganisms became known. So, in 1860 was obtained in crystalline form blue pigment pyocianingenerated by small moving rod-shaped bacteria Pseudomonas., But its antibiotic properties were discovered only after many years. In 1899 - R. Emmerich and O. Low reported an antibiotic compound formed by bacteria Pseudomonas pyocyanea., and called him pyelisa; The drug was used as a local antiseptic. In 1896 B. Gosio from a liquid containing a culture of fungus from kind Penicillium. (Penicillium. brevicompactum) , I managed to crystallize another chemical substance that was called micophenolic acid, overwhelming the growth of the bacteria of the Siberian ulcers.

But no medicine saved so many lives as penicillin. With the opening of this substance began new era In the treatment of infectious diseases - the era of antibiotics. The opening of drugs of antibiotics, to which we are already so accustomed to our time, the human society has strongly changed. Rated diseases not yet long considered hopeless. Another amazing story of the opening itself.

An outstanding biologist Alexander Fleming was born on August 6, 1881 in Scotland, in Ershire County. The boy grew on the farm of his parents, from all sides, surrounded by herasshed waste. Nature gave young Alexander much more than the school. At the age of 13, Yunoy Alexander moved to the capital of Great Britain - London. While his peers studied, Fleming 5 years worked in a local shipping company, earning a living.

In 1901, Fleming entered the Medical School of St. Mary, passing the complex exams. He did not prevent him from what had passed for 5 years, as he stopped learning. Moreover, he was recognized as the best of coming in all of the United Kingdom! Fleming never did useless work. He could remove from the textbook only the necessary, neglecting the rest.

After completing the study, Fleming was invited to work in the bacteriological laboratory of the Hospital of St. Mary. Bacteriology at that time was at the forefront of science.

The working day of Fleming in the first years of his scientific activity was hardly around the clock. According to his arrival, the clock was checked. And even at two o'clock in the morning, employees who detained at work could go to him to talk and drink a mug of beer.

In August 1914, the World War I broke out. Fleming received the title of an officer of the medical service and was sent to create a bacteriological laboratory to France, to the city of Boulogne.

Every day, climbing the attic of the hospital, where the laboratory was located, Fleming was held through the hospital chambers where the wounded was lying. Every day all new and new groups arrived. Here, in the hospital, they died hundreds from infection. Fractures, gaps of internal fabrics ... Slices of land and clothes that have fallen into wounds, bombed work. The face of the wounded acquired a gray color, breathing was hampered - blood infection began. Result - inevitable death.

Fleming began to explore this infection. He told:

"I was advised to impose bandages with antiseptics: carbolic, boric acids or hydrogen peroxide. I saw that the antiseptics are not killing all microbes, but I was told that they kill some of them, and treatment is more successful than when antiseptics do not apply. "

Fleming decided to put a simple experience to check how antiseptics help to fight infection.

The edges of the majority of wounds were uneven, with many bends and convulsions. Microbes accumulated in these bends. Fleming made a wound of wound from glass: Rained the test tube and bent her end like the wound convolutions. Then he filled this test tube with serum contaminated by manure. It was like general scheme ordinary fighting. The next day, the serum became muddy and published an unpleasant smell. It has grown a huge number of microbes. Then, the Fleming poured serum and filled the tube with a solution of a conventional strong antiseptics, after which it filled again washing the test tube of clean, unrelated serum. And what? How many times the Fleming neither washed the test tube with antiseptics, pure serum in the day became the same silent and muddy.

In the bends of the tubes of the microbes persisted, no matter what. From this experience, Fleming concluded that ordinary antiseptics do not help at all at front wounds. His Council of Military Doctors was as follows: remove all dead fabrics, where microbes can easily develop, and to help the body to fight the infection itself by the release of white blood cells, of which the PC is formed. White blood cells (fresh right) destroy the colony of microbes.

Fleming wrote about his feelings in those days:

"Looking at the infected wounds, on people who suffered and dying and who we could not help, I burned from the desire to find, finally, some means that would be able to kill these microbes, something like Salvarsan ..."

In November 1918, the war ended, Fleming returned to England, in his laboratory.

Fleming was often ridiculed for mess in the laboratory. But this mess, as it turned out, was fruitful. One of his employees told:

"Fleming retained the culture of microorganisms allocated to them for two or three weeks and, before you destroy, they studied them carefully to check if there was no accidentally unexpected and interesting phenomenon. Further history has shown that if he was as neat as I, he would most likely not reveal anything new. "

Once in 1922, suffering from a runny nose, Fleming sowed in a laboratory dishes - a cup of Petri - its own nasal mucus. In that part of the Petri dishes, where the mucus hit, the colonies of bacteria were killed. Fleming began to explore this phenomenon and found out that the same action render tears, trimming of the nail, saliva, pieces of lively fabric. When a drop of tears fell into a tube with a solution, muddy from a variety of bacteria, it became completely transparent in a few seconds!

Fleming employees had to postpone a lot of "torment", extracting tears for experiments. They cut off the zest from Lemon, squeezed it into their eyes and collected speaking tears. In the hospital newspaper, a humorous drawing was even placed, at which children will give a laboratory assistant to make themselves, and the other laboratory assists tears from them to the vessel with the inscription "Antiseptics".

Fleming called the substance open "Lizozyme"- from the Greek words" dissolving "and" swax "(there was a dissolution of bacteria). Unfortunately, Lizozyme killed far from all harmful, pathogenic bacteria.

The most important discovery in his life Fleming also helped the case and creative disorder in the laboratory. Somehow in 1928, Fleming visited his colleague price. Fleming moved Petri dishes with old cultures. Mold flew in many of them, which happens quite often. Fleming said price: "As soon as you open a cup with a culture, you are waiting for trouble: I will definitely get anything from the air ..." Suddenly he fell silent and said, as always, calmly: "Strange ..."

In a cup of Petri, which he kept in his hands, also grown mold, but here the colonies of bacteria around her died, dissolved.

From this point on, Fleming began to explore the mold deadly for bacteria, and the Petri dish, in which she flew, he retained until his death.

Alexander Fleming Watching Antagonism Penicillium Notatum. and staphilococcus In mixed culture opened a strain of a mold mushroom penicill (Penicillium. notatum.), Highlighting a chemical that delays the growth of staphylococcus. The substance was called "Penicillin". True, ahead was the most important test: this substance will not be the same harmful for humans and animals, as for bacteria? If it were so, Penicillin would not differ from many well-known and before that antiseptics. It could not be introduced into the blood. To the greatest joy of Fleming and his employees, penicillin broth, deadly for bacteria, was no more dangerous for experimental rabbits and mice than ordinary broth.

But to apply penicillin for treatment, it was necessary to get in its pure form, to highlight it from the broth. Broth containing alien protein for the body, it was impossible to be introduced into the blood of a person.

In February 1929, Fleming made a message about his opening in a medical society. He did not have a single question! Scientists met the discovery absolutely indifferent, without the slightest interest. Back in 1952, Fleming recalled this "terrible minute."

So passed eleven years! Those few chemists who are interested in Penicillin could not allocate it in its pure form. Fleming, however, did not lose hope and believed that the substance had a great future.

In 1940, he unexpectedly happened one of the happiest events in the life of Fleming. From the medical journal, he learned that the Oxford scientist Florance and Chase managed to obtain a stable penicillin preparation in purified. Fleming did not give out his joy and only later noticed that he had been dreaming about working with such chemists for 11 years.

The history of the opening of Penicillina is truly amazing. Who would have thought that a talented Jewish musician boy, whose father was a leaving from Russia, and his mother, in the end, would ultimately quit a professional pianist and find a completely different way to worldwide glory. We are talking about Ernest Caine, which we know under his English name Chain. It is difficult to say whether those who see the fate of a person in his name are right, but in this case the name of Ernest, which is translated as "sincere, truthful", fully consistent with the nature and moral advantages of his carrier.

Ernest's father was a talented chemist, who organized his own production in Berlin. And although the son graduated from the gymnasium and the university, the parents saw him behind the piano. He became a talented concerted pianist, as well as the musical criticism of the Berlin newspaper, but the love of science rearranged. In the intervals between concerts and rehearsals, the young man disappeared in the laboratory of the chemical pathology of the famous Berlin clinic "Sharit" - "Mercy".

In April 1933, E. Chain was forced to leave Germany to never return to his homeland. His friend, the famous English biologist J. Haldian, arranged him in Cambridge, where during his work on the dissertation E. Chain proved that the neurotoxin of the serpentine poison is a digestive enzyme. The work made him a name, so in 1935 he was invited by the professor of the pathology of Florance in Oxford to deploy work on lysozyme - antibacterial enzyme. E. Chain offers G. Flory to concentrate on a more promised penicilline, Open A. Fleming. E. Cheyne's enthusiasm infected G. Flory, who could not wait for checking the actions of the antibiotic on microbes. It was Flori that took out the first 35 pounds of government funds to finance the work, supported by E. Mellabi from the Council of Medical Research.

On May 25, 1940, under the roar of bombs falling on the streets of London, the decisive experience on 50 white mice was completed. Each of them was introduced deadly dose of the microbe of streptococcus. Half of the mice did not receive any treatment, the rest of the rest was administered to Penicillin for two days. After 16 hours, 25 experimental animals were killed, and 24 mice receiving treatment survived. Only one died. Then there was a biochemical triumph of E. Cheyne, which showed that Penicillin has a boblactam structure. It remained only to establish the production of a new miracle - medicine.

His miraculous properties were proved in the same Oxford, in one of whose clinics, on October 15 of the same year, a local police officer, complained about the wrong "will" in the corner of the mouth (the wound was infected with golden staphylococcus and ventilated). By mid-January, the infection captured the face of a man, neck and twisted on hand and light. And then the doctors were drunk in a poverty unheard of the moment Penicillin. During the month, the patient felt good: But the precious crystals received from Oxford were over, and on March 15, 1941, the police officer died. But in spite of the unsuccessful, the city of Flory began to gather in America in search of commercial assistance in establishing mass production of the product. The famous pharmaceutical company "Merk" from the city of Raway New Jersey sponsored the work of S. Vaxman from the University of Rutters, who, starting in 1939, led to the study of "anti-biosis" of streptomycetes. His first work was published on August 24, 1940 in the authoritative "Lancet" leaving in London. Therefore, the arrival of G. Flory with ready-made developments was similar to Manna Heaven. "The Americans stole Penicillin from the British!" This is true only in part, because England due to military exhaustion of resources could not quickly establish industrial production of antibiotics, with the help of which British soldiers were treated. No wonder at the presentation of the Nobel Prize for Medicine for 1945, they said that "Fleming made more than 25 divisions for victory over fascism than 25 divisions."

The first use of Penicillin in the United States occurred in February 1942. Suddenly, Anna Miller, a young 33-year-old wife of the Yale University administrator, a mother of three children. Being a nurse by education, she herself treated a four-year-old son from Streptococcal Angina. The boy recovered, but his mother suddenly had a miscarriage, complicated by a fever with a high temperature. The woman was delivered to the chief hospital of New Heivna in the same State of New Jersey with a diagnosis of Streptococcal sepsis: in millilitress of her blood, bacteriologists counted 25 microbial colonies! But what could do into those days doctors against the Terrible Sepsis? If it were not for a miracle in the face of J. Fulton, a friend Flori, who was lying in another chamber, who picked up some pulmonary infection, examining soldiers in California. On March 12, the attending physician told J.Fulton about the approaching death of Anna, which had a temperature of 41 ° for 11 days! "And it is impossible to get a medicine from Flor," he expressed a timid hope. J. Fulton believed that he had the right to turn to a friend. In the end, it was he helped him in 1939 to receive a grant of the Rockefeller Foundation by 5 thousand dollars. (Money was released on the study of penicillin bactericidal action).

J. Fulton called "Merck", the permission was received, and the first doses of Penicillin were sent to the New Heivna Hospital. Invaluable cargo accompanied the police. At 3 o'clock, Anna made the first injection. By 9 o'clock in the next morning, its temperature became normal! In November 1942, Merk had already massive tests of penicillin in humans when the antibiotic recipients were half a thousand people who were injured in a fire in the nightclub of Boston.

A in May 1942, Anna Miller, who lost 16 kg in weight, but happy and healthy, discharged from the hospital. In August, A. Fleming visited his "kiss". In 1990, her, 82-year-old, honored in the Smithsonian Museum of Natural Sciences in Washington.

In 1942, Fleming also had to check the effect of Penicillin on his close friend, sick inflammation of the brain. During the month, Fleming managed to fully cure a hopeless patient.

In 1941-1942 In America and England, industrial production of penicillin has been established.

The tiny dispute, randomly listed by the wind in the Laboratory of Fleming, now worked real wonders. She saved the lives of hundreds and thousands of patients and wounded on the fronts of people. She laid the beginning of a whole branch of the pharmaceutical industry - the production of antibiotics. Later, somehow, talking about this dispute, Fleming led the saying: "Mighty oaks grow out of small acorns." The war gave the discovery of Fleming a special meaning.

The name of the scientist was surrounded by glory, which increased. His, like his medicine, now knew the whole world. The action of the new medicine exceeded the most bold expectations. Many severe patients he brought complete healing. From this point on, the triumphal march of Penicillin for all countries of the world began. He was called "Wonderful Mold", "Yellow Magic", etc. He cured blood infection, the inflammation of the lungs, all sorts of suppuration and other severe ailments. Previously, 50-80 people from every 100 sick people died from blood (sepsis). It was one of the most dangerous diseases, in front of which medicine most often turned out to be powerless. Now Penicillin saves almost all patients with sepsis. Death from blood infection is now an emergency. Many people die from the inflammation of the lungs, especially children and old people, now they are rarely dying from this disease. You only need to apply penicillin on time.

English Kinggraded scientist in noble dignity. And in 1945 A. Fleming, H. Flori and E. Chain were awarded Nobel Prize According to medicine for the opening of Penicillin.

Alexander Fleming died suddenly on March 11, 1955. His death made to grieve hardly not the whole world. In the Spanish city of Barcelona, \u200b\u200bwho visited Fleming, the flowers poured all the flowers from the baskets to the memorial plaque with his name. In Greece, where he also had a scientist, declared mourning. Fleming was buried in the London Cathedral of St. Paul.

Although there are information that in 1985, in the archives of Lyon University, the dissertation was found early to the Medica Student (Ernest Augustine Durane), for forty years before Fleming Details characterizing the drug from mold outdoor R.notatum., active against many pathogenic bacteria.

In 1937 - M. Welsh described the first antibiotic streptomice origin - aktinomycetin. In 1939 - N.A. Krasilnikov and A.I. Koreniako received mietetin;

Among the first researchers, which took up targeted search for antibiotics was R. Dybo. The experiments carried out by him and its employees led to the opening of antibiotics produced by some soil bacteria, their allocation in its pure form and use in clinical practice. In 1939 doubly received tyrritsin. - a complex of antibiotics consisting of gramicidine and thyrocidine; This was an incentive for other scientists who discovered even more important antibiotics for the clinic.

Thus, by the time of the preparation of Penicillin, five antibiotic agents were known in purified form ( micophenolic acid, pylamasa, actinomycetin, mieties and thyrotricin).

So began the era of antibiotics. In our country, a great contribution to the doctrine of antibiotics was made by Z. in Yermolyev and G.F. Gause. Zinaida Vissarionna Yermolyeva (1898 - 1974) - author of the First Soviet Penicillina (Krustosin) derived from P.. Crustosum

The term itself "Antibiotics"(From Greek Anti, BIOS - against life) was proposed by S. Vaxman in 1942 to designate natural substances produced by microorganisms and at low concentrations of antagonistic to the growth of other bacteria. Z. Vaxman with his students at the University of Ratzers, USA, was engaged aktinomycetami (such as Streptomyces) and in 1944 discovered streptomycin, an effective means of treating tuberculosis and other diseases. Streptomycin has the strongest. With tuberculous lesion of brain shells - meningitis, with a tuberculosis of larynx, leather. Early almost all sick tuberculosis meningitis died, and now with streptomycin, most patients are recovered. The tuberculosis of light streptomycin acts weaker. Nevertheless, it still remains one of the best treatments for this disease. Streptomicin also helps with cough, inflammation of the lungs, blood infect.

Subsequently, the number of antibiotics grew rapidly. After 1940, many clinically important antibiotics were obtained, including bacitracine, chloramphenicol (levomycetin), chlorothetracycline, oxytetracycline, amphotericin, cycloserine, erythromycin, griseofullvin, canamycin, neomycin, nastatin, polymixin, vancomycin, vyomycin, cephalosporins, ampicillin, carbenicillin, aminoglycosides, streptomycin, gentamicin.

GBOU city of Moscow Gymnasium №1505

"Moscow City Pedagogical Gymnasium-Laboratory"

abstract
Stability of bacteria to antibiotics

Alekseenok Maria

Leader:Nosdraacheva A.N.

Chapter 1. Antibiotics………………..……………………………….…………………11

1. What is antibiotics? ……………..……………………………….….………4
2. History of creating antibiotics …..……………………………….……………4
3. How do antibiotics affect bacteria? ..………………….……………4
4. Why does the antibiotic kill the cells of the host organism? …..…………..5
5. The emergence of the resistance of bacteria to antibiotics ……………….……5

……………………6

Chapter 3.Gorizontal transfer of genes………………….………………………….8

Chapter 4. Bowls………………………..………………..……………………….…..9

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………..10

Bibliography ………………………………….…………………………………..10
Introduction

Nowadays, antibiotics are widely used in medicine. But in the process of their use, the occurrence of resistance to antibiotics in bacteria was found. And the longer humanity is treated with antibiotics, the faster bacteria adapt to new drugs, since not only the resistance genes themselves are selected, but the mechanisms of their rapid acquisition by pathogenic bacteria are selected. Science began to explore the causes of this phenomenon and revealed several mechanisms for the stability of bacteria to antibiotics.

This topic is considered by many scientists, and therefore is written by scientific language. I was interested in the problem of sustainability for two reasons. First, my grandfather fell ill with me, and in the process of his treatment there was a problem, since the bacteria-pathogens of his illness turned out to be steady practically to all antibiotics. My mother is also studying this problem, and it has become interesting for me to understand this topic. I realized that this problem is really important for everyone. Therefore, I decided to write about the stability of bacteria to antibiotics clear for schoolchildren.

The purpose of my abstract is the study and the presentation by the language of bacteria resistance to antibiotics clear to schoolchildren.

I got the following tasks:

1. to define antibiotics

2. To tell, who and when opened antibiotics.

3. Describe the mechanism of action of antibiotics on bacteria.

4. Answer the question: "Why does the antibiotic kill eukaryotic cells?"

5. Describe bacteria stability mechanisms to antibiotics.

6. To tell what biofilms and horizontal transfer of genes are, and what role they play in the stability of bacteria to antibiotics.

Work structure: Essay consists of administration, chapters with a theoretical overview, conclusion and sources.

Chapter 1. Antibiotics

1.1 What is antibiotics?

Initially, antibiotics were determined as organic substances of natural or semi-synthetic origin, capable of killing bacteria or slow down their growth. IN lately Doctors and scientists stopped separating the concepts of antibiotics and chemotherapy (antibiotics of fully synthetic origin).

1.2 History of antibiotics

Since ancient times, people used mold to disinfect wounds. But the first antibiotic (Penicillin) was opened in 1928 by Alexander Fleming. Penicillin for therapeutic use developed scientists Florary and Chain.

After the discovery of Penicillina, scientists have discovered many other antibiotics, such as: actinomycin, neomycin, streptotricin, bacitracin, polymixin, vyomycin, chloramphenicol. Scientists have developed chemical modifications of natural antibiotics with the best medical properties. They were less toxic, no longer collapsed in the human body, they were better penetrated into organs and tissues, more species of bacteria were able to suppress.
1.3. How do antibiotics affect bacteria?

The antibiotic is irreversibly associated with the target (enzymes involved in the synthesis of DNA, RNA, proteins and cell walls), which leads to a stopping key (vital) reaction. As a result, the bacterium dies or ceases to share (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. The mechanism of action of antibiotics on bacteria.

1.4. Why does the antibiotic kill the cells of the host organism?

Since the structure of eukaryotic proteins responsible for key biochemical reactions in the cell differs from prokaryotic, then antibiotics acting on bacteria are not toxic for eukaryot. The safest group of antibiotics are penicillins, since they violate the formation of peptidoglycan, which is part of the cell wall of bacteria. And the eukaryotic peptidoglycan is not formed.

1.5. The emergence of the resistance of bacteria to antibiotics

The creation of the first antibiotics helped humanity to cope with many fatal diseases. For example, with tuberculosis, inflammation of the lungs, various staphylococcal infections and many others. However, a little more than 10 years after the start of the application of the first antibiotics, it turned out that the bacteria arises to them stability. In addition, in recent years, scientists have found that now sustainable sustainability arises more quickly than before. Perennial scientific studies of all problems associated with the occurrence of sustainability in bacteria revealed three main reasons for this phenomenon. First - horizontal transfer of genes

sustainability, the second - the occurrence of spontaneous mutations and the third is the formation of biofilm bacteria.

And now we will open in detail on the main mechanisms and ways of resistance to antibiotics.

Chapter 2. Bacteria Stability Mechanisms for Antibiotics
Figure 2. Biochemical mechanisms of drug sustainability. Compiled on the basis of the scheme shown in Article S. Z. Mindlin, M.A. Petrova, I. A. Bass, J. M. Gorlenko. Origin, evolution and migration of drug sustainability genes // Genetics.

2006. T. 42. №11. P. 1495.
Various biochemical mechanisms lead to the stability of bacteria to antibiotics (Fig. 2).

Allocate the following mechanisms:

1. Reducing the permeability of the membrane.
2. Active antibiotic removal from the cell.
3. Inactivation of the antibiotic.
4. Modification of the antibiotic.
5. Modification target molecule.

Other more rare stability mechanisms are also known.

The first mechanism is to reduce the permeability of the cell membrane due to changes in its chemical composition.

If the antibiotic penetrates the bacterium, then it can either actively endure out of the cell or inactivate. The active transport of the antibiotic from the cell due to the operation of specialized proteins that form transmembrane pumps transporting antibiotics. Inactivation occurs due to the fact that bacterium forms special enzymes that change the chemical structure of the antibiotic, as a result of which it loses its antibacterial activity. Changes in the chemical structure can occur by degradation or modification of the antibiotic. Degradation is the process of destruction of an antibiotic molecule, for example, due to hydrolysis. Modification - the process of changing the structure of an antibiotic molecule, for example, by attaching additional functional chemical groups. The functional group is a structural fragment of the organic molecule (some group of atoms) defining it chemical properties.

Another mechanism is the modification of the target molecule of bacteria, as a result of which the binding of the antibiotic and target is disturbed. The target is a molecule with which the antibiotic binds and disrupts its functions, which as a result kills the bacterium. Most often, targets serve DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase, ribosome. And for ß-lactamas, the target is a dipheptide from which the cell wall is formed. The target modification occurs due to the occurrence of spontaneous gene mutations or the presence of special genes. Rifampicin resistance is a vivid example of resistance arising from the gene mutation. Rifampicin binds to one of the proteins (beta-subunit), which is part of the RNA polymerase, resulting in the inactivation of the entire enzyme. Rifampicin resistance arises as a result of mutations in a gene encoding Beta subunit. This is due to the transverse of the AT sequence in TA. As a result, in the protein of the beta subunit, asparagic acid is replaced with valine. As a result, rifampicin is no longer able to bind to such a changed enzyme. The relatively high frequency of the occurrence of mutations in the BAT-subunit gene of RNA polymerase leads to a rapid selection of sustainable mutants, which largely limits the use of this antibiotic against sensitive bacteria.

Of the rare mechanisms, the formation of a metabolic shunt is known to replace one chain of reactions to another. For example, this mechanism is used by enterococcal bacteria for vancomycin resistance.

This antibiotic is irreversibly associated with the D-Ala-D-ALA dipheptide, which is part of the precursor molecule from which the cell wall is formed. As a result of this connection, the cell wall cannot form, and bacterium always dies. Scientists thought that the resistance to such an antibiotic would not arise, but in 30 years she appeared. Sustainable strains found instead of the D-Ala-D-Ala di-ala d-ala-d-lac, with which the antibiotic does not bind. Sustainable bacteria detect seven additional genes obtained by horizontal transfer. It is these genes that are involved in the synthesis of an alternative precursor of the cell wall. And only after entering the antibiotic cell.

There is also such an interesting mechanism of stability as imitation of target molecule. In the course of research at the Mycobacterium smegmatis and Mycobacterium Bovis and Mycobacterium bovis, which is folded into the tertiary structure, is very similar to the DNA double spiral structure. This protein consists of 5 amino acids, rolled into the human rights spiral exactly the same width, with the same charge and spectrum of light absorption as a DNA molecule. The antibiotic (from the fluoroquinolone group), penetrated into the cell, binds to protein, and not with DNA. As a result, the antibiotic does not affect the synthesis of DNA.

One bacterial cell may have at the same time several different mechanisms of resistance to one antibiotic.

The stability of bacteria to antibiotics is congenital and acquired. Congenital stability may be due to a feature of the structure external structures or the ability of this type or genus bacteria to highlight the substance that inactivating the antibiotic. And the acquired stability occurs when gene transmitted by horizontal gene transfer, or by the occurrence of spontaneous mutation. All mechanisms that bacterium possess are inherited, as they are encoded on DNA.

Chapter 3. Horizontal gene transfer

Horizontal transfer of genes (GPG) is the process of transmitting genetic information to a non-descendant organism. For the GPG, the participation of at least two independent processes is necessary: \u200b\u200bthe physical transfer of DNA and the embedding of the transferred DNA into the recipient genome, which takes place the stable inheritance of the signs acquired in such a way.

Miscellaneous mobile genetic elements are played by the main role in GPG: plasmids, transposons, IS elements and others.

Plasmids are extrachromosomic genetic elements, in the form of a closed or linear DNA molecule that can exist longly exist in the cell. Plasmids carry out physical transfer of genes between cells of different bacteria. They are also a platform on which there is a constant exchange of genetic material at the expense of various recombination systems. Recombination is the process of sharing similar areas of DNA.

Transposon - DNA sequence capable of moving inside the genome. Transposons contain transposition genes and additional genes and are limited to special direct or inverted end repetitions.

IS elements are similar to transposons, but they only encode proteins involved in the transposition process. They can also be part of complex transposons.

Because of the mass uncontrolled use of antibiotics and poor ecology, there was a decrease in natural barriers that limit the possibility of GPG in bacteria. This led to the fact that antibiotic resistance genes.

began to be transmitted with a greater frequency than before.

Chapter 4. Bioplenki

Resistance to antibiotics can also arise due to the formation of biofilm bacteria. Biofilms - a pre-paper system consisting of a bacterial community having a film structure. Biofilms are able to survive with maximum therapeutic dosages of antibiotics. Biofilms can be resistant to multiple antibiotics. This happens for the following reasons.

1. The existence in biofilms of special persistent forms of bacteria or persisters. Persister is a special form of a cell in which biochemical reactions do not occur. Thus, the antibiotic does not affect the cell, because it does not occur in it, and the antibiotic affects the functioning cells. After some time, the cell comes out of such a state and begins to function.
2. Matrix filtration capacity. Due to the fact that the matrix bacterial bioflink consists of various biopolymers - polysaccharides, proteins and even DNA, the matrix not only connects the cells into a single structure, but also fills the intercellular spaces, which allows the biofilm to output antibiotics.
3. The population of bacteria that constitutes a biofilm can also have different aforementioned protective mechanisms that complement each other.

Thus, the formation of bacterial biofilms makes bacteria more resistant to antibiotics than free-lived cells.
Conclusion

The development and distribution of multiple resistance to antibiotics among pathogenic bacteria already creates serious problems in the treatment of human and animal infections. In addition, there is a real danger that in the future the treatment with antibiotics will generally become ineffective. Therefore, new mechanisms for the fight against pathogenic bacteria are needed. At the moment, scientists are developing new strategies to combat bacterial diseases. But now the main task of humanity is the termination of the uncontrolled use of antibiotics. In other words, antibiotics should not be used without a serious threat to health.

In this work, the goal and the task of me were achieved.
Bibliography:

1. Mindlin S.Z., Petrova M.A., Bass I.A., Gorlenko Zh.M.Origin, evolution and migration of drug sustainability genes // Genetics. 2006. T. 42. №11. P. 1495-1511.
2. Petrova MA Horizontal transfer of resistance genes to mercury compounds and antibiotics in natural populations of paleobacteria. Dissertation for degree of doctor biological Sciences. Moscow: 2013. S. 52-89.
3. Egorov N. S. Basics of exercise on antibiotics. Tutorial (ed. 6th). M.: MSU Publisher, 2004. P. 7-61.
4. Encyclopedia for Avanta + // Chemistry. T.17. M.: Avanta +, 2004. P. 329.
5. Ovchinnikov Yu.A., Monastyrskaya G.S., Gubanov V.V., Lipkin v.m., Sverdlov E.D., Kiver I.F., Bass I., Mindlin S.Z., Danilevskaya O.N., Khesin R.B. PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF ESCERICHIA COLI RNA POLYMERASE NUCLEOTIDE SUBSTITITION IN THE BETA SUBUNIT GENE OF THE RIFAMPICIN RESITANT RPOB255 Mutant // Molecular and General Genetics. 1981. V.184. Number 3. Pp. 536-538
6. Chebotar I.V., Myatasky A.N., Konchakova E.D., Lazareva A.V., Chistyakova V.P. Antibiotic resistance of biofilm bacteria // Clinical microbiology and antimicrobial chemotherapy. 2012. T. 14, No. 1. P. 51-58.

Delivery is bhalіsu:

Antibiotics

Many centuries ago it was observed that the green mold helps in the treatment of heavy purulent wounds. But in those distant times did not know any microbes or antibiotics. The first scientific description of the therapeutic effects of green mold was made in the 70s of the 19th century Russian scientists V.A. Manassein and A.G. Flops. After that, for several decades, they forgot about the green mold, and only in 1929 it became a real sensation that turned the scientific world. The phenomenal qualities of this unpleasant living organism studied Professor Microbiology of the University of London Alexander Fleming.

Fleming experiments have shown that the green mold produces a special substance with antibacterial properties and the overwhelming growth of many pathogenic microorganisms.

Antibiotics. History of receipt and use of antibiotics

This substance called the scientist named Penicillin, according to the scientific name of the weathered molding mushrooms. In the course of further research, Fleming found out that penicillin actually acts on the microbes, but at the same time he does not have a negative effect on leukocytes who actively participate in the fight against infection, and other organism cells. But Fleming failed to highlight the pure culture of penicillin for the production of drugs.

The doctrine of antibiotics is a young synthetic branch of modern natural science. For the first time in 1940, the chemotherapeutic preparation of microbial origin was obtained in the crystalline form - Penicillin is an antibiotic, which opened the era of antibiotics era.

Many scientists dreamed of creating such drugs that could be used in the treatment various diseases A person, about preparations that can kill pathogenic bacteria, without having a harmful effect on the patient's body.

Paul Erlich (1854-1915) As a result of numerous experiments, in 1912, arsenic drug - Salvarsan who kills in vitro Syphilisa causative agent. In the 30s of the last century, new organic compounds were obtained as a result of chemical synthesis - sulfamides, among which red streptocid (ripped) was the first effective drug that had a therapeutic effect in severe streptococcal infections.

For a long time, he was in proud loneliness, except for the South and Central America used by the Indians for the treatment of Malaria Kinin - the alkaloid of a frying tree. Only after a quarter of a century, sulfonamide drugs were opened, and in 1940 Alexander Fleming allocated Penicillin in its pure form.

In 1937, sulfidine was synthesized in our country - a compound close to pronosil. The discovery of sulfamed preparations and their use in medical practice amounted to a well-known era in chemotherapy of many infectious diseases, including sepsis, meningitis, pneumonia, grinding inflammation, gorgers and some others.

Louis Paster and S. Jebert in 1877 reported that aerobic bacteria suppress the growth of Bacillus Anthracis.

At the end of the 19th century, V. A. Manassein (1841-1901) and A. G. Tolebnov (1838-1908) showed that mushrooms from the genus Penicillium are able to delay in in vivo the development of pathogens of a number of human skin diseases.

I. I. Mechnikov (1845 - 1916) in 1894 drew attention to the possibility of using some saprophytic bacteria in the fight against pathogenic microorganisms.

In 1896, R. Gosio from Penicillium Brevicompactum cultural fluid isolated a crystalline compound - a mycophenolic acid, the overwhelming growth of the bacteria of the Siberian ulcers.

Emmyrich and Low in 1899 reported an antibiotic substance, formed by Pseudomonas Pyocyanea, they called it with pyocyanase; The drug was used as a therapeutic factor as a local antiseptic.

In 1910-1913, O. Black and U. Alsberg were isolated from the genush genus Penicillium penicillic acid, having antimicrobial properties.

In 1929, A. Fleming was opened a new drug penicillinwhich only in 1940 managed to highlight in crystalline form.

Opening Fleming

In 1922, after unsuccessful attempts to highlight the causative agent of colds, Fleming purely accidentally opened Lizozyme (the name was invented by Professor Wright) - an enzyme that kills some bacteria and harm with healthy tissues. Unfortunately, the prospects for medical use lysozyme turned out to be rather limited because it was a fairly effective means against bacteria that are not causative agents of diseases, and completely ineffective against pathogenic organisms. This discovery prompted Fleming to make looking for other antibacterial drugs that would be harmless to the human body.

The next happy chance - the opening of Penicillin Fleming in 1928 - was the result of a propelleration of a number of circumstances, so incredible that it is almost impossible to believe in them. Unlike its neat colleagues, cleared cups with bacterial cultures after the end of working with them, Fleming did not throw away cultures for 2-3 weeks until its laboratory table was clouded with 40-50 cups. Then he was taken for cleaning, looked through the culture one after another, so as not to miss anything interesting. In one of the cups, he discovered mold, which, to his surprise, was oppressed by the existed culture of the bacterium. Separating the mold, he found that "broth" on which the mold broke out, acquired the pronounced ability to suppress the growth of microorganisms, and also had bactericidal and bacteriological properties.

Fleming's slope and the observation made by them appeared two circumstances in a number of random chances that contributed to the discovery. Mold, which was infected with culture, was very rare. It was probably listed from the laboratory, where samples of mold were grown, taken from the houses of patients suffering from bronchial asthma, with the aim of making desensitizing extracts from them. Fleming left the famous cup on the laboratory table later and left to relax. Coming in London the cooling created favorable conditions for the growth of mold, and the blending then followed - for bacteria. As it turned out later, the progress of these circumstances was obliged to the famous discovery.

Initial studies of Fleming gave a number of important information about Penicillin. He wrote that this is an "effective antibacterial substance ..., which has a pronounced effect on the pyrogen coils and chopsticks of the diphtheria group. .. Penicillin even in huge doses is not toxic for animals ... It can be assumed that it will be an effective antiseptic in the outdoor treatment of areas affected by peculiar microbes, or when it is introduced inside. " Knowing it, Fleming did not nevertheless such an obvious next step, which 12 years later was taken by Howard W. Flory and was to find out whether the mouse would be saved from the lethal infection, if they were treated with the injections of penicillin broth. Fleming prescribed it to several patients for outdoor use. However, the results were contradictory. The solution was unstable and with difficulty succumbed to cleaning, if it was about large quantities.

Like the Pastern Institute in Paris, the Branch of Vaccination at the Hospital of St. Mary, where Fleming worked, existed due to the sale of vaccines. Fleming discovered that in the process of preparation, Penicillin vaccines helps protect cultures from staphylococcus. It was a technical achievement, and the scientist was widely used by him, a weekly giving orders to produce large boulevard batch. He was shared by Penicillin culture samples with colleagues in other laboratories, but never mentioned Penicillina in any of the 27 articles and lectures published by him in 1930-1940, even if it was about substances, causing the death of bacteria.

Thus, by the time of the preparation of Penicillin in purified form, five antibiotic agents were known (mycophenolic acid, pylamasis, actinomycetin, mieties and thyrotricin). Subsequently, the number of antibiotics has increased rapidly and now they are described by almost 7,000 (formed only by microorganisms); At the same time, only about 160 is used in medical practice. With the preparation of Penicillina as a drug (1940), a new direction emerged in science - the doctrine of antibiotics, which is extremely rapidly developing in recent decades.

In the 70s, more than 300 new antibiotics were described annually. In 1937, Velsh described the first antibiotic of the streptomacent origin of Aktimisetin, in 1939, Mietietine and Düubo - Tyrritsin were received by Koreilnikov and Koreniako. You will later receive the number of antibiotics grew in a very rapid pace.

The Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine of 1945 was awarded jointly to Fleming, Chein and Floeri "for the discovery of Penicillin and his healing effects in various infectious diseases." In the Nobel lecture, Fleming noted that "Phenomenal success of Penicillin led to an intensive study of the antibacterial properties of mold and other lower representatives of the plant world. Only a few of them possess such properties. "

In the remaining 10 years of life, the scientist was awarded 25 honorary degrees, 26 medals, 18 premiums, 30 awards and honorary membership in the 89 Academy of Sciences and Scientific Societies.

Side effects

However, antibiotics are not only a panacea from microbes, but also strong poisons. Leading deadly wars at the micromyr-level level, with their help alone microorganisms ruthlessly straighten with others. The person noted this property of antibiotics and used it for his own purposes - began to straighten with microbes with their own weapons, created on the basis of natural hundreds of even more powerful synthetic drugs. Nevertheless, the intended antibiotics of the very nature of the nature of killing is still inherently from them.

All antibiotics, no exceptions, possess side effects! This follows from the very name of such substances. Natural natural property of all antibiotics kill microbes and microorganisms, unfortunately, it is impossible to send only one type of bacteria or microbes to the destruction. By destroying harmful bacteria and microorganisms, any antibiotic has an inevitably the same inhibitory effect and useful microorganisms similar to all similar to the "enemy", which, as is known, take an active part in almost all processes occurring in our organism.

Folk medicine has long been known some methods of application as therapeutic agents of microorganisms or products of their exchange, but the cause of their therapeutic action at that time remained unknown. For example, moldy bread was used to treat some ulcers, intestinal disorders and other diseases in folk medicine.

In 1871-1872 The works of Russian researchers V. A. Manasseina and A. G. Polotebnov, which reported on the practical use of green mold for the healing of the skin ulcers in humans. The first information about the antagonism of bacteria was made public by the founder of Microbiology Louis Pasteur in 1877, he drew attention to the suppression of the development of the pathogen of the Siberian ulcers by some saprofit bacteria and expressed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe possibility of practical use of this phenomenon.

With the name of the Russian scientist I. I. Mesnikov A (1894) is connected scientifically reasonable practical use Antagonism between enterobacteriums causing intestinal disorders, and lactic acid microorganisms, in particular the Bulgarian stick ("Mesnician Prostokvasha"), for the treatment of intestinal human diseases.

The Russian doctor E. Garthier (1905) applied fermented fermented fermented ferrous foods containing an acidophilic wand for the treatment of intestinal disorders.

History of opening antibiotics

As it turned out, the acidophilic wand has more pronounced antagonistic properties compared to the Bulgarian wand.

At the end of the XIX - early XX century. Antagonistic properties of sporing-forming bacteria were opened. The same period includes first work, which describe antagonistic properties from actinomycetes. Later from the culture of the soil sporing stick Bacillus Brevis R. Douube (1939), it was possible to highlight an antibiotic substance called with threadricin, which was a mixture of two antibiotics - thyrocidine and gramicidine. In 1942, Soviet researchers in F. Gause and M. G. Bhwnikova was allocated from the soil near Moscow, the new strain of Bacillus Brevis, a synthesizing antibiotic gramicidine C, differing from gramicidine doubl.

In 1939, N.A. Krasilnikov and A. I. Koreniako from the culture of purple actinomycetes Actinomyces Violaceus, highlighted by them from the soil, received the first antibiotic of actinomycene origin - mieties - and studied the conditions of biosynthesis and the use of mitcenetin in the clinic.

A. Fleming, studying Streptococcus, grown them on a nutrient medium in Petri dishes. On one of the cups together with staphylococci, a colony of a mold mushroom rose, around which staphylococci did not develop. Interested in this phenomenon, Fleming highlighted the culture of the mushroom, as defined as Penicillium Notatum. Allocate a substance that overwhelms the growth of staphylococci, was managed only in 1940 by the Oxford group of researchers. The resulting antibiotic was named Penicillin.

From the opening of Penicillin, a new era began in the treatment of infectious diseases - the era of the use of antibiotics. In a short time, a new industry, producing antibiotics on a large scale originated and developed. Now the questions of microbial antagonism have gained important practical importance and work on identifying new microorganisms - antibiotic producers began to wear a focused nature.

In the USSR, a group of researchers under the leadership of 3. V. Yermolyeva successfully was successfully obtained by receiving Penicillina. In 1942, the domestic drug Penicillin was developed. The Actinomyces Antibioticus antibiotic of actinomycin was isolated from the Vaxman and Woodroma from the Actinomyces Antibioticus culture, which was subsequently used as an anti-cancer.

The first antibiotic of actinomycene origin, which was found widespread use especially in the treatment of tuberculosis, was streptomycin opened in 1944 by Vaxman with employees. The anti-tuberculosis antibiotics also refer to open viomycin (flormycin), cycloserine, kanamycin, rifamycin.

In subsequent years, the intensive search for new compounds led to the discovery of a number of other therapeutically valuable antibiotics, which were widespread in medicine. These include preparations with a wide range of antimicrobial action. They suppress the growth of not only gram-positive bacteria, which are more sensitive to the action of antibiotics (pathogens of pneumonia, various suppurations, Siberian ulcers, tetanus, diphtheria, tuberculosis), but also grams of negative microorganisms, which are more resistant to the action of antibiotics (causative agents of abdominal typhoids, dysentery, cholera, brucellosis, tularevia), as well as rickettsis (rash typhoid pathogens) and large viruses (psychotocosis pathogens, lymphogranuluitosis, trachomas, etc.). Such antibiotics include chloramphenicol (levomycetin), chlorottracycline (biomycin), oxytetracycline (terrarsicine), tetracycline, neomycin (olimicin, mitzerine), kanamycin, ferryomycin (monomotine), etc. In addition, doctors currently have a group of reserve antibiotics active in relation to the gram-positive pathogens resistant to the penicillin, as well as antifungal antibiotics (nystatin, griseofullvin, amphotericin B, Levuary).

Currently, the number of famous antibiotics is approaching 2000, but only about 50 is used in clinical practice.

The antibiotic is a chemical that is made by one organism and destroys the other. The name "Antibiotic" originated from the word "antibiosis" (with gr. "Anti" - "against", "BIOS" - "Life") - the term, which in 1889 introduced a student Louis Pasteur Paul Villemin. It means a process by which one life can be used to destroy the other.

"Life against life"

In a wide understanding of the antibiotic is the general name of the medicines that are used to combat bacterial diseases. They contain substances that are produced by some microbes. Antibiotics are obtained from plants, mushrooms, water, soil, and even air. Finding into the body, they attack and kill infection, but do not damage healthy cells. Antibiotics are used to treat various hazardous diseases, such as tuberculosis, syphilis, diphtheria and many others.

People use antibiotics for more than 2500 years. Of course, they used to have a somewhat different kind than the one who got used to the modern man. No pills and capsules are just what could be getting in nature. For example, mold was often used as antibiotics - it helped cure rash, purulent wounds and skin infections.

In the late 1800s, a real boom began in the field of medical research. The main reason is the invention of the tool, without which there is no laboratory - microscope today. Scientists for the first time discovered the world of microorganisms, which cannot be seen with the naked eye.

Louis Paster discovered that not all bacteria were harmless to humans. He explored analyzes of many patient patients and proved the existence of pathogenic bacteria. After it, Robert Koh, who developed the method of discharge and reproduction of bacteria, took up infections. From that moment on, scientists tried to develop drugs that could kill microbes, but they all turned out to be either dangerous or ineffective.

Opening Alexander Fleming

Thousands of years, humanity has no effect on the epidemics of deadly diseases. 90% of children died in infant age from infections that can be cured today in a few days. Two hundred years ago, there was no effective treatment for diseases such as pneumonia, gonorrhea or rheumatic fever.

Hospitals were overcrowded by people with infection of blood, which began due to a banal scratch or wound. Of course, afterwards they all died. Everything changed only after the invention of the antibiotic called Penicillin.

Antibiotics are compounds produced by bacteria and mushrooms that are able to kill or inhibit competing types of microorganisms. This phenomenon is known for a long time - the ancient Egyptians used a mold with moldy bread for infected wounds. But Penicillin, the first real antibiotic, was discovered only in 1928. He was opened by Alexander Fleming - Professor of bacteriology at the Hospital of St. Mary in London.

Returning from the holiday on September 3, 1928, Fleming began to sort Petri dishes containing staphylococcal bacteria colonies that cause throat pain, furuncules and abscesses. In one of the cups, he noticed something unusual. It was littered with the colonies of staphylococcus, with the exception of one area. The tiny zone where the mold was located, was absolutely pure from bacteria. The space around the mold, which was later called the Rare strain Penicillium Notatum, was transparent. It seemed that the mold allocated something that prevents the growth of bacteria.

Fleming discovered that mold is able to kill a wide range of harmful bacteria, such as streptococcus, meningococcus and diphtheria wand. Then he began working on a new task. The scientist put in front of his students Stewart Craddock and Frederick Ridley, a difficult task - they had to highlight pure penicillin from mold. The experiment was completely failed - they were able to prepare only solutions of raw material.

Fleming published its results in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology in June 1929. In the report, he only slightly touched the potential therapeutic advantages of Penicillin. At this stage it was similar that the main purpose of his research would be the search for the bacteria insensitive to penicillin. This at least was practical for bacteriologists and retained their interest in penicillin.

Other scientists, including Harold Rastrik, Professor of Biochemistry of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, also tried to clean Penicillin. But they all failed.

Study of Penicillina in Oxford University

Howard Florance, Ernst Chain and their colleagues from Sir William's pathology School in Oxford University turned Penicillin from laboratory curiosity in a vital drug. Their cleaning work of Penicillina began in 1939. Because of military conditions, research was particularly difficult. To fulfill the animal experimentation programs and clinical trials, the team needed to process up to 500 liters of mold filtrate per week.

They began to grow it in a variety of tanks that were not at all similar to the vessels for cultivation: baths, trays, lactic bottles and food banks. Later, a special fermentation vessel was developed for their order. Scientists hired the team of "Penicillin Girls", which followed fermentation. In fact, Oxford's laboratory was turned into a penicillin factory.

Meanwhile, the Biochemist Norman Khitley extracts penicillin of huge amounts of filtrate by extracting it into amylacetate, and then back into the water using the countercurrent system. Edward Abraham, another biochemist, which was hired to accelerate production, was engaged in a recently open methodology of chromatography on the removal column of impurities from Penicillin.

In 1940, Howard Flory conducted important experiments that showed that Penicillin can protect mice from infection with deadly streptococci. Then, on February 12, 1941, a 43-year-old policeman Albert Alexander became the first person who experienced Oxford Penicillin. He scratched his lips during the trimming of roses, after which the life threatening infection with huge abscesses, which struck their eyes, face and lungs.

A few days after the injection, the patient's condition improved noticeably. But the reserves of drugs are over, and after a few days he died. Much top scores followed other patients, and soon there were plans to make Penicillin affordable for British soldiers who were injured on the battlefield.

Production of Penicillin in the United States during World War II

Howard Flory acknowledged that the large-scale production of penicillin cannot be carried out in Britain, where the chemical industry was completely absorbed by military actions. With the support of the Rockefeller Floor Foundation and his colleague Norman Khitley in the summer of 1941 went to the United States. They planned to interest the American pharmaceutical industry in the production of penicillin on a large scale.

Yale Physiologist John Fulton tied his British colleagues with people who could help them achieve this goal. And soon it was achieved - the production of the Northern Regional Research Laboratory of the Department (NRRL) in Peoria, Illinois decided to work in production (NRRL).

A few weeks later, the scientist Andrew Moyer found that it is possible to significantly increase the yield of penicillin, replacing lactose, which used Oxford researchers, sucrose. Soon after that, he made an even more important discovery - Moyer saw that adding a corn solution to the fermentation medium led to a tenfold increase in exit.

Soon the global search for the best strains, which produce penicillin. Soil samples were sent to Nrrl from around the world. Ironically, the most appropriate was the moldy melon from the fruit market of Peoria. The more productive mutant of the so-called Cantalum strain was obtained using X-rays at the Carnegie Institute. Time went, and the use of penicillin was still limited by clinical trials.

The stages of fermentation, recovery, cleaning and packaging quickly lost to the joint efforts of chemists and engineers who worked on the experimental production of penicillin. On March 1, 1944, Pfizer opened the first commercial plant for large-scale production of Penicillin in Brooklyn, New York.

"Wonderful Medicine"

In the meantime, clinical studies in the military and civilian sectors confirmed the therapeutic properties of Penicillin. They showed that the drug is effective in the treatment of a wide range of diseases, including streptococcal, staphylococcal and gonococcal infections. The US Army established the value of penicillin for the treatment of surgical and wound infections.

Clinical studies also demonstrated its effectiveness against syphilis, and by 1944 he became the main means of treating this disease in the UK armed forces and the United States. Since the rumors about this new "miracle drugs" began to reach the public, the demand for Penicillin increased. But first the deliveries were limited, and the priority was given to military use.

Fortunately, since the beginning of 1944, Penicillin production began to increase dramatically - from 21 to 1663 billion units. And already in 1945, this figure was 6.8 trillion. The American government was ultimately removed to remove all restrictions on the availability of the drug, and the status for March 15, 1945, Penicillin became accessible to each consumer - it was possible to purchase it in the nearest pharmacy.

By 1949, the annual production of Penicillin in the United States was 133.229 billion units, and the price fell from $ 20 (1943) to 10 cents.

On guard of mankind

Currently, more than 70 different types of antibiotics are available at the pharmaceutical market. Most of them are used to treat infections, some for fungi and simplest. Today, they are considered a completely safe medicine, of course, subject to the dosage.

Scientists are constantly working on the invention of new antibiotics. They experience thousands of natural plants and chemical substances. This is due to the fact that infections produce immunity to obsolete drugs. Every year they mutate and improving, so effective treatment Significantly becoming complicated.

Antibiotics - a great invention, possibly one of the best.

They help people survive in the fight against diseases and infections that could otherwise kill them. Antibiotics save lives - what could be helpful? The main thing is to use them with the mind.

History of opening antibiotics

The opening of antibiotics, without exaggeration, can be called one of the greatest achievements of the medicine of the last century. An English scientist Fleming, which in 1929 described the bactericidal effect of the colonies of Penicillin fungus on the colonies of bacteria, separated adjacent to the fungus. Like many other great discoveries in medicine, the opening of antibiotics was done by chance. It turns out that scientist Fleming did not really love purity, and therefore, often the test tubes on the shelves in his laboratory bred mold. Once after a short lack of Fleming, I noticed that the crushed colony of the mold fungus of Penicillin completely suppressed the growth of the neighboring colony of bacteria (both colonies grew in one test tube). Here you need to pay tribute to the genius of the great scientist who managed to notice this wonderful fact that served as the basis for the assumption that the mushrooms defeated bacteria using a special substance harmless to themselves and deadly for bacteria. This substance is a natural antibiotic - the chemical weapon of the microworld. Indeed, the development of antibiotics is one of the most advanced methods of rivalry between microorganisms in nature. In its pure form, the substance, about the existence that Fleming guessed, was obtained during World War II. This substance got the name of Penicillin (from the name of the type of fungus, from the colonies of which this antibiotic was obtained). During the war, this wonderful medicine was saved by thousands of patients doomed to death from purulent complications. But it was only the beginning of the era of antibiotics. After the war, research continued in this area, and Fleming followers opened many substances with penicillin properties. It turned out that in addition to fungi of the substance and similar properties are produced by some bacteria, plants, animals. Parallel studies in the field of microbiology, biochemistry and pharmacology, finally led to the invention of a number of antibiotics suitable for the treatment of a wide variety of infections caused by bacteria. It turned out that some antibiotics can be used to treat fungal infections or to destroy malignant tumors. The term "antibiotic" comes from the Greek words Anti, which means against and BIOS - life, and literally translates as "medicine against life." Despite these antibiotics save, and millions of people's lives will save.

Basic groups known to date antibiotics

Beta-lactam antibiotics. The bi-lactam antibiotic group includes two large subgroups of the most famous antibiotics: penicillins and cephalosporins that have a similar chemical structure. Penicillin group. Penicillins are obtained from the colonies of the mold fungus Penicillium, from where it is called this group of antibiotics. The main effect of penicillins is associated with their ability to coal the formation of the cell wall of bacteria and thereby suppress their growth and reproduction. During the period of active reproduction, many species of bacteria are very sensitive in relation to penicillin and therefore the effect of penicillins is bactericidal.

Important I. useful feature Penicillins are their ability to penetrate the cells of our body. This property of penicillins allows to treat infectious diseases, whose pathogen "hides" inside the cells of our body (for example, gonorrhea). Antibiotics from the penicillin group have elevated selectivity and therefore practically do not affect the human body accepting treatment. The disadvantages of penicillins include their rapid elimination of the organism and the development of bacterial resistance relative to this class of antibiotics. Biosynthetic penicillins are obtained directly from colonies of mold fungi. The most well-known biosynthetic penicillins are benzylpenicillin and phenoxymethylpenicillin. These antibiotics are used to treat angina, scarletin, pneumonia, wound infections, gonorrhea, syphilis.

Semi-synthetic penicillins are obtained based on biosynthetic penicillins of attachment paths of various chemical groups. At the moment there are a large amount of semi-synthetic penicillins: amoxicillin, ampicillin, carbenicillin, azlocylin. An important advantage Some antibiotics from a group of semi-synthetic penicillins are their activity with respect to penicilline-resistant bacteria (bacteria that destroy biosynthetic penicillins). Due to this, semi-synthetic penicillins have a broader spectrum of action and therefore can be used in the treatment of a wide variety of bacterial infections. The main adverse reactions associated with the use of penicillins are allergic and sometimes cause refusing to use these drugs.

Group of cephalosporins. Cephalosporins also belong to the Beta-Lactam Antibiotics group and have a structure similar to the penicillin structures. For this reason, some side effects Their two groups of antibiotics coincide.

Cephalosporins have high activity in relation to a wide range of different microbes and therefore are used in the treatment of many infectious diseases. An important advantage of antibiotics from a group of cephalosporins is their activity in relation to microbes resistant to penicillins (penicillically resistant bacteria). There are several generations of cephalosporins.

Many centuries ago it was observed that the green mold helps in the treatment of heavy purulent wounds. But in those distant times did not know any microbes or antibiotics. The first scientific description of the therapeutic effects of green mold was made in the 70s of the 19th century Russian scientists V.A. Manassein and A.G. Flops. After that, for several decades, they forgot about the green mold, and only in 1929 it became a real sensation that turned the scientific world. The phenomenal qualities of this unpleasant living organism studied Professor Microbiology of the University of London Alexander Fleming.

Fleming experiments have shown that the green mold produces a special substance with antibacterial properties and the overwhelming growth of many pathogenic microorganisms. This substance called the scientist named Penicillin, according to the scientific name of the weathered molding mushrooms. In the course of further research, Fleming found out that penicillin actually acts on the microbes, but at the same time he does not have a negative effect on leukocytes who actively participate in the fight against infection, and other organism cells. But Fleming failed to highlight the pure culture of penicillin for the production of drugs.

The doctrine of antibiotics is a young synthetic branch of modern natural science. For the first time in 1940, the chemotherapeutic preparation of microbial origin was obtained in the crystalline form - Penicillin is an antibiotic, which opened the era of antibiotics era.

Many scientists dreamed of creating such drugs that could be used in the treatment of various human diseases, about preparations capable of killing pathogenic bacteria, without having a harmful effect on the patient's body.

Paul Erlich (1854-1915) As a result of numerous experiments, in 1912, arsenic drug - Salvarsan who kills in vitro Syphilisa causative agent. In the 30s of the last century, new organic compounds were obtained as a result of chemical synthesis - sulfamides, among which red streptocid (ripped) was the first effective drug that had a therapeutic effect in severe streptococcal infections.

For a long time, he was in proud loneliness, except for the South and Central America used by the Indians for the treatment of Malaria Kinin - the alkaloid of a frying tree. Only after a quarter of a century, sulfonamide drugs were opened, and in 1940 Alexander Fleming allocated Penicillin in its pure form.

In 1937, sulfidine was synthesized in our country - a compound close to pronosil. The discovery of sulfamed preparations and their use in medical practice amounted to a well-known era in chemotherapy of many infectious diseases, including sepsis, meningitis, pneumonia, grinding inflammation, gorgers and some others.

Louis Paster and S. Jebert in 1877 reported that aerobic bacteria suppress the growth of Bacillus Anthracis.

At the end of the 19th century, V. A. Manassein (1841-1901) and A. G. Tolebnov (1838-1908) showed that mushrooms from the genus Penicillium are able to delay in in vivo the development of pathogens of a number of human skin diseases.

I. I. Mechnikov (1845 - 1916) in 1894 drew attention to the possibility of using some saprophytic bacteria in the fight against pathogenic microorganisms.

In 1896, R. Gosio from Penicillium Brevicompactum cultural fluid isolated a crystalline compound - a mycophenolic acid, the overwhelming growth of the bacteria of the Siberian ulcers.

Emmyrich and Low in 1899 reported an antibiotic substance, formed by Pseudomonas Pyocyanea, they called it with pyocyanase; The drug was used as a therapeutic factor as a local antiseptic.

In 1910-1913, O. Black and U. Alsberg were isolated from the genush genus Penicillium penicillic acid, having antimicrobial properties.

In 1929, A. Fleming was opened a new drug penicillinwhich only in 1940 managed to highlight in crystalline form.

Opening Fleming

In 1922, after unsuccessful attempts to highlight the causative agent of colds, Fleming purely accidentally opened Lizozyme (the name was invented by Professor Wright) - an enzyme that kills some bacteria and harm with healthy tissues. Unfortunately, the prospects for medical use lysozyme turned out to be rather limited because it was a fairly effective means against bacteria that are not causative agents of diseases, and completely ineffective against pathogenic organisms. This discovery prompted Fleming to make looking for other antibacterial drugs that would be harmless to the human body.

The next happy chance - the opening of Penicillin Fleming in 1928 - was the result of a propelleration of a number of circumstances, so incredible that it is almost impossible to believe in them. Unlike its neat colleagues, cleared cups with bacterial cultures after the end of working with them, Fleming did not throw away cultures for 2-3 weeks until its laboratory table was clouded with 40-50 cups. Then he was taken for cleaning, looked through the culture one after another, so as not to miss anything interesting. In one of the cups, he discovered mold, which, to his surprise, was oppressed by the existed culture of the bacterium. Separating the mold, he found that "broth" on which the mold broke out, acquired the pronounced ability to suppress the growth of microorganisms, and also had bactericidal and bacteriological properties.

Fleming's slope and the observation made by them appeared two circumstances in a number of random chances that contributed to the discovery. Mold, which was infected with culture, was very rare. It was probably listed from the laboratory, where samples of mold were grown, taken from the houses of patients suffering from bronchial asthma, with the aim of making desensitizing extracts from them. Fleming left the famous cup on the laboratory table later and left to relax. Coming in London the cooling created favorable conditions for the growth of mold, and the blending then followed - for bacteria. As it turned out later, the progress of these circumstances was obliged to the famous discovery.

Initial studies of Fleming gave a number of important information about Penicillin. He wrote that this is an "effective antibacterial substance ..., which has a pronounced effect on the pyrogen coils and chopsticks of the diphtheria group. .. Penicillin even in huge doses is not toxic for animals ... It can be assumed that it will be an effective antiseptic in the outdoor treatment of areas affected by peculiar microbes, or when it is introduced inside. " Knowing it, Fleming did not nevertheless such an obvious next step, which 12 years later was taken by Howard W. Flory and was to find out whether the mouse would be saved from the lethal infection, if they were treated with the injections of penicillin broth. Fleming prescribed it to several patients for outdoor use. However, the results were contradictory. The solution was unstable and with difficulty succumbed to cleaning, if it was about large quantities.

Like the Pastern Institute in Paris, the Branch of Vaccination at the Hospital of St. Mary, where Fleming worked, existed due to the sale of vaccines. Fleming discovered that in the process of preparation, Penicillin vaccines helps protect cultures from staphylococcus. It was a technical achievement, and the scientist was widely used by him, a weekly giving orders to produce large boulevard batch. He was shared by Penicillin culture samples with colleagues in other laboratories, but never mentioned Penicillina in any of the 27 articles and lectures published by him in 1930-1940, even if it was about substances, causing the death of bacteria.

Thus, by the time of the preparation of Penicillin in purified form, five antibiotic agents were known (mycophenolic acid, pylamasis, actinomycetin, mieties and thyrotricin). Subsequently, the number of antibiotics has increased rapidly and now they are described by almost 7,000 (formed only by microorganisms); At the same time, only about 160 is used in medical practice. With the preparation of Penicillina as a drug (1940), a new direction emerged in science - the doctrine of antibiotics, which is extremely rapidly developing in recent decades.

In the 70s, more than 300 new antibiotics were described annually. In 1937, Velsh described the first antibiotic of the streptomacent origin of Aktimisetin, in 1939, Mietietine and Düubo - Tyrritsin were received by Koreilnikov and Koreniako. You will later receive the number of antibiotics grew in a very rapid pace.

The Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine of 1945 was awarded jointly to Fleming, Chein and Floeri "for the discovery of Penicillin and his healing effects in various infectious diseases." In the Nobel lecture, Fleming noted that "Phenomenal success of Penicillin led to an intensive study of the antibacterial properties of mold and other lower representatives of the plant world. Only a few of them possess such properties. "

In the remaining 10 years of life, the scientist was awarded 25 honorary degrees, 26 medals, 18 premiums, 30 awards and honorary membership in the 89 Academy of Sciences and Scientific Societies.

Side effects

However, antibiotics are not only a panacea from microbes, but also strong poisons. Leading deadly wars at the micromyr-level level, with their help alone microorganisms ruthlessly straighten with others. The person noted this property of antibiotics and used it for his own purposes - began to straighten with microbes with their own weapons, created on the basis of natural hundreds of even more powerful synthetic drugs. Nevertheless, the intended antibiotics of the very nature of the nature of killing is still inherently from them.

All antibiotics, no exception, possess side effects! This follows from the very name of such substances. Natural natural property of all antibiotics kill microbes and microorganisms, unfortunately, it is impossible to send only one type of bacteria or microbes to the destruction. By destroying harmful bacteria and microorganisms, any antibiotic has an inevitably the same inhibitory effect and useful microorganisms similar to all similar to the "enemy", which, as is known, take an active part in almost all processes occurring in our organism.