Beijing 北京 Beijing translated from Chinese means "northern capital". This is one of the oldest cities not only in China, but also in the world. The current structure of Beijing began to take shape under (1360-1424), the third emperor of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), who ruled under the motto Yun-le 永乐 ("Eternal joy", 1403-1424). It can be said that Beijing is the city of Emperor Yong-le's dream come true.

Like other Chinese cities, Beijing is built on the principles Feng Shui . Its layout, palaces, temples, parks contain many ideas of Chinese philosophy and culture. The restructuring of Beijing in the 20th-21st centuries is also subject to a certain plan, with the preservation, in general, of the former structure and the shift of only some accents.

Forbidden City (Gugong) in Beijing, view from Jingshan Park

Any city in its planning, urban ensembles expresses the attitude of people of a particular culture and era. The urban planning principles of European cities have changed over time, from antiquity to the present.

In China, we will see other cities, the basic principles of planning which have not changed over time. The foundations of urban planning, laid down in ancient times (in the eras of Shang-Yin, 1600-1027 BC and Zhou, 1045-221 BC), were repeated almost until the beginning of the 20th century.

This can be largely explained by the fact that China played a large role tradition. In particular, this was expressed in the repetition of the same forms and methods, unchanged since ancient times. We see this not only in urban planning, but also in other areas - philosophy, literature. The new is submitted as a comment to classic, revealing the meaning originally contained in it.

Several factors influenced the formation of the external appearance of Chinese cities:

1. Hieroglyphic writing which predetermined the originality of Chinese thinking. In particular, this was expressed in greater significance than in the West, lines and forms, the visual image as a whole. The Chinese city, house, garden is a complex system of symbols that the Chinese can easily read and which often remain out of sight of the European.

2. Religious tolerance . In the West, religious architecture differs from civil architecture, religious buildings of different religions and confessions differ significantly from each other (for example, a Catholic church and Orthodox church). In China, Taoist and Buddhist monasteries are built according to the same principle, differing only in their altars and the names of pavilions. Moreover, in terms of their structure, they will repeat civil buildings, reproducing the traditional form of a siheyuan house (more on that below).

3. Features of chronology and the need to move the capital with the beginning of the reign of a new dynasty or ruler. This was expressed in a large number of cities that were capitals in one or another historical period (Yinxu, Luoyang, Chang'an, Nanjing, Beijing, etc.). In addition to the main capital, there were "spare" ones that took over the functions of the capital at the time of the residence of the imperial court there. The same city, depending on the current situation, could be renamed, and more than once.

4. Anonymity . In the West, every building has (or implies) an architect. The architect expresses himself through the designed building. And we, for example, with some knowledge, can easily distinguish the "architectural style" of Trezzini, Rastrelli, Bazhenov, Kazakov, Rossi, Lvov and others. In China, the architect was reduced almost to the level of a master, who had to be able to combine the “bricks” prescribed by tradition into a holistic harmonious image.

Another significant factor that predetermined the originality of the Chinese city was the mandatory use geomancy.

Kanyu or Feng Shui

Generally, feng shui is the doctrine of the correct (harmonious) placement of a person and a structure in space . It is based on Chinese natural philosophy and is based on the doctrine of Yin Yang阴阳 (feminine and masculine), wu-sin五行 (five elements, or elements), ba-gua八卦 (eight trigrams of the Book of Changes), the Great Triad san cai三才 (Heaven, Earth, Man), numerology, etc.

Mountains have traditionally been valued in China. They were considered the abode of hermits and celestials. is likened to three steps, where the highest step is the Tibetan plateau, below which are medium-altitude mountains. The third step is the coastal lowlands, where the bulk of the population is concentrated. The Chinese believe that the brightest and most beautiful landscapes are located on the border of the first and second steps, and the most elegant and soft - between the third zone and the sea.

Shaping the Structure of Chinese Cities

The current traditional structure of Chinese cities began to take shape in ancient times. Well explored settlement banpo半坡 near Xi'an (Yangshao culture 仰韶文化, V-III millennium BC). It occupied an area of ​​more than 5 thousand square meters, was surrounded by a moat and consisted of three zones: residential, craft and cemetery. In the center of the residential area there was a large building 20x12.5 meters at the base.

Over time, the settlements of the Yangshao culture merge with the settlements of the Longshan 龙山 culture. Permanent settlements appear, which were usually built in river valleys, on tops or hillsides. The houses were framed, on foundations made of rammed earth layer by layer (technique Khantu 夯土).

In the Shang-Yin era (XVII-XI centuries BC), permanent cities appeared: Xiaotun, Changzhou, Yangshi, Erlitou and others. Almost all of them were surrounded by adobe walls with a moat. In the center of the city there were palaces and temples erected on high single-tier stylobates with columns on stone or bronze foundations. These were the tallest buildings in the city. Around them were the houses of the nobility. Ordinary buildings were frame one-story, less often two-story houses, covered with thatch. The city was crossed by a wide central street.

The capital of the state of Yin was Shan city (Yinxu殷墟) in Anyang (Prov. Henan). The city was founded in the XIV century BC, during its heyday, about 120 thousand people lived in it. At that time it was the largest city in the world (for comparison: no more than 100 thousand people lived in Thebes at that time).

On an area of ​​1000x650 meters there was a palace and temple complex with more than 80 different buildings. The buildings were placed along the main axis "north-south" and the auxiliary "west-east", which indicates the use of the rudiments of the feng shui system. Yinxu was surrounded by adobe walls up to 10 meters high and with a base thickness of about 6 meters. The total length of the walls was about 7 km. The presence of zoning is traced - separate areas where artisans lived and craft workshops were located.

In the Zhou era, many principles of urban planning were laid down, which have existed unchanged in China for more than 2000 years.

Reconstruction of the palace of the ruler of Western Zhou in Fenghao 沣镐 (Shaanxi province, c. 1180 BC)

The capitals of the specific principalities were very crowded. So, according to some estimates, the population of the capital of the kingdom of Qi - Linzi 临淄, totaled about 750 thousand people.

The backbone of a typical city of the Eastern Zhou era (770-255 BC) was the palace of the ruler, in front of which was the intersection of the main streets. urban development divided into quarters fan方), which usually surrounded walls with gates that closed at nightfall. Such intra-quarter walls began to be demolished only in the 10th century. From the outside, the city was surrounded by a more powerful fortress wall.

There were ancestral altars in the city. Approximately since the 7th century, altars of land and agriculture appear. After the design of the concept of the “Son of Heaven”, temples of Heaven appear in the capital cities, in which only the emperor could perform the sacrifice ceremony.

An obligatory attribute of the city was the existence of the bell and drum towers - "twin towers" ("morning ringing and evening drum"), counting the time and warning of important or extraordinary events.

In the treatises of Kaogong-chi and Mencius, one can see descriptions of the ideal city. So, according to Kaogong-chi, the city should have the shape of a square with a side of 9 li (4500 meters), and according to Menci - 3 li. The city is divided into 9 parts, according to the system of "well fields" 井 ching. Such a structure, on the one hand, was associated with the concept of the "heavenly well" 井 (the 22nd of the 28 zodiac constellations, the first of the seven constellations of the southern region of the sky), and on the other hand, it had a practical orientation, helping to keep records of people and resources.

A - a layout of cities with double rows of walls. B - reconstruction of the plan of the ideal capital according to Kaogongji (V.I. Luchkova, L.V. Zadvernyuk Urban planning of ancient and medieval China. Khabarovsk, 2012)

In the Zhou era, feng shui rules became mandatory in the construction of any objects, whether it be a residential building, a palace, a temple or a tomb. The most difficult thing was to fulfill the rule related to the presence of water in the south.

At the same time, the number and set of premises for each type of building, their colors and finishes are regulated. So, for example, the beams in the palace of the ruler of the kingdom were supposed to be made of hewn, polished and inlaid stones. In the house of the ruler of the province - hewn and polished, in the house of the head of the clan - only hewn, etc. In the imperial palace, bells could be placed on four sides, in the palace of the heirs - on three, in the house of a minister - on two, and an official - only on one side.

In the Tang era, the basic principles of the Chinese city are finally formed:

• General principles of space organization for all types of buildings, based on the principle of siheyuan.
• Longitudinal and transverse expansion of urban space, the development of the principle of symmetry and the Taoist principle of "long way" to the goal.
• Appearance in the capital and provincial centers of the Forbidden City
• Combining a Confucian house and a Taoist garden into a single ensemble.
• The complication of the most significant architectural elements - roofs and entrances, the secondary role of walls and windows.
• The hierarchy of structures is expressed through the color of tiles, walls and columns, the size and number of elements (courtyards, tiers of roofs, amulets on the roofs).

In the Ming and Qing eras (1644-1911), the concept of an ideal city and home was finally completed. The main principles that determine urban forms are the concepts of yin-yang and wu-xing, the Great Triad, qi, the Taoist "long way", the Confucian ideals of the family and society as a large family, the principle of "correcting names", as well as the idea of ​​the middle and religious syncretism .

siheyuan

In the Zhou era, the main planning unit of the city appears - siheyuan四合院. In its simplest version, siheyuan is a quadrangular courtyard oriented to the cardinal points, along the perimeter of which there are four one-story buildings with windows facing inward. Depending on the size of the family and its well-being, numerous variations are possible while maintaining the overall structure.

Projection of trigrams "ba-gua" on the house-siheyuan

Composition axis

In the Zhou era, an axis begins to form (along the south-north line), on which the main buildings are “strung”. During the Chun-qiu period (722-479 BC), the rule of "three cabinets and five gates" 三朝五门 is formed sanchao wumen. In accordance with it, five courtyards were “strung” on the south-north axis. From the main entrance, located in the south, there was a path to the main pavilion, where the throne room was located. The back (northern) was private. According to this system, not only palace buildings, large siheyuan houses, but also monasteries were built.

A feature of the Chinese urban planning axis is its invisibility and hypothetical nature. In Europe, the compositional axis is usually open, and only at the end is closed by a significant structure.

In China, the central axis is more likely to be guessed, constantly overlapping with buildings and structures, passages through which are located on the sides. This is related to the ancient idea that evil spirits- gui鬼 only move in a straight line. Only on days of special celebrations, only the emperor could pass through the central gate, which was specially opened for him alone. The passage through them was accompanied by numerous rituals and rules.

The principle of symmetry remained the main city-forming principle. More ancient is vertical symmetry (along the north-south axis), which was later supplemented by horizontal symmetry (along the west-east axis). The heyday of horizontal symmetry came during the reign of the Tang Dynasty (618-907), when the old ensembles were expanded. Nevertheless, the principle of vertical symmetry remained the leading one.

In its most complete form, vertical-horizontal symmetry, which implies simultaneous expansion along two axes, is observed in such sites as Gugong in Beijing and Shenyang.

Plans of some Chinese capitals

The traditional Chinese city was formed from siheyuan houses, which were combined into quarters. Streets and lanes intersected at right angles and were oriented to the cardinal points. In the center of the city, sometimes shifting to the north, was the imperial palace.

Xi'an (Chang'an)

Plan of the city of Chang'an in the Tang era. 1. Chongxuan Gate 2. Daming Palace 3. Inner City 4. Imperial City 5. Western Market 6. Eastern Market 7. Mingde Gate

Luoyang

Luoyang in the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD)

Luoyang in the Northern Wei era (386-534)

forbidden city

A distinctive feature of Chinese capital cities is the presence of the Forbidden City, closed to most residents. This prohibition is connected with the concept of the Son of Heaven, according to which the emperor appears as a link between Heaven and Earth, performing both secular and priestly functions. That is why every action of the emperor is strictly regulated and sacred.

In ancient times, those who became kings chose the center of the Celestial Empire in order to lay the capital city, the center of the capital city - to build a palace, and the center of the palace - to build an ancestral temple. (Luishi chunqiu, ch.6)

However, although the rules prescribed the construction of the Forbidden City strictly in the center, deviations are constantly encountered, which was explained not only by the existing natural conditions, but also by certain concepts.

From the Shang-Yin era, the imperial complexes were divided horizontally into two parts: the front solemn, where official events took place, and the back private, where the life of the imperial family flowed. The border between these zones passed through the main palace. As the country grew, the structure of cities became more complex, and the structure of the Forbidden City became more complicated. Usually, growth went first along the vertical axis, as a result of which three main palaces appeared one after another - dian殿 and then the horizontal axis.

The presence of the Forbidden City has become mandatory since the Tang era. High walls, inaccessibility to outsiders, and a strict selection of servants guaranteed the safety of the emperor. After the overthrow of the Yuan Dynasty, the Forbidden City was first built in Nanjing, the first capital of the Ming Dynasty, which, unfortunately, has not survived to our time.

Under the third emperor of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Di (ruled under the motto Yong-le), the capital was moved to Beijing, where at the beginning of the 15th century the Forbidden City - Gugong, or Zijincheng 紫禁城 ("Purple City"), which struck the imagination of contemporaries, was built. During the Qing era, the Forbidden City in Shenyang was built, inferior to Gugong in splendor and splendor.

History of Beijing

Beijing has inherited all the urban planning principles that have developed in previous eras and brought them to perfection. No other city in China has such a pronounced structure and clear concept.

The name Peking came from the first European missionaries, who took it by ear in accordance with the pronunciation of that time. Later, in many Western countries, it was replaced by a more accurate one - Beijing (Beijing). However, in Russia and some other countries, such as Australia or France, the old name is still used. Similarly, we pronounce Nanjing, whose correct name is Nanjing 南京 (Southern Capital).

Beijing is one of the oldest cities in China. The first people appeared in this area during the Paleolithic. V caves of Zhoukoudian the remains of Sinanthropus belonging to the species Homo erectus were found. Sinanthropes lived here for a long time, as evidenced by a thick cultural layer, approximately from 230 to 77 thousand years ago. A distinctive feature of the Sinanthropes was the use of fire. In anthropology, the question is still debatable whether the Sinanthropes are the direct ancestors of the modern Chinese, or whether this is a dead end branch of evolution.

In Zhoukoudian, traces of Homo sapiens were also found, who lived in the Paleolithic era approximately 27-10 thousand years ago. On the plains around Beijing, Neolithic agricultural settlements have been discovered dating back to the 4th-5th millennium BC.

During the Zhou era, the area where Beijing is now located was part of the kingdom of Yan 燕. It occupied the territory of modern Hebei province and lands to the northeast, including the Liaodong Peninsula. Yan was smaller and weaker than others from among the "seven strongest kingdoms", but it was of great strategic and political importance. From here there were important routes to South Manchuria and North Korea.

In 222 BC. it was conquered by the Qin. The capital of the state of Yan was originally located in the area of ​​the village of Dongjialin, in Liulihe in the territory of the modern Fangshan district in the southwest of Greater Beijing. Then the capital was moved to the city Ji薊, which was located in the southwestern part of the modern city of Beijing, in the Xuanwu and Fengtai districts. Ji in translation from Chinese is translated as "Japanese thistle", or, more simply, thistle. Therefore, Beijing is often figuratively called 燕京 Yanjing(the capital of Yan). To protect against nomads, defensive structures were built north of the city of Ji.

Since the Qin era, the future Beijing has become one of the provincial towns near the northern border. During the Three Kingdoms era, Beijing was part of the Wei kingdom. During the reign of the Jin Dynasty (265-420), the Buddhist temple complex Tanzhe 潭柘寺 was built in the Xishan Mountains, where, according to legend, Princess Miaoyang, the daughter of Khan Kublai Khan and, accordingly, the great-granddaughter of Genghis Khan, who accepted Buddhist monasticism, was later buried. After the fall of the Jin Dynasty, Beijing ended up in the kingdoms of Later Zhao 后赵 (319-351), Early Qin 前秦 (351-395), Early Yan 前燕 (337-370) and Late Yan 后燕 (384-409). Ji was renamed to Youzhou幽州, after the county where he was located.

During the Sui Dynasty (581-618), Youzhou was strategically important place: in 612, the next stage of the war with the Korean states began (Koguryo-Sui wars, 598, 612-614), which ultimately led to the fall of the Sui dynasty and the accession of Tang in 618. To improve the supply, Emperor Yang-di built a network of canals that connected Yuzhou with the North China Plain. In memory of this inglorious war, in 645, Emperor Taizong built the Fayuan Temple 法源寺 dedicated to the Buddha Vairochana, originally called Minzhongsi 悯忠寺, the Temple of Loyalty and Compassion (now in the Xuanwu District).

After the fall of the Tang Dynasty, the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms era (907-960) began. In 923, the Shato Turks founded the state of the Later Tang (929-936), which took control of almost the entire northern China. In 936, the commander Shi Jingtang 石敬瑭 rebelled and turned to the Khitans for help. However, the Khitans demanded territorial concessions in return for their help. After the founding of the state of Later Jin 后晋 (936-947), Shi Jingtang (temple name Gaozu 高祖) handed over sixteen districts to the Khitan, including Youzhou.

In 938, Yelü Yaogu ordered that the county seat of Youzhou County 幽州 be made the southern capital of the Liao state, giving it an official name. Nanjing Yudufu 南京幽都府.

The Song Empire (960-1279), which unified much of China in 960, attempted to retake the lost northern territories. The Sung Taizu personally led the troops that approached the Liao Nanjing in 979 and laid siege to the city. The city withstood a three-month siege, until finally, in the battle on the Gaoliang River (to the northwest of modern Xizhimen), the Sung army was defeated by the Khitans. After that, the troops of the Song Empire never went so far to the north.

In 1012, the city's name was changed to Nanjing Xijinfu. In 996, the Niujie 牛街礼拜寺 Mosque, which still exists today, was built, and in the years 1100-1119, the Tianning Temple 天宁寺.

Ye Longli in "The History of the Khitan State" describes Nanjing as follows:

Southern capital - founded by Taizong.

The southern capital is located on the lands of the Yuzhou region, which in ancient times was part of the Jizhou region ... During the Tang Dynasty, the Fanyang Governor General was created here to control the Xi and Khitans. After the Later Jin abandoned these lands, the Southern capital was created on them, also called Yanjing, which was part of the Xijin district ...

The Imperial Palace looks big and majestic. In the northern part of the city there are markets where everything that the land and sea bestows is brought. The Buddhist temples in which the monks live are superior to all others in the north. The produced silk fabrics with woven and embroidered patterns and silk products are the best in China. All kinds of vegetables, fruits and grains grow on fertile soil. There is nothing to say about the mulberry tree, kudraniya, hemp, wheat, sheep, pigs, pheasants and hares.

The water is good and the soil is fertile. Numerous crafts are widespread among the population. The talented are engaged in the study of books, and those who follow them practice horse riding and archery, despite the difficulties ...

In 1125, the Khitans were expelled by the Jurchens, who founded their own Jin state. After the Jin commander Wanyan Digunai killed Emperor Xizong and took the throne himself, in the fourth month of the third year of his reign, under the motto "Tiande" (1151), he issued an edict on the transfer of the capital from Shangjing to Nanjing. The city was renamed from Nanjing ("Southern Capital") to Zhongdu(中都 "Central Capital"), and its full official name became Zhongdu Daxingfu(中都大兴府). Thus, for the first time in its history, Beijing became the capital of a major empire.

Zhongdu was surrounded by a fortress wall with 13 gates (4 in the northern wall, and 3 in each of the others), the remains of which are still preserved in the Fengtai area.

The city looked like a rectangle, the perimeter of which, according to modern measurements, was about 20 km. The walls today rise to 4.5 m with a thickness of 18.5 m at the base. The network of streets divided inner part cities into districts and quarters, 12 gates in the fortress wall were the natural endings of avenues. Inside the capital, an inner city was built, the walls of which (with five gates) stretched for about 5.5 km. The imperial palace and the most important state institutions were located on the territory of the inner city. In the city itself there were many palaces, temples, chambers and trading establishments.

One of the sources of that time describes Zhongdu as follows:

The perimeter walls reached 75 li; 12 gates - three on each side ... The southern gate of the citadel had a multi-storey gate tower. The spectacle is impressive. Three gates stand in one line ... Multi-tiered towers rise in the corners. The tiles on them are glazed, gilded nails, red doors, five gates stand one after another.

In 1198, a stone building was built across the Yongdinghe River, which became famous for its beauty and was sung by many poets and depicted on paintings. In, standing behind him, the merchants stopped for the night before entering Beijing.

On July 7, 1937, there was a skirmish between soldiers of the Japanese Garrison Army in China and a company of Chinese troops stationed in Wanping Fortress, which served as a formal reason for the start (which the Chinese consider part of World War II).

Dadu (Khanbalik)

In 1215, Chungdu was taken by the troops of Genghis Khan. The Mongols completely destroyed the city. However, the place was successful, and therefore the Mongols founded their capital here, which they called Khanbalik, which means "the abode of the Khan." Marco Polo, who allegedly visited here in 1266, transcribed it as Kambala. In Chinese it sounds like Dadu大都, "Great Capital". The Mongols pronounced it as Daidu.

Dadu became the capital of the empire, and the former capital, the city of Shangdu 上都, 275 km north of Beijing, became the summer capital. Now it is an archaeological monument, where the remains of fortifications, foundations and adobe walls have been preserved.

Dadu was somewhat shifted to the northeast relative to the ruins of Zhongdu of the Jin dynasty and relative to the modern center of Beijing. It inherited the classic square layout of Chinese cities with the Forbidden City inside.

Diagram of Dadu. The green dotted line marks the borders of Zhongdu

Dadu was surrounded by fortifications: a moat, ramparts and walls. Some of their fragments have survived to this day, in 元大都城垣遗址公园.

Canal and ramparts of Dadu city

During the Yuan era in Beijing appeared hutongs, which became one of his "visiting cards". These are narrow, often winding streets, built up on two sides with one-story siheyuan houses.

According to one version, the word hutong comes from the Mongolian words hot- "well", and hudun- "village", "camp". Initially, the hutongs were strictly oriented along the west-east line. They were connected by lanes oriented along the north-south line. However, over time, the development became more and more chaotic.

In the Yuan era, 白塔 was built, which is located in the monastery of the same name in Fuchengmen Street and repeats the famous White Pagoda in its outlines.

Around the same time, the reconstruction of the ancient imperial building began. In 1267, the Beihai, Zhonghai and Nanhai ponds were dug to the west of the palace, along the banks of which a park was laid out.

Beihai Lake and White Dagoba on Jade Island in Beihai Park

Founding of the capital of the Ming Dynasty

After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty and the rise of the Ming Dynasty, the capital was moved to Nanjing. The first emperor of the Ming Dynasty was Zhu Yuanzhang(1328-1398), a very low social origin - his paternal grandfather was a prospector, and maternally - a shaman. Zhu Yuanzhang received a monastic education, however, even as an emperor he wrote with errors. Later, he joined the robbers, becoming one of the leaders of the gang, and then took an active part in the uprising of the Red Turbans. Due to his qualities, he soon becomes one of the leaders of the uprising.

On January 23, 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang in Nanjing proclaimed himself emperor and the founder of a new dynasty - Ming 明. He ruled under the motto Hong-wu洪武 "Spill of Militancy". Dadu was renamed Beiping 北平, which means "Pacified North".

Zhu Biao (1355-1392), who died during the life of his father, was appointed heir to the throne. Therefore, after the death of Hongwu, the throne passed to his 11-year-old grandson. Zhu Yunwen(1377-1403), who ruled under the motto jian wen建文 "Creating culture". His accession did not please the rest of the sons of the deceased emperor. In turn, the young emperor did not have warm feelings for his uncles. He especially disliked Zhu Di, the emperor's fourth son.

Zhu Di owned an allotment with its capital in Beiping. A brilliant commander, a connoisseur of the military art of Sun Tzu, he quickly won the love and respect of his subordinates. In 1402, Zhu Di approached Nanjing and the gates were opened before him. The Imperial Palace was on fire. Zhu Yunwen fled and most likely died in the fire.

Having ascended the throne, Zhu Di brutally cracked down on the supporters of the second emperor. Since not everyone supported his rights to the throne, the new emperor began mass repressions. Among those executed was the historian Fang Xiaorhu 方孝孺 for refusing to write a performance for the inauguration. His family and disciples were "slaughtered in ten generations."

Nevertheless, despite the repressions at the very beginning of the reign, the Yong-le period entered the history of China as one of the most prosperous. Although the emperor adhered to Confucian norms and rituals, he provided strong support. Significant reforms were carried out in the internal and foreign policy aimed at raising the economic level of the country inside and spreading the influence of the Ming Dynasty outside.

However, until the end of his life, Zhu Di feared the return of the deposed emperor. He began a large construction in his specific city, and in 1421 he moved the capital there, renaming it Beijing - Beijing, which means "Northern Capital".

If St. Petersburg is the city of Peter the Great's dream come true, then Beijing is without a doubt the city of Emperor Yongle's dream come true. It was to become a model city, the capital of a world empire. The location of Beijing almost perfectly matches the rules of feng shui: mountains lie to the north of it, lower hills to the west and east. Beijing itself is located on a plain. Rivers flow from the mountains, and a small river, Lianshui, flows south of the city. In the city itself, canals were dug and lakes were built.

Central Axis and Five Altars of Beijing

Under Zhu Di, the Forbidden City and the majestic Temple of Heaven were built. A 6-kilometer main axis stretched through Beijing, on which the main objects were strung. For the defense of the northern borders near Beijing, the construction of new sectors began.

1. Yongdingmen Gate, southern entrance to the Outer City
2. Temple of Heaven
3. Temple of Agriculture
4. Qianmen Gate
5. Street of government buildings (future Tiananmen Square)
6. Chengtian Gate (Tiananmen)
7. Temple of the Imperial Ancestors Taimiao (now the Palace of Culture of the Workers)
8. Temple of Earth and Cereals (now Sun Yat Sen Park)

10. Beihai Park
11. Jingshan Park
12. Imperial City
13. Drum Tower
14. Bell tower
15. Andingmen Gate
16. Proportional analysis of the central part of the Beijing Axis

In accordance with the principles of wu-xing, five main altars were built in Beijing, where the emperor regularly held sacrificial ceremonies: temples of Heaven, Earth, Sun, Moon and Sheji (gods of the Earth and Cereals).

In accordance with the rules of Feng Shui, artisans settled in the south, and more affluent people settled in the west and east. To the north of the Forbidden City were the residences of the goons - princes, members of the imperial family. In addition, in the north, symbolizing wisdom, are located, to the northwest of it at the end of the 19th century, a university campus arose - Tsinghua University, Beida (Peking University), a number of universities, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Innovation Development Zone -.

Even longer, closer to the mountains, there are parks:, the Botanical Garden with the Temple of the Sleeping Buddha, (Fragrant Hills) and others.

Beijing was conceived as the center of the world. The Forbidden City and the surrounding Imperial City were surrounded by respective altars, where the emperor, considered the Son of Heaven, performed sacrifices. But the main thing in the city was, of course, the center. There are two of them in Beijing - the Forbidden City itself, where the emperor lived, and Tiananmen Square, lying to the south of it, "the people's heart of China," as it is called.

Tiananmen Square

Above the emperor's throne in the Hall of Harmony Preservation is a four-character inscription: 皇建有极 huang jian you ji. Hieroglyph chi(“limit”, cf. 太极 Taiji - ) also means middle (中 zhong), middle way (中道 zhongdao), Way (道 tao). Thus, the meaning of the phrase lies in the fact that the emperor, ruling the state, must limit himself, adhere to the principles of the middle, impartiality, moderation.

On the north side of Gugong, Jingshan 景山 Park is located on man-made hills. This is the so-called "small dragon", a hill lying south of the big mountains.

In Gugun there are several large marble bas-reliefs depicting dragons. is not only a symbol of China and the Chinese nation, but also of the emperor.

There are many other sacred images in Gugun - a turtle (a symbol of longevity), a crane (a symbol of marital fidelity), lions (a symbol of royalty) and others.

Every building, every architectural element of Gugun is fraught with deepest meaning. Everything here is a symbol and expresses the idea of ​​the sacred power of the Son of Heaven, extending to the entire Celestial Empire, giving peace and prosperity to subjects.

Beijing as the center of the world

Thus, if we look at the plan of the Imperial City, Gugong and the central part of Beijing, we will see this picture:

The image of the "Great Triad" (Heaven, Earth, Man)

Here the mission of the emperor is clearly visible. He is the Son of Heaven, who is in the space between Heaven and Earth (symbolically expressed by the Tiananmen Gate of Heavenly Peace in the south and the Tiananmen Earthly Peace Gate in the north, as well as the round Temple of Heaven in the south and the square Altar of Earth in the north). The task of the emperor is to maintain harmony between Heaven and Earth.

The sacred center of the Chinese world is the Hall of Middle Harmony, where future officials “received initiation” through passing state exams.

The receipt by the sovereign of a heavenly command is sent down [according to] the plans of Heaven. Therefore, his title is “Son of Heaven”. He must look to Heaven as a father, and serve Heaven [according to] the path of filial piety. (Dong Zhongshu, “Chun-qiu fan-lu”, chapter “Deep study of the meaning of names and titles”).

The one who invented writing in ancient times drew three horizontal lines and connected them in the middle with a vertical line, calling this character "king" 王. The three horizontal lines are heaven, earth, and mankind, while the vertical one, passing in the middle, unites the principles of all three (Dong Zhongshu, "How the path of the king unites the triad").

The central part of Beijing is often associated with the Dragon with its head facing south. The dragon's head extends from Zhengyangmen gate to Wumen gate. His body is Gugong, the Forbidden City. The tail of the dragon stretches from the central hill in Jingshan Park to the Bell and Drum towers and further north.

With all of the above in mind, if we carefully look at the map of the historical part of Beijing, we will see this picture:

The character 中 zhong ("middle") projected onto central Beijing

Here the Central axis is clearly visible, which, with some deviations, stretches almost from the Temple of Heaven in the south to the towers of the Bell and the Drum in the north. Almost in its center is a square formed by the walls of the Forbidden City and the canal around it.

Axis passing through the Temple of Heaven, photo from the 1980s

Jingshan Park north of the Forbidden City with its mountain symbolizes yang- masculine, active, bright beginning. The Jinshui River south of the Forbidden City symbolizes yin- feminine, passive, dark beginning. In the south is the Temple of Heaven, in the north - the Altar of the Earth, that is, yin contains yang, and yang - yin. On both sides of the sacred center are the altars of the Sun and the Moon.

The intersection of the central axis and the walls of the Forbidden City form the hieroglyph 中 zhong - "center", "middle". In its center is the Hall of Median Harmony 中和 zhonghe. This is the main "message" of Beijing to the world. Harmony and Medianness, Median Harmony, the unity of Heaven, Earth and Man.

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In 1949, as a result of the victory Soviet Union Favorable conditions were created over Japanese imperialism for the victory of the people's democratic revolution in China and the proclamation of the People's Republic of China.

From the first years of its existence, the PRC faced enormous difficulties. The country's economy was in decline. The heavy legacy of feudalism, prolonged imperialist expansion, and devastation have complicated the task of restructuring society. The main attention was paid to the restoration and development of the national economy. By 1952, the industry had exceeded the pre-war level of production. Agrarian reform 1950-1953 marked the beginning of the social transformation of the village.

In the early 50s. in China, a process of peaceful development of the people's democratic revolution into a socialist one is taking place, with a significant role played by the remaining petty-bourgeois and peasant structures. During the years of the first five-year plan (1953-1957), the foundation of socialist industry was laid, new branches of industry were created, and plans were outlined for the further development of the economy and the building of a socialist state.

After the founding of the People's Republic of China, the centuries-old culture of China becomes public property for the first time in history. Cultural construction is underway, aimed at eliminating illiteracy, designed, judging by the programs, to develop the spiritual needs of the people and to promote their socialist education.

The policy of the CPC in the field of culture during this period contributed to the development of national forms of art, the assimilation of traditions ancient culture and the development of non-traditional for China types of art of European origin: theater, symphonic music, cinematography. Much attention is paid to the study of the ancient architectural heritage, work is underway to protect and restore monuments of Chinese architecture, ancient temples, palaces, pagodas, and a “Decree on the protection of structures that are monuments of ancient culture” is being adopted. By 1958, more than 1600 objects were identified and taken under state protection. Such monuments of Chinese architecture as the Gugong and Yiheyuan palaces, the Temples of Heaven and Yonghegong in Beijing, etc. are being restored. Careful attitude to national traditional architecture is combined with attention to issues of modern architecture.

Under the new conditions, Chinese architecture is further developed. The volume of construction work increases every year, and there is a need to develop plans for capital construction, linked with national plans for the development of the national economy.

However, since 1958, the internal political development of the PRC led to changes in the country's economy, to a decrease in the pace of development of the national economy. The tasks set in the second five-year plan (1958-1962) were not achieved. These features of China's development and the "cultural revolution" that began in 1965 had a negative impact on the urban planning and architecture of the PRC.

The development of the architecture of modern China is divided into several stages. At the first stage (1949-1952), when the country's economy and economy were being restored, the main tasks of architecture were determined by the need to eliminate the consequences of war and devastation. Relatively few factories and factories were restored, the sanitary condition of residential urban areas, especially slums, was somewhat improved, and separate public buildings were built.

At the second stage (1953-1959), during the years of the first and the beginning of the second five-year plan, as the material base strengthens and the industry develops, the volume of capital construction increases.

During these years, the development of Chinese architecture was associated with the search for new ways. There was practically no system of architectural and design institutions in the country; a few architects, mostly educated abroad, imitated the work of Western European architects, transferring the techniques of foreign architecture to Chinese architecture. In 1952, this trend was criticized as "a manifestation of bourgeois ideology in architecture." During these years, there were still private construction companies and architectural workshops. But already at the end of 1952, state construction and design organizations were created, such as the Beijing Design Institute, Promstroiproekt, the Shanghai Institute for the Design of Civil Buildings, provincial design institutes, and a number of research institutes for construction and architecture. In 1953, the Union of Architects of China and its print organ, the journal Jiangzhu Xuebao (Bulletin of Architecture), were created.

In subsequent years, an attempt was made to create a modern architectural style based on the heritage of past eras. But the uncritical development of the heritage led to the fact that the problems of creating a new style were, in a number of cases, solved formally. In 1952-1955. this direction was expressed in the so-called style of "big roofs", when multi-storey modern public and residential buildings were completed with complex multi-tiered roofs with glazed tiles, reminiscent of the roofs of ancient palace and temple pavilions (Fig. 1). In 1955, this direction was criticized as "leading back to feudal culture."

For the Chinese reality of the 50-60s. characteristic is the attitude to political and ideological slogans as to a self-sufficient force subordinating real possibilities to itself and dictating near and far tasks, rates and forms of development. In architecture, this manifested itself in the desire to quickly overcome the gap between the advanced countries of the world and China in the field of urban planning, build a significant number of public complexes, create mass cheap housing, and quickly solve the most acute housing problem.

Since 1955, the development of architecture has been carried out under the slogan "to design buildings that meet the requirements of practicality, economy, and, if possible, beauty." This, to a certain extent, relegated the artistic quality of architecture and construction to the background.

In 1956-1958. a method of composing design was developed, which consists in creating several series of normals, consisting of working drawings of typical assemblies, parts, individual rooms or groups of rooms, parts of buildings. Inlaid design was used in the development of projects for some industrial buildings, as well as administrative buildings, hostels, and hotels. In the second half of the 50s. work was carried out to create standards for the design of structures and structures, research and organizational work on standard design. But in general, standard design in China did not become widespread, since mass construction according to standard designs required the development of the construction industry.

In 1949-1959. Chinese architects, relying on the traditions of ancient culture, on the enthusiasm of the people, were able to achieve certain successes in the field of urban planning and architecture. A critical study of the heritage, acquaintance with the achievements of modern architecture and, above all, the architecture of the socialist countries contributed to this process.

The experience of the Soviet Union and other socialist countries was of great importance for the development of PRC architecture. A group of Soviet architects was directly involved in the design work together with Chinese architects, sharing their experience and knowledge with them. China received a large amount of project documentation for various types of buildings, structures, and technological processes. For many years, the Soviet Union provided the PRC with significant assistance in creating a modern industry. In 1953-1956. a number of agreements were signed to assist China in the construction and reconstruction of 211 large industrial facilities. In 1958-1959. their number increased by another 125 enterprises. The industrial enterprises built with the help of the Soviet Union became the basis of the material base of the country's industrialization.

The third stage in the development of PRC architecture - 1959-1964. - coincides in time with the period in the life of the country when the consequences of the political course of the "Great Leap Forward" began to appear and attempts were made to correct these consequences, which directly affected the architecture. The volume of capital construction was reduced, the development of architecture slowed down, its direction changed. The course of “walking on two legs”, building “more, faster, better, more economically”, which became widespread during this period, was expressed in the desire to achieve a quantitative leap at any cost. In this regard, the use of local building materials, structures, semi-handicraft methods of building construction has increased. Many semi-permanent and temporary low-rise residential, public and industrial premises with the simplest equipment.

The fourth stage in the development of Chinese architecture, which began in 1965, is taking place in difficult conditions. The implementation of many previously outlined plans in the field of urban planning and architecture was slowed down or postponed, and the tasks facing them were limited.

One of the features of the architectural practice of China is the leveling of manifestations of the creative individuality of architects. Design institutes act as the authors of the projects, which does not contribute to the manifestation of the individual features of the creativity of individual architects. State policy did not contribute to the creation and development of creative schools and trends in architecture, limiting local specifics to taking into account climatic conditions and the formal assimilation of some local traditional methods of solving buildings.

Urban planning of the People's Republic of China developed in specific conditions associated with the need to transform Chinese cities.

By the middle of the XX century. There are two types of cities in China. One group is formed by the industrial cities of Shanghai, Tianjin, Guangzhou (Canton), Wuhan, and others. In these cities, separate areas (settlemen) were created for foreigners, in sharp contrast to the rest of the disadvantaged quarters, areas of shacks, slums, characteristic of Chinese cities.

The other group includes Beijing, Nanjing, Xi'an, Suzhou, and others, in which planning principles, formed in ancient periods of urban development, in particular, the regular nature of planning, have been preserved to varying degrees.

Since the founding of the PRC, the solution of urban problems has been recognized as one of the important state tasks.

In the period 1949-1952. the state did not have the opportunity to carry out the reconstruction of cities and limited urban development work to the partial improvement of some areas, the laying of individual highways, engineering networks, selective construction of individual buildings. In subsequent years, the volume of urban development work increased, their nature changed. There is a transition to the design and construction of residential areas, the development master plans cities, a number of district planning projects.

In 1953-1956. on the basis of Soviet experience, the main normative documents are being developed that determined the state policy in the field of urban planning.

2. Beijing. Tiananmen Square. Reconstruction 1958-1959 General plan of the area. General form. The master plan for the development of Beijing for 1949-1957. Perspective plan for the development of Beijing. Western residential area: 1 - existing development; 2 - projected building; 3 - main highways; 4 - historical and architectural ensembles

3. Changchun. The working village of the car factory. Fragment of a residential building. Village plan

In 1953-1959. in the PRC, planning projects were completed for 150 cities with a population of more than 200 thousand inhabitants each and a large number of projects for county centers and other settlements. Master plans for the reconstruction and development of Beijing, Shanghai, Wuhan, Taiyuan, and others have been drawn up. This is typical, in particular, for cities that were formed in the previous period, such as Shanghai, Guangzhou, Harbin, Tanjin. In other cases, the ancient city serves as a historical core, around which, or near it, new districts are built. Examples of cities of this type are Beijing, Xi'an, Luoyang, Changchun (Fig. 3). In some cases, already existing, as a rule, small provincial towns become strongholds for the creation of new industrial centers: Baotou, Fulaerji, Lanzhou, etc.

An example of development ancient city can serve as the capital of China Beijing. In February 1950, the first urban construction plan was adopted. In 1950-1952 individual measures were taken to reconstruct Beijing, providing for a partial improvement in sanitary conditions and transport, in particular, in 1952, Longtan Park was created on the site of a slum in the southeastern part of the city.

started development of a master plan for the reconstruction of Beijing, which provides for mass housing and industrial construction outside the city limits, and the reconstruction of the old city (Fig. 2).

The long-term plan for the reconstruction and construction of the city combined the principles of radial-circular and regular planning. The old city with a rectangular grid of streets running in the latitudinal and meridional directions was defined as the compositional center of the future Beijing, its historical, political and cultural center.

There were two axial highways passing through the city center. One of them coincides with the so-called "Great Beijing Axis", the main planning axis of ancient Beijing. It was planned to create two ring and several radial highways to connect new areas with each other.

In the first half of the 50s. construction within the city walls was limited to the construction of several public and administrative buildings. Later, the first residential quarters began to be built in the southern part of Beijing. Outside the city walls, new districts are emerging.

To the north, the area of ​​universities is developing, to the west - the area of ​​mass housing construction and office buildings; residential areas and industrial enterprises are being built to the east.

In the mid 50s. reconstruction is underway. Tiananmen and st. Chang'anjie, an axial highway that crosses the city from west to east and links the already built new areas with the city center. The history of the square in front of the Tiananmen Gate dates back to the 13th century. at the beginning of the 15th century. it took on a form that was preserved until the middle of the 20th century, and was the front courtyard of the imperial palace. In connection with the beginning of the reconstruction of the city, the Pailou gate, part of the walls of the front courtyard were gradually demolished, and in 1958 the remaining part, along with the Qianbulang galleries. An attempt was made to unite into a single ensemble the ancient buildings of the imperial palace (Tiananmen Gate, etc.), the monument to national heroes, as well as the newly built House of the National People's Congress of China, the Chinese History Museum and the Museum of the Chinese Revolution, towering in the western and eastern parts of the reconstructed area ( Fig. 2).

The architectural appearance of the square is determined by the symmetrical solution that underlies its layout, and the emphasized significance of the House of the National People's Congress.

The physical dimensions of Tiananmen Square turned out to be exaggerated and it does not correspond to the existing scale of the old part of the city and does not have sufficient development in the entire structure of Beijing.

Thus, the results of the reconstruction showed that the problems of a harmonious combination of new and old buildings, preserving the color characteristic of Beijing could not be solved.

The features of Beijing's urban development are largely determined by the rapid growth of the population, which in just 6 years (1950-1956) increased from 1350 thousand to almost 4 million people. The general plan provided for an increase in the population to 5 million people. According to available data, already by 1973 the population of the capital exceeded this figure.

Significant construction took place in Shanghai, China's largest industrial center, whose population in 1949 numbered 5.56 million people, and together with suburban areas - 10 million people.

In the mid 50s. A 20-year plan for the reconstruction of Shanghai was developed, which provided for the creation of a ring of new industrial and residential areas with a population of 100-200 thousand inhabitants each, separated from the old Shanghai by a green belt. At the same time, while remaining one of the largest industrial centers of the country, Shanghai does not receive much development. In general, there was a qualitative improvement in its production base without significant quantitative growth. In 1971, the population of Shanghai was 5.7 million people.

In Beijing, Shanghai and other cities of the PRC, new industrial enterprises were located in industrial areas, but in most cases residential areas were built near the enterprises, as was the case in Changchun, where a car factory and residential quarters for car factory workers were built (1959).

New industrial districts have emerged in Wuhan, a large and complex urban area in Central China. Since ancient times, it included Wuchang, Hankou, Hanyang, separated by the Yangtze and Hanshui rivers. The construction of bridges, including a large bridge across the Yangtze (1958), carried out with the help of Soviet specialists, made it possible to unite these cities into a single whole. In the decade after 1949, the city grew and its population doubled. The long-term plan for the development of the city provided for the preservation and development of the already established functional ties between the individual parts of Wuhan: Hankou is developing as a trade and transport center, Hanyang - an industrial center, Wuchang - an administrative and cultural center. The first residential areas are being built, including a number of residential quarters with cultural and community services for the workers of the Wuhan Iron and Steel Works (Fig. 4, 9).

The development of Wuhan was based on the principle of creating separate residential areas, grouped around community centers, with common development cities along the river and deep into the coastal zone.

Such ancient cities as Xi'an, Hefei and others are being developed. By the end of the 60s. The population of Xi'an has tripled since 1949 and reached 1,300,000 people. At the same time, in recent years, the further growth of the city has been limited only by the needs of the existing industry, as well as the stabilization of the population.

Hangzhou, which has a history of more than 2 thousand years, known for its parks and excellent climate, originally developed as a resort and health Center. Around the lake A zone of sanatoriums and rest houses has been created in Sihu and to the south of it. In the future, the city begins to grow to the north, where the main residential areas and many universities are located (Fig. 5). In the early 70s. The population of Hangzhou amounted to about 700 thousand people, the city began to develop as an industrial center: about 200 thousand workers are employed at large enterprises.

More than 6 times the population Hefei, the center of Anhui Province, which has become a new industrial center of the country. The most rapid growth of the city took place before 1965 (Fig. 6).

This situation is typical for other cities in China. During this period, significant urban development work was carried out in the cities of Tianjin, Harbin, Anshan, Nanjing, Changchun, Shenyang.

It should be noted that the implementation of most of the urban planning projects developed has met with significant difficulties. The most interesting urban planning ideas did not go beyond the scope of project proposals, in particular, the master plan for the development of Lanzhou was not implemented, in which there is a clear functional zoning of the urban area, convenient connections between districts. This project is also interesting as an example of the city's ribbon development.

Fragmentation remained a characteristic feature of Chinese urban planning, when the development of sometimes even large areas did not contribute to the solution of the main provisions laid down in the master plan for the development of the city.

In the second half of the 60s - early 70s. in the field of urban planning, the orientation towards the dispersal of the population and industry throughout the country on the basis of the creation of regional centers based on local resources is becoming predominant. Decentralization of production facilities was seen as a means to accelerate the relatively uniform development of the regions. At the same time, it was supposed to bring the city and the countryside closer together on the basis of the urbanization of rural settlements and the deurbanization of cities. In practice, this was reflected in the reduction of appropriations for construction, the adoption of measures to reduce the urban population, which was facilitated by the mass resettlement to the village for "re-education" - especially young people.

As the industrial base strengthened, capital housing construction grew. For 1949-1959 about 160 million m2 of residential buildings were built with public funds. Separate houses and groups of buildings, quarters and residential areas with a population of up to 30-140 thousand inhabitants were built. The average number of storeys of the new residential development did not exceed 3-4 floors, with simultaneous development, as a rule, buildings of one storey were used. The building density, depending on the number of floors and types of houses, was taken from 120 to 550 people / ha, in some cases it exceeded these figures.

In major cities - Shanghai, Beijing and others - in the 50s. the system of building residential areas on the basis of the principle: block, group of blocks, residential area became widespread. According to this scheme, in the north-west of Shanghai built caoyang residential area, the first phase of which was completed in 1953 with an area of ​​24 hectares (Fig. 7). Three quarters with line buildings with an area of ​​3-4 hectares each form a group of quarters, which includes elementary School, kindergarten, nursery, market. Caoyang consists of three such groups, separated by highways, at the intersection of which a community center has been erected with a general store, a club, a cinema, a post office and other service enterprises. The development is monotonous due to a very limited number of types of residential buildings and, as a result, the accepted method of planning.

After 1959, attempts were made to bring the service network closer to housing. The new type of planning is based on a residential group for 2 thousand inhabitants, which is part of a quarter with a population of 5-10 thousand inhabitants and a territory of no more than 30 hectares. The residential microdistrict has a population of up to 30 thousand and covers an area of ​​about 100 hectares. This structure underlies the layout of several districts of Shanghai. With mass development, two levels of service are provided, the first includes a canteen, a kindergarten and a nursery, the second includes a department store, a market, an elementary school, etc.

Later, in the early 1960s, the size of the residential group and quarter decreased. In the quarters, a service group is provided, and in the microdistrict - a microdistrict center. Minxing and Zhangmiao microdistricts in Shanghai were built according to a similar scheme.

One of the first examples of complex construction was the construction in Beijing in 1953. Baiwanzhuang residential area for employees of state institutions (Fig. 8). To the west of the city walls there are five residential blocks with a total area of ​​about 21 hectares. Baiwanzhuang occupies a rectangular area and has a perimeter building of 3-story brick houses. In the depths of the quarters there is an elementary school, nurseries and kindergartens, a cooperative building of shops and consumer service workshops, and a club.

A more picturesque layout is characteristic of a residential area in Guangzhou, the first stage of which was built in 1955-1956. On three hills along the relief, a two-story estate-type building is picturesquely located. The community center of the district includes a school, shops, cafes and other facilities.

In housing construction, Chinese architects used both regular and picturesque planning, using perimeter, row, point and mixed buildings. New residential areas were built, as a rule, in free territories or on the site of urban slums. A significant part of them was associated with the construction of industrial enterprises.

The selective construction of residential buildings in the established areas of Chinese cities has not become widespread.

The increased demand for residential construction has led to the emergence of new types of buildings that were almost never seen in China before. These are primarily 3-5-storey sectional, corridor and gallery houses. When designing and constructing such buildings, foreign experience was taken into account, in particular the experience of the Soviet Union. At the same time, the experience of national architecture was taken into account, and attempts were made to transfer some features characteristic of the Chinese traditional dwelling into new construction. In some projects of multi-storey buildings, the arrangement of courtyards was envisaged, which created the best conditions for aeration of apartments. In the central and southern regions of the country, residential buildings with loggias, outdoor galleries, open staircases, etc., are relatively widespread (Fig. 10).

For the cities of China, with the exception of certain areas of large cities, such as Shanghai, Guangzhou, as a whole, until 1949, buildings of 1-2 floors were typical. Therefore, along with buildings of 4-5 floors in the 50-60s. various types of 1-2-storey residential buildings with a courtyard are being developed. The possibility of blocking some types was envisaged; in a number of cases, residential cells were grouped around a landscaped courtyard, creating a new method of building, close to the traditional estates of southern China. Such buildings were erected in urban settlements, residential areas of large and small cities.

In the 50s. in cities and industrial towns, sectional houses 3-4 floors high with 2-4 apartments per floor and apartments from 2 to 4 rooms are becoming widespread. In 1955, the estimated norm of living space was determined at 4-4.5 m 2 per person. In subsequent years, it was supposed to increase it to 5-6 m 2 . In practice, it was much lower, which led to the spread of the principle of room-by-room resettlement of families. In this regard, projects of two-room apartments are spreading. In particular, the section of the standard project No. 9014 for Beijing has three two-room apartments with an average area of ​​33 m 2 . They are intended for room-by-room settling. In other cases, as, for example, in project No. 8014, also developed for Beijing, the section has three small-sized two-room apartments with an area of ​​23 m 2 and is intended for apartment-by-apartment settlement (Fig. 11).

Projects of mass housing construction in the first half of the 60s. reflected the desire for economical housing, an increase in the output of living space, the reduction to a minimum of utility rooms and the range of sanitary equipment. The sizes of apartments and rooms were reduced.

The search for solutions that take into account local conditions has led to the creation of a number of projects for individual cities, provinces, districts and zones in China. So, in 1955, the first projects were developed for the zones, in 1961, projects were created for some provinces. These projects, not being typical, played the role of original standards.

In mass housing construction, structures and materials designed for traditional construction methods were used: rubble or brick foundations, brick transverse or longitudinal load-bearing walls, interfloor ceilings in the form of small brick vaults, and tiled roofs.

Some development of the building industry base has led to a wider use of precast concrete parts in residential construction. At the end of the 50s. the design and construction of individual large-block residential buildings, including buildings from vibro-brick panels, began, but in general, the construction of buildings by industrial construction methods did not leave the stage of experimental construction and amounted to an insignificant part in the total volume of housing construction.

Since the mid 60s. housing construction is reduced to a minimum. The solution to the housing problem is postponed indefinitely. In connection with the slogan “prepare for famine, prepare for war,” many shelters are being built and underground structures. The volume of construction of schools, universities, trade and other enterprises is being reduced.

construction public buildings occupies an important place in the architecture of China.

In connection with the development of housing construction, kindergartens and preschool groups at schools, kindergartens designed for 2-3 shifts lasting 3-4 hours, daytime kindergartens, where children stay 8-12 hours, and around the clock, from where children leave only for Sunday. Kindergartens and nurseries were built according to individual projects. Examples of such structures are June 1 kindergartens and "Xizhaosy" in Beijing (Fig. 12), a kindergarten-nursery for 300 children in Shanghai, where the building complex kindergarten includes five pavilions with two group rooms, each of which has utility rooms. There are playgrounds and an administrative building on the site.

The construction of schools developed rapidly, in particular, primary and secondary schools for 600-1350 students are being built. The bulk of educational buildings are built according to individual projects or reuse projects. The layout of the schools is varied: with internal corridors, outdoor open galleries, etc.

13. Beijing. Public buildings. 1954-1958 Ministry of Construction. Ministry of Water Resources

14. Beijing. Yubinguan Hotel. Xincao Hotel

15. Beijing. Hotel of Nationalities. 1958-1959 General form. Plan

16. Beijing. Public buildings. 1954-1958 Radio House. Exhibition Complex

In a number of cities in China, especially in Beijing and in central cities provinces, built a large number of administrative buildings. The architectural appearance of public buildings in all regions of the country was characterized by a combination of rectangular volumes, different in height and length. Their height is from 3 to 6-7 floors, and the central part, which is higher, is emphasized by the large rhythm and pattern of openings, decorative elements and complication of forms. In plan, public buildings are a combination of rectangular figures that form rather complex compositions with a clearly defined central axis.

A large number of public and administrative buildings were built starting from the first half of the 50s. in Pekin.

Among them is the building of the State Economic Committee with somewhat heavy, tower-like volumes in the center and at the corners, completed with traditional two-tier roofs; The Ministry of Construction, whose laconic forms are enlivened by decorative elements dating back to national architecture. More restrained architectural appearance of buildings Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Construction and Ministry of Water Resources(Fig. 13).

Considerable attention is paid to the construction of hotels. In 1952-1958. a number of hotels are being built, including the Heping (World) Hotel, the new building of the Beijing Hotel, the Qianmen Hotel, "Xinqiao", which is one of the characteristic examples of buildings of this type.

In the architecture of some public buildings, especially those built in the early 50s, in particular in hotel complex "Yubinguan"(1954-1955), reflected the desire to create a new style, using the forms of national architecture. This led to a passion for massive multi-cornice roofs, direct borrowing of the forms of ancient temple and palace architecture, and created a contradiction between the architectural image and the constructive scheme (Fig. 14).

In 1959, a 12-story building was built in Beijing Hotel of Nationalities for 1200 seats. On the first, higher floor, there are lobbies, lobby, administration, restaurants of European and Chinese cuisine. The building is made in a reinforced concrete frame. The use of the frame determined the clear rhythm of the façade, enlivened by balconies and the first floor protruding from the plane of the wall and a large portico in the center, which give the architecture of the hotel a peculiar flavor (Fig. 15).

An example of successful cooperation between Soviet and Chinese architects was the construction exhibition complex in Beijing(architect V. Andreev, 1954) and home radio(architect D. Chechulin, 1958) (see Fig. 16).

In 1958, a building of the Central Telegraph. This rectangular 7-storey building with a clock tower is made of reinforced concrete structures, characterized by a more innovative approach to architectural forms (Fig. 17). In the mid 50s. A number of department stores are under construction in Beijing, including Central department store and department stores, which have become shopping centers for Beijing's new residential areas (see Figure 18).

Many spectacular buildings, assembly halls, etc. are being built in the PRC. Among them building of the People's Political Consultative Council(1955) theaters "Shoudou"("Capital") and "Tiancao"(“Sky Bridge”) in Beijing (1954-1955), the Palace of Culture in Chongqing, the theater in Wuhan (1961), etc. (Fig. 19, 20, 22).

In 1955 it was built. A clear and precise plan, the laconic form of the facades, which are distinguished by some severity, without external decoration, make it possible to classify this building as one of the successful examples of theatrical structures in China (Fig. 21).

In some cases, the architecture of theaters, especially those intended for staging performances of the national theater, in particular Chinese opera, is dominated by forms of traditional architecture, as, for example, in the Jinjiang Theater, Chengdu (1954). High tiled roofs, paintings on beams and brackets, galleries and courtyards create a national flavor. The original layout, which includes park elements as an integral part, continues the traditions of the Chinese theater and reveals potential opportunities for the further development of theater buildings.

23. Beijing. Palace of Sports. 1955 General view. Plan

24. Beijing. Stadium. 1958-1959 Plan of the central arena. General form

The design of theater buildings in China follows strict regulations: the lobby and lobby are small, there are no wardrobes, the size of the stage and stage equipment is limited, partly due to the climate and the characteristics of the national theater, which does not require a lot of scenery.

The construction of clubs and Palaces of Culture has received significant development. Among them are the Palaces of Culture and clubs in Tianjin, Harbin, Shenyang, Kunming and other cities of China.

The construction of cinemas was carried out on a smaller scale and was concentrated mainly in new residential areas. A 1,500-seat wide-screen cinema "Shugun" ("Dawn") was built in Nanjing. Its layout, the interiors of the hall and other rooms meet modern requirements. In the architecture of the cinema, the desire to create new forms, taking into account local architectural traditions, is noticeable.

In 1955, on the territory of about 100 hectares, a citywide sports center, including except Beijing Sports Palace playing and training fields, playgrounds, various sports facilities (Fig. 23).

The Sports Palace is a complex of three buildings connected by arcades with closed passages at the level of the second floor. The central part with a hall for 6,000 seats dominates with its mass and height, the side buildings house a swimming pool and training rooms.

In the external appearance of this building, an attempt was made to combine new planning and design techniques with the forms of traditional architecture. This was manifested in the completion of the roof, in the details of balconies and niches, in decoration and ornamentation.

Sports complexes, halls, swimming pools, stadiums were built in Nanjing, Guangzhou, Chongqing, Wuhan and other cities of China.

In the eastern suburbs of Beijing in 1958 was built Gongzhen Stadium. It is a complex that includes a central sports arena with two-tier stands for 80,000 spectators (Fig. 24). The facade of the central arena with a deep gallery on the ground floor and narrow bands of windows on the upper floors ends with a cornice. The deep shadows of the cornice and gallery enliven the building and break some of the monotony caused by the correct alternation of horizontal and vertical articulations of the facade. In 1959-1960. a large indoor sports hall for 10,000 seats is being built. Its appearance is in tune with the central sports arena.

25. Beijing. House of the National People's Congress. 1958-1959 General form. Plan

26. Beijing. Museum of the Chinese Revolution and the History Museum of China. 1958-1959 Plan. General form

27. Beijing. Palace of Culture of Nationalities. 1958-1959 General form. Plan

28. Beijing. New station. 1958-1959 General view, plan

In 1958-1959. built in Beijing House of the National People's Congress, the largest building in the capital (Fig. 25). Its facades with porticos and colonnades are monumental. In the central part there is a hall for 10 thousand seats, in the northern part there is a banquet hall for 5 thousand seats.

The architectural appearance of the nearby complex of buildings of the Museum of the Chinese Revolution and the Historical Museum somewhat monotonous (Fig. 26). In terms of museums, they are two U-shaped buildings, opened towards each other and connected by a central part with a vestibule, a foyer, a conference hall and an open colonnade that enlivens the western facade of the ensemble.

One of the major structures built in Beijing is Palace of Culture of Nationalities(Fig. 27). Its central part is completed by a 13-story tower. Roofs made of glazed tiles with slightly raised ends, white wall tiles, carved decorations, gallery railings, stone stained-glass windows of the portico create a unique and memorable appearance of the building. It houses a museum, a library, a cinema and concert hall, a restaurant, a gym and a hotel.

The multi-stage volume of the building of the Military Museum is completed by a tower with a spire with a total height of about 100 m.

Mention should be made of the complex of buildings of the All-China Agricultural Exhibition, located on the territory of 50 hectares.

One of the first experiments in the design and construction of large reinforced concrete structures was the construction in 1959. new beijing station(Fig. 28). It has a clear planning structure, due to the technological scheme. The waiting rooms are connected to platforms covered by canopies, a passage at the second floor level and three underground tunnels.

In 1962, the construction of the Museum of Fine Arts - the All-China Palace was completed works of art. In its architecture, the search for solutions based on ancient traditions was continued, an attempt was made to embody the features of the national character in architectural forms, which was reflected in tiled roofs, the traditional pattern of openings.

29. Beijing. University area. Institute of ferrous metallurgy. General form. Plan

33. Wuhan. Lake Donghu. Wellness complex. General plan scheme. General form. Ground floor plan

In the 50s - early 60s. the construction of buildings for higher educational institutions. Existing universities are being expanded, new ones are being built in Tianjin, Xi'an, Shenyang, Shanghai and many others. To the north of Beijing, a district of universities appeared in the form of complexes, including educational and laboratory buildings, student dormitories, houses for teachers, sports and other facilities (Fig. 29).

Student dormitories, as a rule, are corridor-type buildings with a height of 3-5 floors. Rooms for 4, 6, 8 students are determined based on the norm of 2-3 m 2 per person.

Along with higher education institutions, buildings of research institutes of the PRC Academy of Sciences and departments, as well as buildings of technical schools and schools for the training and education of cadre workers, are being erected in a number of cities.

For 1949-1959 the network of medical institutions and hospitals has increased significantly. In Beijing, the Soviet-Chinese Friendship Hospital, the Beijing City Hospital, Tongren Hospital and others. Typically, hospital departments are located in the same building, for example, the Beijing Xuanwu Hospital, a children's hospital with a polyclinic (Fig. 30). hospital buildings, as a rule, are built with a height of 4-5 floors. Their appearance is typical for public buildings of this period. In 1961-1963 attempts were made to typify hospitals, in particular, in Shanghai and Tianjin (Fig. 31, 32).

In the most beautiful areas of the country, such as Beidaihe, Qingdao, Lushan, Hangzhou, rest houses and sanatoriums were built. V Wuhan on the banks lake Donghu increased health complex, consisting of six sanatoriums (Fig. 33).

In the foothills of Xishan near Beijing in 1954 was built sanatorium for students of Asia and Africa(Fig. 34). In the architecture of individual buildings and the entire ensemble as a whole, there is a noticeable desire to use the motifs of traditional architecture in modern buildings. This was manifested in the use of tiled roofs, connecting galleries, pavilions, and rich decor.

Since the second half of the 60s. construction of public buildings is carried out to a lesser extent. Relatively more attention is paid to industrial facilities.

Architecture of industrial buildings and structures of China developed since the early 1950s. With the help of the Soviet Union, large industrial complexes, factories with multi-storey buildings and multi-bay workshops have been built. A large number of plants and factories have grown on the basis of small factories, handicraft workshops, which have undergone reconstruction (pp. 35, 36).

The Anshan Iron and Steel Works developed. In 1956, the creation of a second metallurgical base in Wuhan began. The construction of the Baotou plant with coke, metallurgical, pipe-rolling plants, and various auxiliary shops was underway.

Such enterprises as heavy engineering plants were built in Fulaerji, Taiyuan, and Shenyang. In 1958, the Luoyang Heavy Machine Building Plant and the Tractor Plant, as well as the Heavy Machine Tool Plant in Wuhan, went into operation. A complex of electric power equipment enterprises was built in Harbin, and the first automobile plant was built in Changchun.

Light and food industry enterprises were built (Fig. 37-39). Large textile mills were built in Peking and Zhengzhou, an artificial fiber plant was built in Andong, an artificial silk factory was built in Baoding, etc.

The use of modern design and planning solutions, a variety of types of structures have led to some progress in industrial architecture. There was a process of searching for new forms. A number of enterprises, such as the Beijing Electronic Tube Factory, are close in appearance to administrative buildings; others, like the Beijing Cotton Mill or the Auto Parts Factory, are of a modern industrial character; others, like the metal structure factory (Beijing), are the result of the introduction of national traditions into the appearance of modern industrial buildings.

Some experience has been accumulated in industrial design, which has contributed to the development of new trends in construction, such as the use of a modular system. On the basis of the achievements of Soviet industrial construction in the PRC, standard designs, prefabricated reinforced concrete structures, new Construction Materials: expanded clay, lightweight concrete, etc. Large floor panels are used, including ribbed ones, with oval voids, prestressed, the length of the panels reaches 12 m. Multi-span prefabricated monolithic continuous arched structures are used.

In the design and construction of industrial buildings, sun protection devices were sometimes used. In the southern regions of the country in 1958-1959. On an experimental basis, the construction of open industrial buildings was carried out, in which, taking into account the specifics of production, an attempt was made to solve the issues of aeration and sun protection.

A number of hydroelectric power plants were built. Reconstructed in northeast China (Fig. 40). At the end of the 50s. the construction of a hydroelectric power station on the river. Huanghe. Construction of irrigation facilities, canals, reservoirs with earthen and reinforced concrete dams was carried out, such as the Fozilin reservoir and the Meishan reservoir on the river. Shihe in Anhui Province.

The construction after 1958, in connection with the “great leap forward” policy of a large number of low-capacity small and medium-sized enterprises using local materials, using the simplest structures, led not only to the dispersion of funds and a slowdown in the creation of a solid industrial base, but also to a decrease in the quality of construction and architecture .

In the 60s - 70s. in the field of industrial construction, architecture was focused on the design of a few objects, mainly related to the military industry, with the development of projects for large, medium and small enterprises using local resources.

Rural construction in China developed taking into account the specifics of the Chinese village. It was slow-moving and closely related to the traditions of Chinese rural architecture.

In connection with the formation of cooperatives and state farms in rural areas, the construction of new types of buildings for China, such as various farms, production workshops, warehouses, etc., began. other reinforced concrete elements. The construction of new buildings according to standard designs was insignificant and did not have a big impact on the appearance of the Chinese village. In the design of a rural residential building, the basic scheme of a traditional dwelling and, to a certain extent, its architectural appearance are preserved (Fig. 41).

A new stage in rural architecture began in the late 1950s and early 1960s, when, in connection with the creation of people's communes, the question arose of designing qualitatively new rural settlements. A number of master plans for people's communes were developed.

Of interest is the project of the central estate of the people's commune of Bolo County, Guangdong Province (Fig. 42).

These projects showed the possibilities for the transformation of the village and the prospects for further development of the architecture of the village. However, they did not have the necessary economic base, and the construction associated with them was not developed.

The architecture of the People's Republic of China is developing in difficult conditions. At the first stages of the development of modern Chinese architecture, attempts were made to comprehend the architectural heritage and develop its traditions. Certain successes have been achieved in the field of urban planning.

In the future, several factors influenced the development of Chinese architecture. One of them is the spread of nationalistic tendencies associated with the revaluation own experience and downplaying the experience of the socialist countries and other countries of the world. The exaggeration of the role of political slogans-symbols in the development of society, its economy and culture also affected the direction of architecture. These tendencies became especially pronounced in the late 1950s. i.e. from the period of the so-called "Great Leap Forward". The frequent change of tasks set before architecture and construction slowed down their development.

Since the mid-1960s, especially since the period of the "cultural revolution", appropriations for civil construction were reduced in connection with the task set.

The absence of special architectural buildings since 1965 makes it impossible to assess the state of architecture and construction in China in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

Chapter "Architecture of the People's Republic of China". The General History of Architecture. Volume 12. Book two. Architecture of Foreign Socialist Countries, edited by N.V. Baranov.

The answers to tasks 1–24 are a word, a phrase, a number or a sequence of words, numbers. Write your answer to the right of the task number without spaces, commas or other additional characters.

Read the text and do tasks 1-3.

(1) Many dialect words refer to specific rural realities (objects of the world around us), which are associated with agriculture, village households, and the arrangement of a peasant house. (2)_____ not all dialect words denote some special rural realities. (3) There are much more of those that serve as local names for very ordinary, ubiquitous objects, phenomena, actions, concepts.

1

Which of the following sentences correctly conveys the MAIN information contained in the text?

1. Dialect words both designate specific rural realities and serve as local names for common objects, phenomena, actions, concepts.

2. Many dialect words refer to specific rural realities that are associated with agriculture and village households.

3. Not all dialect words denote some special rural realities associated with agriculture, village household chores, and the arrangement of a peasant house.

4. There are many more such dialect words that are associated with the arrangement of a peasant house.

5. Dialect words often serve as local names for common objects and phenomena, but they can also denote specific rural realities.

2

Which of the following words should be in place of the gap in the second (2) sentence of the text? Write out this word.

1. Unfortunately,

4. Maybe

3

Read the fragment of the dictionary entry, which gives the meaning of the word DEVICE. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the first (1) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.

DEVICE, -a, cf.

1. Location, ratio of parts, construction of something. Convenient at. premises. The device is a complex device.

2. Established order, order. State u. Public

3. Technical structure, mechanism, machine, device. Decisive at. Regulating at.

4

In one of the words below, a mistake was made in setting the stress: the letter denoting the stressed vowel is highlighted INCORRECTLY. Write out this word.

security

disabled

embitter

got

5

In one of the sentences below, the underlined word is WRONGLY used. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.

1. Yakov Podkova - the instigator of the fight - was the first to leave the yard.

2. Idle way of life was the cause of the death of not only individuals, but also entire states.

3. The greatness of the landscape is given by CENTURY-OLD spruces and firs.

4. Bringing out the fire is the most IMPRESSIVE moment of the ceremony.

5. By the end of school, my parents gave me a MEMORABLE gift.

6

In one of the words highlighted below, a mistake was made in the formation of the word form. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.

best DOCTORS

three pairs of shoes

PUT in the bag

the source has EXHAUSTED

at the end of the holiday

7

Establish a correspondence between the sentences and the grammatical errors made in them: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

GRAMMATICAL ERRORS	SUGGESTIONS
A) incorrect use of the case form of a noun with a preposition	1) When reading art books, my father made notes in the margins.
B) an error in constructing a sentence with homogeneous members	2) Having visited the mountains once, we have explored many interesting places.
C) violation in the construction of a sentence with an inconsistent application	3) Many who did not know about the habits of our cat, at first tried to caress and stroke him.
D) violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate	4) In his diaries, the author describes in detail about the journey to the Caucasus.
D) violation in the construction of a sentence with a participial turnover	5) Thanks to amazing perseverance and self-discipline, Andrei received a diploma with honors.
	6) The peasantry for many centuries fought against the landowners.
	7) The cards prepared by scientists are intended for the catalog of the Institute of Linguistics.
	8) Since ancient times, not only riddles have been a fun game of the mind and imagination, but also a serious test.
	9) Work on the poem "Dead Souls" by N.V. Gogol began on the advice of A.S. Pushkin.

Write your answer in numbers without spaces or other characters.

8

Determine the word in which the unstressed alternating vowel of the root is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.

stop barking

m...rzlota

change...

r... petitor

win... denunciatory

9

Determine the row in which the same letter is missing in both words in the prefix. Write these words out with the missing letter.

pr...rights, pr...possibility

n ... reproach, with ... regret

pr ... imagine, pr ... announcement

oh ... distant, oh ... cottage

pr ... to cut, pr ... dressed up

10

Write down the word in which the letter E is written in place of the gap.

sorrel..vy

hardy..out

glued..l

attach .. to

fool..vy

11

Write down the word in which the letter Y is written in place of the gap

thinning (fog)

(graduates) meet..tsya

(fogs) stele..tsya

(lines) in contact..tsya

(they) rinse..t (linen)

12

Indicate all the numbers in the place of which the letter I is written.

As n (1) tried, I n (2) was able to find n (3) cracks in the prickly hedge, n (4) manhole, so I tore off my sides n (5) times until I got into the yard.

13

Determine the sentence in which both underlined words are spelled ONE. Open the brackets and write out these two words.

1. Snow in Norilsk melts only (B) at the beginning of June, and at the end of September it falls (B) NEW.

2. The mouse silently and quickly emerged (FROM) UNDER the canopy and disappeared into the (HALF) DARKNESS.

3. (B) SOON our patience burst, and, (NOT) LOOKING at the bad weather, we decided to go back to the sea.

4. I had to stay (ABROAD) ABROAD in my youth, TO (Would) understand and appreciate the beauty native land.

5. At the same dacha, countless treasures (B) in the form of diamonds, as well as (SAME) gold money of royal coinage, were discovered.

14

Indicate all the numbers in the place of which N is written.

It was overcast and windy(1)o. Foam (2) waves rolled onto a long (3) sandy (4) shoal.

15

Set up punctuation marks. Indicate the numbers of sentences in which you need to put ONE comma.

1. At that very moment, a woman in a uniform jacket, cap, black skirt and slippers entered the office.

2. In each of these windows, a fire burned under an orange lampshade, and the hoarse roar of a polonaise from the opera Eugene Onegin burst out of all the windows.

3. From a small bag on her belt, the woman took out a little white square and a notebook.

4. Ivan did not pick up the scattered sheets and wept softly and bitterly.

5. Women disappeared behind a curtain, left their dresses there and went out in new ones.

16

Reflecting with living silver (1), the water extended to the other bank, and (2) the wind (4) infused with field grasses (3) weakly blowing (5) barely perceptibly shakes the young growth (6) creeping along the eaves of the other bank.

17

Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentences.

Autumn is (1) undeniably (2) a beautiful season. Firstly (3) crimson and golden leaves spread over the ground and enliven the forest (4) secondly (5) in autumn, an abundance of vegetables and fruits.

18

Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentence.

I sat on the deck for a long time (1) and looked into the darkness (2) where the endless forests rustled (3) where it was not visible (4) and (5) where for hundreds of kilometers you will not meet a single person.

19

Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentence.

It turned out (1) that the snowdrift (2) in which (3) he buried himself in the snow (4) was a shed (5) and they wandered between two villages.

20

Edit the sentence: correct the lexical error by replacing the incorrectly used word. Write down the chosen word, observing the norms of the modern Russian literary language.

Of course, his family had a great influence on him: his mother was a teacher of Russian language and literature, his father taught at the university.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-26.

(1) Glitter is a well-designed machine for selling expensive things to stupid rich people. (2) And expensive things are made in order to be bought by stupid rich people; not even stupid, but simply concerned about status for various reasons. (3) Such a bourgeoisie in the classical sense, for which status is more important than true existence: a suit more important than a person the outside is more important than the inside...

(4) For example, in glamor magazines one cannot work full; employees must have a good figure, that is, by their existence, confirm that the world of glamor exists: here it is.

(5) And a fat person simply cannot be shown: he is not in glamor. (6) Although if a certain number of rich women were fat, glamor would move, he would take them into account. (7) And so there are invented images - a Procrustean bed: neither longer nor shorter. (8) And the rest, as it were, are not.

(9) The task of the gloss is first to neuroticize, to shame, to indicate where the pillory is located, to which you will be taken if you do not comply; then - to offer them ideal models of everything, and happiness will come. (10) That is, they say that happiness will come to you if you fulfill certain financial conditions, in fact.

(11) All these purchases that glamor offers are aimed at women. (12) And there, in this world of steepness, a man, having reached a certain status level, gets himself a very young wife - not because he fell in love with her, but because it's cool to have one, and chosen according to a certain type: they they are all the same. (13) And he presents it to the world and holds his diamonds on it.

(14) Here are very rich people, if you talk to them, they eventually admit: you don’t understand, making money is an end in itself, it’s impossible to stop. (15) Adrenaline is like that. (16) And a by-product of this passion of theirs - it creates cities, factories, pumps oil, gives jobs ... (17) They think about themselves, of course, and not about how they could build cities; and in this eternal struggle for status and females, they exist, and the rest is a by-product.

(18) But this world, in order to exist, must be provided with something; and a variety of structures are molded around it.

(19) Glamor is one of these structures.

(20) Only very strong personalities can set other goals for themselves. (21) That is, it doesn’t matter to them what they are wearing, what kind of wife they have - let her fail. (22) They think about some global things: about immortality during life or, conversely, about glory after death; to found a university, to build a hospital, to do good to talents - simply because one wants to preserve art, to build hospitals, and not to cover one's whole house with gold. (23) Arrange awards, competitions, build museums - whatever. (24) After all, science, medicine, education, art - all this is terribly interesting.

(25) And most of the rich people do not have interests that lie in these abstract areas. (26) What do you think, Lord, it’s like growing up, shooting down competitors, deceiving, licking the boots of power, forgetting an old mother in the village, kicking out your wife, all this terrible way to the top - and here’s your reward: in the front row, watch the “Golden Gramophone” . (27) And then, in Bentleys and Mercedes, go through our terrible, uncleaned Moscow, with everyone who stands nearby in their rusty Zhiguli cars, - there, into the gorge of Rublyovka, with one-way traffic and a humiliating forty-minute wait at the turn, because there is someone older must pass.

Quest Source: Decision 3736. Unified State Examination 2017. Russian language. I.P. Tsybulko. 36 options.

(1) Superconductors are used to create devices that are technically impossible or uneconomical to manufacture using traditional conductor materials - copper and aluminum. (2)<...>powerful magnetic systems for thermonuclear fusion plants or elementary particle accelerators, ultra-fast current limiters, medical tomographs, high-resolution spectrometers, samples of advanced military equipment, trains, on a magnetic cushion are created using superconducting materials. (3) Devices made using superconducting materials are much smaller and lighter.

Exercise 1. Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) To create devices that are impossible or unprofitable to manufacture using conventional conductors, superconductors are used to help make these devices more compact and light.

2) When creating powerful magnetic systems for thermonuclear fusion plants or elementary particle accelerators, ultra-fast current limiters, medical tomographs, high-resolution spectrometers, samples of advanced military equipment, magnetic cushion trains, superconducting metals are sometimes used.

3) To create structures that are impractical to build using only traditional conductor materials - copper and aluminum, superconductors are also used.

4) Superconductors are used to create devices that are impossible or economically unprofitable to manufacture from ordinary conductors, and the use of superconductors makes devices less bulky and heavy.

5) For the manufacture of such devices, which should have a small volume and mass with a variety of functions they perform, conductors are used.

Solution.

In this task, we choose TWO sentences that correctly convey the most important content of the text. Most likely, these offers will contain the same information.

1. Highlight the main information of the text.

(1) Superconductors are used to create devices that are not economically viable to make from conventional conductors. (3) These devices are smaller in size and mass.

2. We find sentences in which this information is transmitted without distortion and errors.

1) Suitable.

2) Secondary information is transmitted.

3) Not all information.

4) Suitable.

5) Not all information.

Examination. The selected options must contain the same information.

1) To create devices that are impossible or unprofitable to manufacture using conventional conductors, superconductors are used to help make these devices more compact and light. (Superconductors are used to create devices that are impossible or unprofitable to make from ordinary conductors, and besides, superconductors make devices lighter and more compact.)

4) Superconductors are used to create devices that are impossible or economically unprofitable to manufacture from ordinary conductors, and the use of superconductors makes devices less bulky and heavy. (Superconductors are used to create devices that are impossible or unprofitable to make from ordinary conductors, and besides, superconductors make devices lighter and more compact.)

In response, we write out two numbers without spaces and commas.

Beijing today is not only the rapid growth of entrepreneurship. These are the high rates of housing construction, the modernization of industry, the work of scientific institutions.

The plan of Beijing has a clear rectangular shape. Therefore, with a map of the city in hand, it is difficult to get lost on the local streets. They do not wind and do not bifurcate, like, say, Moscow ones, and they will always lead you to where you are going. For many, Beijing begins at the train station. The forecourt square seethes with streams of people flowing between passengers from other cities sitting right on the pavement ... Suitcases, traditional striped bags stuffed with goods bought in the capital, noise, hubbub. More than a million visitors visit Beijing every day. Everyone is accepted by the ancient capital of China.

The central part of Beijing is Tiananmen Square. Its dimensions are about 100 thousand square meters. State and party institutions are concentrated around it. The square is named after the northern gate of Tiananmen located in front of it - the "Gate of Heavenly Peace", which is one of the entrances to the former imperial "forbidden city". At one time, even high-ranking Chinese dignitaries did not have access there.

Those days are long gone. Toyotas, Mazdas, Mercedes, buses filled with tourists from different tribes rush past the Forbidden City. To the holy of holies of the "forbidden city" - Gugun, a complex of imperial palaces, anyone can go for a fee. Its cheaper, foreigners - several times more expensive. But that doesn't affect the experience. It is equally enthusiastic for everyone. Palaces alternate like pearls strung on a necklace. More than 500 years of this miracle. It was built back in the 15th century under the Yongle Emperor. There are many such miracles in Beijing, and even near the city. For example, the Great Wall of China, the construction of which began in the 3rd century BC by Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor who united China. Near Beijing is its main section - Badaling. Two large trucks can pass freely on it.

The great buildings of antiquity are the memory and reality of the Chinese people. But they no longer define the look of Beijing, but give it a romantic flavor. Beijing is not the old city of bureaucracy and merchants that it used to be. It is developing rapidly. The economic reform launched in 1978 gave a powerful boost to industry, transport, agriculture, business activity. In just a few years, high-rise buildings of fashionable hotels have grown in the center of the capital and on its outskirts, from the roofs of which Beijing is visible at a glance. The Chang-cheng, Zhaolong, Xiyuan and dozens of other hotels crowded out small fanzas stuck to each other. Almost from all over the world foreign entrepreneurs came to get their profits from the huge Chinese market that hospitably opened the gates.

The industry is growing, and the population of the city is growing. Now it has already reached 17 million people. Over the past few years, a number of new modern residential microdistricts have been built. But this did not completely solve the problem with housing, it created a serious situation with water and energy supply, and transport. In a word, the city authorities have something to break their heads over. Meanwhile, the traffic on the streets of Beijing does not stop for a minute. Cars, masses of cyclists... warning signs... collisions... Pedestrians stream past outlets. Almost at every step there are taverns, shops, shops. And here is the famous Wangfujing shopping street. It is located perpendicular to the main avenue of Beijing - Chananjie - the street of "Eternal Tranquility". In Beijing, shop signs are commonplace, but Wangfujing has a lot of them. Life here does not stop even at dusk. Merchants take out the trays, and seductive aromas spread in the evening air: dumplings, manti, noodles ... Simple food. But for those who did not have time to dine, it is very useful.

Only by midnight Beijing calms down. The subway is closing, transporting the last passengers of city vehicles. Hotels burn with neon hieroglyphs. The city falls asleep in order to meet a new working day in a few hours.