HISTORY OF PSYCHODIAGNOSIS

The development of psychodiagnostics in the period from 1900 to 1930 One of the founders of experimental psychology was Alfred Binet. He believed that the focus of this science should be higher mental processes. Binet's most important work was An Experimental Investigation of Intelligence. Binet was convinced that, in order to study individual differences, it is necessary to select the most complex mental processes so that the scatter of results is wide. In 1905, A. Binet, together with Theodore Simon, created the first scale designed to measure the intelligence of children and consisting of 30 tasks arranged according to increasing difficulty. Later, in 1908, an improved Binet-Simon scale was published. It contained 59 tests, grouped by age from 3 to 13 according to the percentage of children of a certain age who passed the given level. With the research of A. Binet and his closest colleagues, the “purification” of the previously established series of tests from those that measured individual differences that were not directly related to intelligence began. Thus, theoretically and empirically, the contours of mental education, now called intellect, were outlined. Binet had no illusions about his scale and, perhaps, saw its shortcomings better than others, constantly emphasizing the fact that the scale is not an automatic method for measuring the mind. The scale, he warned, does not measure intelligence in isolation, but intelligence together with knowledge acquired in school and learned from the environment. Binet emphasized the importance of qualitative variables (for example, the child's persistence and attention during testing). Unfortunately, many of Binet's warnings were ignored in subsequent work by other scientists. Binet-Simon tests very quickly became widespread throughout the world: numerous translations and adaptations are published, including in Russian. To a large extent, testing of intelligence in the first decades of the 20th century. associated with the development of Binet-Simon tests. The first theory of the organization of intelligence, based on the statistical analysis of test scores, was the theory of Charles Edward Spearman, whose research was largely stimulated by his disagreement with existing data that tests designed to measure different aspects of intelligence do not correlate with each other, and therefore there is no basis to calculate the general, total indicator. Inspired by the research of F. Galton on correlation analysis, in 1901 Ch. Spearman draws attention to the problem of the relationship between different intellectual abilities, and in 1904 he publishes what have become today classic work: "General intelligence, objectively determined and measured." In this concept, positive correlations are explained only by the presence of a general factor. The stronger the saturation of tests with this factor, the higher the correlations between them. Specific factors play the same role as measurement errors. Proceeding from this, it is more correct to consider Ch. Spearman's theory as monofactorial. As a result of his work, a way was found for purposeful selection of tests to measure different aspects of intelligence and the opinion that they should be designed on the basis of intuition was refuted. In 1917 created the first personality questionnaire. It was developed by Robert Session Woodworth to detect and measure abnormal behavior. At the beginning of the XX century. the test as a tool for measuring individual differences is increasingly invading applied research. The mass use of tests forces researchers to move to group testing. The creation and development of group testing is associated with the name of Arthur Sinton Otis (1918). He adapted existing tasks and developed techniques for presenting the material to the subject, which required minimal use of writing. The book “Psychodiagnostics” by the Swiss psychiatrist and psychologist Hermann Rorschach, published in 1921, deserves special mention. In this book, the author proposed a new test based, as he wrote, on perception. In this book, the term "psychodiagnostics" appears for the first time. Arnold Lucius Gesell was the first to use cinema to study infant behavior. From 1924 he began to collect a library of films about the development of the child. Based on his observations in 1925. Gesell presented his book The Mental Development of the Preschool Child. From the first half to the end of the 1920s. the attention of researchers to the measurement of various kinds of abilities and interests is noticeably increasing. An important place is occupied by the creation of a form of professional interests, which he developed in 1927. Edward Kellogg Strong.

The development of psychodiagnostics in the period from 1930 to 1999 In the 1930s there are many new tests. Most of them were developed in the United States. So in 1931. Louis Thurston begins to work on the development of factor analysis techniques and creates a multifactorial theory of the structure of intelligence. The result of his work was the publication in 1938. "Test of Primary Intelligence". In the mid 1930s. Christian Morgan and Henry Alexander Murray conduct their research at Harvard University. In these studies, it was first stated that the projection principle can be used as the basis for constructing a diagnostic procedure. In the book "Studies of Personality" published in 1935, the principle of psychological projection is substantiated, and a little later the first projective test appears - the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Thus, psychologists have received a new diagnostic tool that meets the needs of many of them in a holistic study of personality. From that moment on, the projective movement in psychology began to gain momentum all over the world, which still contributes to obtaining new data about personality and, to no lesser extent, to the emergence of heated discussions. The year 1938 was especially significant for the development of psychodiagnostics. This is how a test appears in the UK, which, with certain changes, is still very widely used by psychologists around the world to this day. This test, Raven's Progressive Matrices, was developed by L. Penros and J. Raven to measure general intelligence and was supposed to minimize the influence of culture and training on the results obtained. Being a non-verbal test, it consisted of homogeneous tasks-compositions, for the solution of which the subject was required to select the missing segment that completes the sequence of the proposed composition. At the same time, in the USA, under the editorship of Oscar K. Buros, the publication of the world-famous "Yearbook of Psychical Measurements" begins. This yearbook provides information on all English-language tests, as well as review articles by leading scientists on the research that has been conducted with these tests. A year later, O. Buros founded the Institute of Mental Measurements (Buros Institute of Mental Measurements), which successfully continued its activities (primarily monitoring the quality of published commercial tests) until 1994, when it was transformed into a "Testing Center" with a greater focus on service services. In 1938 Bender-gestalt test appeared. Lauretta Bender compiled it from nine geometric compositions based on figures, with the help of which one of the founders explored the perception. Later, the test results are interpreted in accordance with the projective hypothesis, which was most clearly formulated by Leopold Frank. In 1939, Frank suggested using the term "projective techniques" in relation to such tests as the Rorschach test, TAT, tautophone and others, in which the response-reaction is due not to the objective value of the stimulus, but to the personality of the subject. Thus, a fairly numerous class of methods has already acquired a name, the emergence and development of which was, in a certain sense, an opposition to psychometric traditions. In 1939 The Wexler-Bellview Intelligence Scale was created. In the period from 1940 to 1949. The number of diagnostic methods continues to grow. Just like the first World War, World War II stimulated the development of new tests. At the beginning of World War II, US psychologists again turn to the development of group tests for the needs of the army. In 1941 in the US Bureau of Strategic Services, progress was made in creating situational tests that allowed for direct exposure of the subject to powerful stressors. They were used to select individuals most suitable for performing intelligence and espionage activities during World War II. Then in 1942. The term "psychological assessment" first appeared. In 1940, the attention of psychologists was attracted by the Minnesota Multidimensional Personality Inventory (MMPI), created by psychologist Stark R. Hathaway and psychiatrist McKinley. Although the MMPI was originally intended to help differentiate between psychiatric diagnoses, its 550-statement scores are also beginning to be used in diagnosing nonpathological individuals. In parallel with the creation of new methods, a mathematical and statistical apparatus for psychological testing is being developed. This is the subject of the work of many researchers. Thus, a significant contribution to the development of factor analysis was made by Cattell and his collaborators. In 1946, Thurstone's student, one of the founders of the American Psychometric Society, Harold Galliksen, published his famous work Paired Comparisons and the Logic of Measurement, devoted to the development of his teacher's views on the quantitative assessment of attitudes, preferences, and similar phenomena, which for a long time were considered as not measurable.

In 1949, Raymond Bernard Cattell et al. founded the Institute for Personality and Ability Testing (AT), which was called upon to create and develop appropriate research tools and publish works devoted to them. Finest hour in the activities of this institute in 1950. was the publication of a questionnaire of 16 personality factors developed by R. Cattell and his collaborators. In 1954 A lively discussion among psychologists involved in tests was caused by the appearance of Paul Everett Meehl's book Clinical or Statistical Prediction: A Theoretical Analysis and Review of Evidence. This work compared the effectiveness of clinical inferences related to a set of test or other data and those conclusions that could be obtained using statistical procedures, such as regression equations. Although P. Mil seems to prove the great effectiveness of statistical forecasting, his research, as it turns out later, is not without methodological flaws. Thus began the debate about the effectiveness of different types of generalization of diagnostic results. In 1955, George Alexander Kelly's book The Psychology of Personality Constructs was published in the USA. A new methodology for the study of personality was also published - the technique of repertory grids. In 1956 Hans Eysenck created the first Eysenck questionnaire to measure neuroticism and extraversion-introversion. In this decade, new methods for measuring personality are being developed, different from traditional questionnaires and situational tests. The Semantic Differential Technique developed by Charles Egerton Osgood (1957) was intended to measure differences in subjects' interpretation of concepts. An important event of these years, an event that concerns all researchers in the field of testing, was that the Committee on Testing Standards of the American Psychological Association (APA, 1952), in an effort to clarify the problem of test validity, identifies four main types of it: criterion, competitive, meaningful and constructive. The same committee in 1952. published the Diagnostic and Statistical Manuals of Mental Disorders (DSM, 1952). This was a new classification of mental disorders, which could not but influence the development of psychodiagnostic tools. Then, in 1953. The APA adopted the first set of "Ethical Standards for Psychologists", which will be periodically updated in the future in accordance with the changing conditions of the professional activity of psychologists. Much of this document has been devoted to the problems of distribution and use of tests. Finally, thanks to the efforts of ARA psychologists, as well as the participation of the American Educational Research Association and the National Committee on Measurement in Education, there is a reference book for all those involved in the development of tests and their use - "Technical recommendations for psychological tests and diagnostic methods” (1954). With this document, the ordering of the diagnostic activity of psychologists begins, and its regulatory and legal basis is laid. In the development of the theory of intelligence, the most notable phenomenon of the 1960s. becomes a cubic model of the famous American psychologist J. Gilford. Continuing the traditions of L. Thurstone, in accordance with whose views intelligence is made up of separate, independent abilities, J. Gilford assumes the existence of 120 intelligence factors and develops tests to measure them. A significant development of this decade was the development of criteria-based testing. The term was introduced by R. Glaser in 1963. Unlike conventional testing, which is norm-oriented, criteria-oriented testing uses a specific area of ​​test content as a frame of reference. Finally, the 1960s - these are the years of the emergence of computerized tests The level of development of information technology allows psychologists to entrust the solution of many diagnostic tasks to a computer, which promises to become an indispensable tool for the psychologist's leading research. One of the first computerized tests was the MMRI. 1Interestingly, already at a relatively early stage of test computing, the dangers that may arise along the way are recognized. In published in 1966. The American Psychological Association's "Standards for Testing in Education and Psychology" has introduced a requirement for a reasonable explanation of the grounds on which computerized test interpretation programs are based. In 1974, in Montreal, at the Congress of the International Association of Applied Psychology (IAAP), an important event for the development and coordination of psychological measurements took place - the International Testing Commission (ITC) was established, which included representatives of 15 countries (currently includes national psychological societies of 23 countries , as well as all major test publishers). In the same year, the first issue of the ITC Bulletin was published. The charter and main organizational documents of the Commission were adopted later, in 1976 and 1978. . In the works of the famous English psychologist Hans Eysenck, the idea continues to be held that intelligence measured by tests is at least 80% genetically determined. In many ways, the final work of this scientist "The Structure and Measurement of Intelligence" (1979), in addition to the new model of intelligence, largely repeating Guildford's, brings to the reader new data on the "splitting of IQ". In fact, these data leave no room for environmental influences on intelligence. Of the personality questionnaires that appeared in the 1970s, it is worth noting the D. Goldberg General Health Questionnaire (1972) and the Clinical Multi-Axis Questionnaire developed by T. Millon (1977). A characteristic feature of the development of psychodiagnostics in the 1970s. in the developed countries of the world becomes its computerization. The number of computer versions of tests is growing sharply. However, the first calls are already being made to evaluate the consequences of computerization, to study the validity and reliability of tests presented and processed using a computer. The possibilities provided by the computer are realized in the so-called adaptive testing. Adaptive testing is built on the basis of different procedural models, but in the end, the researcher seeks to present to the subject from a set of tasks those that he can handle. One of the main achievements in the development of psychodiagnostics in the 1980s. becomes MMPI-2. The questionnaire was standardized on the sample with the same representation of men and women and proportional representation of national minorities. The growing interest of US government agencies in the use of psychological tests leads in 1993 to the formation of the Council for Testing and Evaluation. The main task of this Council is to explain to the various government departments the value of psychological tests as tools of public policy. Reports published by the Council indicate that the US government attaches the greatest importance to testing in the field of education, as well as improving existing tests. A kind of summing up the results of the development of psychodiagnostics in the 1990s. began the publication of the next, thirteenth, edition of the Yearbook of Mental Measurements (1998), which reports on 370 new tests.

1.3 History of the development of psychodiagnostics in Russia Psychological diagnostics in Russia has gone through several stages of development and overcame several crises over its centuries-old history. Three major stages can be distinguished. First stage- this is the time of the birth of Russian psychodiagnostics (G. I. Rossolimo - 1909, F. E. Rybakov - 1910, etc.) from experimental and clinical psychology (N. N. Lange, A. A. Tokarsky). Under the influence of the psychodiagnostic boom in Europe and America, it went through its rapid development (T. P. Sokolov, A. P. Boltunov, M. Yu. Syrkin, I. N. Shpilrein, etc.) until the mid-30s. During this time, the ideas of a standardized change in mental phenomena have found wide application in pedagogy (pedology) and professional selection (psychotechnics). The scientific basis of psychodiagnostics was still weak at that time, the methodological imperfection and quantitative limitations of diagnostic tools, the wide distribution of tests among non-professionals is unacceptably large - on the one hand, the unjustifiably great desire of practitioners (teachers, business leaders) to obtain "objective data" and derive practical benefit from them - on the other hand, caused a negative reaction of the society. One not justified by the categorical and cruel consequence of all this was the notorious decree of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of 1936. The resolution caused the deepest crisis of psychodiagnostics. Not only was the practical use of tests actually banned, but under ideological pressure, theories were developed about the uselessness and bourgeois nature of tests. Second phase - this is a slow revival of psychodiagnostics after almost 40 years of break under the influence of the general ideological thaw of the 60s. An outstanding role in this period was played by: 1) the widespread use of tests in a comprehensive longitudinal study of students at Leningrad State University under the direction of B. G. Ananiev; translation and adaptation of some foreign tests by the staff of the Psychoneurological Institute named after. V. M. Bekhterev - in Leningrad; 2) the activities of K. M. Gurevich and employees of the Psychodiagnostic Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Education - in Moscow; 3) the works of V. M. Bleikher and L. F. Burlachuk - in Kiev; 4) holding the first All-Russian conferences on psychodiagnostics in Tallinn. Following this, in the 1980s, a period of intensive development of psychodiagnostics began. Gradually, its lag behind foreign psychodiagnostics, which developed in calmer conditions, was overcome. Overcoming the backlog proceeded in two ways. The first is the creation since the beginning of the 1980s of a large number of new domestic diagnostic methods (Lichko, 1970; Ivanova, 1973; Doskin et al. 1973; Lasko and Tonkonogy, 1974, etc.). In the next 10 years, dozens of methods were created (Stolin, 1986; Shmelev, 1982; Melnikov and Yampolsky, 1985; Zalevsky, 1987 Yakimanskaya, 1991; Senin, 1991; Romanova, 1991, and many others). Most of them were intended for research purposes only. Their creators did not have the time or desire to turn them into standardized, reliable, and valid tests. The most important events in the development of psychodiagnostics at this stage were the publication of three books: “Psychodiagnostic testing” by A. Anastasi (1982), “General psychodiagnostics” (edited by A. A. Bodalev and V. V. Stolin (1987), “Dictionary-reference on psychodiagnostics "L. F. Burlachuk and S. M. Morozov (1988). These books have not lost their significance so far. The second way is to continue the active import of foreign tests. By this time, most of the from the basic tests: Wechsler scales (WAIS and WISC), MMPI, CPI, 16-PF, Rorschach test, TAT, etc. Most of them were only translated, and in parallel in several institutions and by different authors. and standardization, as always, was not enough. For the time being, these gaps were not acutely felt, because only a few specialists were engaged in psychodiagnostics - graduates of the psychology departments of leading universities. Methods were passed from hand to hand. Professionalism and the ethics of their use were controlled by personal knowledge of each other by diagnosticians or through mutual acquaintances. In addition, the tests were used mainly for scientific purposes or in applied (contractual) research, in which, as a rule, individual diagnostics were not required, but mainly average group patterns were established. The situation has changed dramatically since the beginning of the 1990s, when a boom in the training of practicing psychologists began in Russia, first for education, and then for all other areas of activity. Over the past fifteen years, the number of psychologists has increased many times over, reaching by now several tens of thousands, which means that psychology has become a mass profession. Naturally, domestic psychology was not ready for such growth, the level of training of psychologists, and with it the psychological culture of psychodiagnostics, dropped sharply. Another consequence of the rapid growth in the number of psychologists was the sharply increased demand for psychodiagnostic methods. During this period, contrary to all norms and rules in Russia, almost all professional psychodiagnostic methods were published in the open press. History will still remember and evaluate by name the damage that the “authors” of these books, collections of tests, encyclopedias and Internet sites inflicted on psychology. The result of such a distribution of tests (seemingly for specialists) was books like “Look inside yourself” by D. M. Ramendik and M. G. Ramendik (published by the Institute of Psychotherapy), where professional tests are offered bluntly (USK, 16-PF, PDO, etc.) for self-study and self-diagnosis. Right in the abstract, the authors write that this book “offers the reader a fairly simple and clear presentation of several solid, time-tested and several generations of scientists tests”, not realizing that this destroys the titanic work of these several generations of scientists. Another consequence of the request for psychodiagnostic methods was the creation of the Imaton company, which began mass production of psychodiagnostic (sufficiently high quality for that period) tools, which, however, contrary to internationally recognized requirements, began to be sold like any product - to any buyer, distributed through catalogs, subscribe by mail. Massive training of educational psychologists and the widespread use of tests among poorly trained users, on the one hand; request from administration educational institutions and other bosses on objective information that can somehow be practically used, on the other hand, as well as the apparent ease in conducting tests, and even more so the apparent simplicity of interpreting the results based on the simplest (usually three-stage) norms, led to a general enthusiasm for testing. Thousands of hours of time were spent by both schoolchildren and psychologists, tons of paper were spoiled, before (long obvious to professional psychologists) it became clear to many. As always, unjustified and unreasonable expectations have led to skepticism and a hostile attitude towards testing in general. The crisis was inevitable. Firstly, as already noted, most of the translated tests have not been standardized at all on domestic samples, which is extremely necessary for individual diagnostics. The same several tests, the authors of whose adaptation carried out standardization at one time (Shmelev - 16-PF; Panasyuk - WISC; Tarabrina - an adult version of Rosetzweig's PFS, etc.), by that time already needed to update the standards, but neither funds nor The authors of adaptations no longer had time or enthusiasm. Secondly, almost all foreign methods that are still used in Russia are outdated long ago, since they were developed in the 30-40s. All of them have already been revised, corrected, changed on the basis of modern ideas of psychodiagnostics and officially accepted requirements. For example, WAIS has already been adjusted three times; WISC - underwent a radical readaptation; instead of the classic MMPI, only MMPI-2 and its adolescent version are used, etc. For decades, a huge number of testers have been working in America and Europe to improve old tests and continuously develop new ones. And despite this, the tests are still far from perfect. Particularly acute are their shortcomings in the practice of individual diagnostics. Thirdly, in the world, requirements for test users have long been developed, the practice of their certification has been adopted by all, questions have been developed to control their professional suitability. For example, in the Dictionary-Reference L. F. Burlachuk and S. M. Morozov, the requirements of the British Psychological Society for two levels of users - A and B. psychologist to apply only tests of this level. All this is due to the fact that psychodiagnostics is (contrary to the generally accepted opinion in Russia) a very complex area of ​​psychological practice. And only a very well-trained specialist is able to extract, understand and use all the rich material that psychodiagnostics provides, and at the same time not harm a person. One of the unpleasant consequences of the crisis of psychodiagnostics was the almost complete rejection of the use of all tests in some practical areas of psychology. This, in particular, happened in Russian counseling and psychotherapy. In contrast, according to A. Anastasi and S. Urbina, based on annual surveys of specialists, in America “clinical psychologists and counseling psychologists use quite a variety of tests” - these are both “intelligence tests” and “complex batteries of abilities” , and "many of the personality tests", as well as "many short questionnaires and rating scales" (2001, pp. 556-557). Without a doubt, the intellect and personality of a psychologist or psychotherapist are the most important tools in their work. However, relying only on the observations of a psychologist and self-analysis of the client (as advocates without a diagnostic approach do in Russia), in our opinion, is unjustified. It is reminiscent of medieval medicine. Now it would never occur to either doctors or patients to refuse diagnostics on a computed tomograph and an electromagnetic resonator, from ECG and EEG, from ultrasound or biochemical studies. And although modern tests are imperfect, even in this form they are necessary at least to fix the initial mental state of the client, without which it is impossible, for example, to prove (including in court) that the client's suicide did not occur after a meeting with a counseling psychologist. They are necessary at least for an objective determination of the effect of counseling or psychotherapy (otherwise the insurance company will refuse to pay for consultative and psychotherapeutic assistance under insurance). Third stage The development of psychodiagnostics began quite recently, 5-7 years ago. A lot has changed over the years. Firstly, and this is perhaps the most important thing, professional specialists have realized the critical situation of psychodiagnostics, and at recent conferences (2002, 2003) and on their sidelines, the most acute problems that require their mandatory solution have been repeatedly discussed. Secondly, for last years Acquaintance with the tests of the whole society and teachers in particular has been repeatedly expanded in connection with the introduction of achievement tests in academic subjects into education, first through the Centralized Testing conducted by the Testing Center of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, and then thanks to the introduction of the Unified State Exam - a unified state exam in the form of testing. For Russia - this is an unprecedented case - testing has become a state act. In addition to these signs of overcoming the crisis, so to speak, of a general scale, there are more specific signs of the beginning of a new stage in the development of psychodiagnostics. In recent years, several methods have been developed that meet all psychometric requirements and are suitable for mass use by practical psychologists - these are the Universal and Adolescent Intellectual Tests - UIT SCh-M and PIT SCh - (St. Petersburg - Chelyabinsk) (2001, 2003), Personality Questionnaire 16RF-B (2002), Practical Thinking Test of Adults TPMS (2004) and many others. 1. Grants were received or contracts were concluded for the right to translate, standardize and distribute several foreign methods, for example, the Cogito Center - Raven's tests, FTT (Fabulous Projective Test), etc.; PI RAO - WISC-R; Yaroslavl University - B5 (Big Five). Thus, precedents have been created in Russia for the legal acquisition of the right to distribute foreign methods. As you know, so far translated tests are distributed without official rights. The only justification for such actions is that the tests that are in circulation in Russia are, firstly, outdated and are no longer produced by companies that have the rights to distribute them; secondly, most of the tests were imported and translated at a time when Russia had not yet signed the Copyright Convention, so now they have, as it were, the status of “public property”. 2. Newly created or resumed vigorous activity of enterprises involved in the production and distribution of tests and computer programs: Cogito Center and Humanitarian Technologies (Moscow), PsiKhRON (Chelyabinsk), Psychodiagnostics (Yaroslavl), Regional Sociopsychological Center (Samara), etc. 3. For the second year in a row, the first specialized journal in Russia, Psychological Diagnostics, has been published (editor-in-chief M. K. Akimova). 4. A competent and at the same time accessible manual on psychodiagnostics was published and republished for the largest group of practicing psychologists - for educational psychologists - "Fundamentals of Psychodiagnostics" (scientific editor A. G. Shmelev). 5. Several professional Internet sites specialized in psychological diagnostics and assessment are open and actively working. 6. The section "Practical Psychodiagnostics" was created at the Federation of Educational Psychologists of Russia. Thus, an analysis of the history of Russian psychodiagnostics indicates that it has gone through several stages in its development and has overcome several crises. At present, there is every reason to believe that another crisis has been overcome and a new stage of progressive development has begun. Much allows us to look at the future of psychodiagnostics with optimism. However, in order for expectations to become a reality, it is necessary to coordinate the work of all (not so numerous) professional testologists, the active work of specialized diagnostic centers and test publishers, as well as an interest in expanding the use of diagnostic methods by practicing psychologists of all directions and fields of activity.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

VLADIVOSTOK STATE UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS AND SERVICE

INSTITUTE OF CORRESPONDENCE AND DISTANCE LEARNING

CHAIR OF PS

TEST

in the discipline "Psychodiagnostics"

The history of the development and formation of psychodiagnostics in Russia

gr. ZPS-04-01-37204 T.A. Karpova

Teacher

Vladivostok 2006

Introduction………………………………………………………………...……………3

1 From the history of psychodiagnostics…………………………………………....………6

1.1 The formation of psychodiagnostics…………………………………………………6

1.2 The emergence of methods of psychodiagnostics…………………………………...…7

2 Psychodiagnostics in pre-revolutionary Russia and in the USSR……………….....10

2.1 Development of methods of psychodiagnostics………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2.2 The crisis of psychology and new requirements for the quality of psychodiagnostic methods……………................................................ ......................12

3 Current state psychodiagnostics……………………………….....16

Conclusion………………………………………………………………….........18

List of references used……………………………………...........20

Introduction

The psychological dictionary gives the following definition:

"Psychodiagnostics is a field of psychological science that develops methods for identifying and measuring the individual psychological characteristics of a person." “Psychodiagnostics acts as an integrative scientific and technological discipline, which is based on the scientific theories of differential psychology and mathematicized technology for constructing tests (psychometrics), and as a result develops and uses a repertoire of specific psychodiagnostic methods to solve specific practical problems” (A. G. Shmelev).

Psychodiagnostics is aimed at measuring some quality, making a diagnosis on this basis, finding the place that the subject occupies among others in terms of the severity of the studied features.

There are two types of diagnosis. First, the diagnosis is based on a statement of the presence or absence of any sign. Secondly, a diagnosis that allows you to find the place of the subject or group of subjects on the "axis of the continuum" according to the severity of certain qualities. Psychodiagnostic methods are designed to quickly and reliably collect data about the subject in order to formulate a psychological diagnosis.

Psychological diagnosis is a structured description of a complex of interrelated mental properties - abilities, motives, stable personality traits. The diagnosis may be accompanied by recommendations for the development or correction of the studied qualities and be intended not only for specialists (teachers, practical psychologists etc.), but also by the subjects themselves.

The main functions of psychodiagnostics in the system of modern higher education is to exercise control over the formation of the necessary knowledge and professionally important qualities, to assess the characteristics of the mental and personal development of students in the course of training, to assess the qualities of education itself.

The main goal of psychodiagnostics is to ensure full mental and personal development. Of course, psychodiagnostics does this in ways that are accessible to it, that is, it seeks to develop methods that would help in the development of the personality, in overcoming difficulties, etc. The main goal of psychodiagnostics is the creation of conditions for targeted correctional and developmental work, the development of recommendations, the conduct of psychotherapeutic measures, etc.

N.F. Talyzina formulated the main functions of psychodiagnostics in education at the present stage in the following way: “It is losing its discriminatory purpose, although it retains its prognostic role within certain limits. Its main function should be to determine the conditions that are most conducive to further development. this person, assistance in the development of training and development programs that take into account the uniqueness of the current state of his cognitive activity"(Talyzina.N.F., 1981).

Thus, psychodiagnostics is carried out for the sake of prognosis, that is, by a number of signs it determines the mental property that is the cause of a certain behavior, and predicts this behavior (criteria behavior), for example, students' abilities are diagnosed in order to predict their further education, academic performance (training - this is a criterion behavior, and academic performance is a criterion indicator).

Allocate psychodiagnostic signs, psychodiagnostic categories and diagnostic conclusion. Psychodiagnostic signs can be directly observed and recorded, and psychodiagnostic categories are hidden internal psychological factors (psychological causes) that determine certain behavior and characteristics of a person. The difficulty of psychological diagnosis lies in the fact that there are often no rigid one-to-one relationships between features and categories. Technological methods for obtaining these primary psychodiagnostic features and the logical rules for their synthesis into diagnostic categories are the main subject and product of the development of psychodiagnostics. The basic principles and mathematized technology for creating standardized psychodiagnostic methods are being developed in psychometrics. To diagnose the intellectual development, special abilities and professionally important psychological qualities of people, their personal qualities and motivational sphere, a wide arsenal of psychodiagnostic methods is required.

1 From the history of psychodiagnostics

1.1 The formation of psychodiagnostics

The history of modern psychodiagnostics begins in the first quarter of the 19th century, that is, from the beginning of the so-called clinical period in the development of psychological knowledge. This period is characterized by the fact that doctors begin to play a key role in obtaining and analyzing empirical psychological knowledge about a person (before they were engaged in this by philosophers and writers). Doctors are interested in the causes of the origin of mental illnesses and neuroses that were intractable and spread in those years in the developed countries of the world. Psychiatrists begin to conduct systematic observations of patients in clinics in Europe, recording and analyzing the results of their observations. At this time, methods of psychodiagnostics such as observation, questioning, analysis of documents. However, in general, psychodiagnostics in these years is not yet strict, arbitrary, which is manifested in various conclusions and conclusions that doctors come to by observing the same patients and studying them using the same methods. This, in particular, is due to the fact that the methods of psychodiagnostics at that time were still of a qualitative nature.

The beginning of the creation of quantitative methods of psychodiagnostics should be considered the second half of XIX and. - at the time when, under the leadership of the German psychologist W. Wundt, the world's first experimental psychological laboratory was created, where various technical devices and instruments began to be used for the purposes of psychodiagnostics. By the same time, the discovery of a psychophysical law dates back, which, having shown a quantitative relationship between physical and psychological phenomena, accelerated the creation of quantitative psychodiagnostics. The basic psychophysical law opened up the possibility of measuring psychological phenomena, and this discovery led to the creation of so-called subjective scales for measuring sensations. In accordance with this law, human sensations became the main object of measurement, and for a long time, until the end of the 19th century, practical psychodiagnostics was limited to measuring sensations.

1.2 The emergence of methods of psychodiagnostics

The initial period of formation modern methods psychodiagnostics concerning the main psychological processes, properties and states of a person, should be considered late XIX- the beginning of the XX century. At that time, very actively and not without the participation of professional psychologists, those areas of probability theory and mathematical statistics were developing, on which they subsequently began to rely. scientific methods quantitative psychodiagnostics. However, at first, mathematical statistics began to be used not in psychology, but in other sciences: in biology, economics, medicine, etc.

Somewhat later, the creation of special tools for quantitative psychodiagnostics of psychological phenomena, such as factor analysis, began. For the first time it was used for psychodiagnostics of personality traits and the level of intellectual development.

The first psychometric institution was established in England by the outstanding English psychologist Galton. In 1884, he founded the Anthropometric Laboratory, one of whose tasks was to obtain statistical data on human abilities. Visitors to this laboratory had the opportunity to measure their abilities, and about 10,000 people went through this psychometric experiment. Galton pioneered the use of statistics in psychology and is credited with developing the statistical methods themselves.

One of the first statistically valid tests of intelligence was developed and published in 1905-1907. French scientist A. Binet. Later, with another French scientist T. Simon, he improved this test, which went down in the history of psychodiagnostics as the Binet-Simon test.

In the second half of the 20s of the current century, new psychological tests, including intellectual and personality tests, began to appear, allowing psychodiagnostics of various processes and human properties. Historically, among the psychodiagnostic means of a quantitative nature, those associated with socio-psychological research arose and entered into practice. This is a sociometric test created by the American psychologist J. Moreno, and many measuring methods developed by a group of American social psychologists.

Psychodiagnostics is a field of psychological science that develops methods for identifying and measuring individual psychological characteristics of a person.

Psychodiagnostics is a field of psychological science that develops methods for recognizing and measuring the individual psychological characteristics of a person. Thus, in the narrow sense of the word, psychodiagnostics studies the individual characteristics of a person or a group of people, based on knowledge of the laws of mental development and personality formation. If we focus on the specifics of ontogenesis, then we must talk about a broad definition of the subject of psychodiagnostics, according to which it should be engaged in identifying psychological conditions favorable for optimal development.

The first "tests" designed to determine individual psychological differences were known more than 4 thousand years ago. The history of ancient civilizations gives a lot of evidence of this. At the same time, for a long - even in historical terms - period of time, these attempts to measure the mental were purely empirical in nature, since psychological problems were not singled out as an independent field of knowledge and, accordingly, there were no methods that would make it possible to conduct systematic psychological research and create based on them, theoretical models of mental development, without which it is impossible to give an adequate assessment of the personality.

At the end of the 19th century, the idea of ​​measurement penetrated into psychology and quickly gained popularity. Psychological science gets the opportunity to quantify individual differences. The term "psychodiagnostics" appeared in the early 1920s. XX century, after the publication in 1921. the work of G. Rorschach, the development of this problem began almost fifty years earlier. A significant contribution to the development of psychodiagnostics was made by the works of F. Galton, J. Cattell, G. Ebbinghaus, E. Kraepelin, A. Binet and others.

The identification of individual characteristics of a person with the help of psychodiagnostics became possible only after the appearance in psychology a number of prerequisites:

1) As the first of them can be called experimental psychology, the emergence of which is associated with the name of G. Fechner. He was the first to substantiate the psychophysical method of research. To describe the relationship between the intensity of sensation and the intensity of the stimulus, Fechner used a logarithmic function, which allowed him to formulate the first quantitative law in psychology.

Taking as a basis the simplest experiments of Fechner, W. Wundt laid the foundations of experimental psychology, and at the beginning of the 20th century it became the leading direction of empirical psychological research.

Initially, experimental psychology was engaged in the study of the most elementary mental properties and processes arising under the influence of certain stimuli, with the aim of revealing some general patterns that psychologists tried to present in the form of mathematical models. So, for example, in the laboratory of W. Wundt, it was noticed that the time between the perception of the passage of a star through a given point in an optical device and a simple motor reaction (the subject who noticed the passage of a star had to press a key to thereby fix the time of its passage) varies greatly among different observers. These studies led to the introduction of "personal equations" as examples of individual differences.

At the same time, Wundt's opinion is known that the higher mental functions that constitute the essence of the personality are inaccessible to experimental research. Later, however, Wundt's students began to deal with practical problems. This largely determined the development of psychodiagnostic methods for studying personality within the framework of experimental psychology.

The second prerequisite was differential psychology, those. branch of psychology that studies individual differences. This private area of ​​psychology is not the psychology of individuality in the proper sense, but, as V. Stern said, "the science of significant differences in mental functions and properties."

The emergence of differential psychology was already prepared in 1896 by the report of A. Binet and V. Henri on the topic “Individual Psychology”, in which, in contrast to the prevailing opinion (including the opinion of W. Wundt), an experimental study of higher mental functions such as memory, thinking, representation, etc.

Starting with V. Stern’s work “On the Psychology of Individual Differences” (1900) and with attempts to “encompass the operations of the mind” (F. Galton), from the first tests of intelligence, differential psychology, under the direct influence of social practice, makes attempts to measure other individual psychological characteristics . It was not about studies of individuals as such, but about differences in mental properties, as well as individual forms of their manifestation. Comparative studies of different populations were carried out, during which sex, age, etc. were revealed. differences between individuals and social groups and established correlations between them. Differential psychology opened a new subject area of ​​psychology - the individual and explored its variability in different populations and between different populations.

In methodological terms, differential psychology, like experimental psychology, studied not the characteristics of a particular personality, but its individual properties, taken in isolation.

Contributed to the development of psychodiagnostics applied psychology, which is also associated with the name of V. Stern. He made a distinction in applied psychology between psychological evaluation (psychodiagnostics) and psychological influence (psychotechnics). V. Stern's merits in this area include not only his indication of the specificity of diagnostic problems in the field of psychology, but also the fact that he formulated the principle of the unity of diagnosis and personality development. Later this principle was recognized by L.S. Vygotsky and other researchers as a necessary methodological basis for psychodiagnostic practice.

4)Testology as another prerequisite for the emergence of psychodiagnostics, it probably had the most significant impact on the process of formalizing psychodiagnostics into an independent field of psychological knowledge due to the fact that in testology such methods of objective identification of mental properties were developed, which partially retained their significance to this day.

The famous American psychologist J. M. Cattell is considered the founder of test diagnostics, since his article "Mental Tests and Measurements" (1890) had a decisive influence on the development of accurate diagnostic methods. Cattell, who also introduced the term "test" itself, set himself the task of studying the whole personality. However, the research conducted by him and his students was based on a simplified idea of ​​the human psyche. For this reason, individual personality traits were identified and studied in isolation from each other, which made it impossible to talk about the individual identity of the personality as a whole or any of its essential aspects. With Cattell began the tradition of studying the intelligence of applicants to educational institutions (1896), which is still preserved in American universities.

Thus, the accumulation of knowledge, the development of theory and methods under the influence of the needs of practice - in the aggregate, all these factors led to the separation of psychodiagnostics into an independent branch of psychological knowledge. One of the main prerequisites for the emergence of psychodiagnostics is the transition from the study of individual differences to the study of individuality. An insufficiently clear distinction, in particular, between differential psychology and psychodiagnostics, even today leads to a confusion of research methods and psychodiagnostic methods. In this case, the individual is often replaced by a group (collective) and differences are diagnosed not between individuals, but between groups. Taking into account the close ties between psychodiagnostics and differential psychology, the use of differential diagnostic methods in psychodiagnostics, current trends in the development of psychodiagnostics suggest the desire to develop such measurement methods in which the characteristics of a person, his individual aspects and properties would not depend on the extent to which these properties are developed in other people.

· In Russia in 1910 A.N. Bernstein (director of the laboratory of experimental psychology at the psychiatric clinic of Moscow University) and his associates G.I. Rossolimo, Ts. Baltalon and T.F. Bogdanov organized the Society for Experimental Psychology in Moscow (another one). They created the first tests in Russian: "Experimental-psychological schemes" (A.N. Bershtein) and "Psychological profiles" (G.I. Rossolimo).

F.E. Rybakov, successor in the directorship of A.N. Bershtein, released one of the first collections in Russia psychological techniques, which included tests and methodological techniques of F. Galton, H. Münsterberg, A. Bourdon, G. Ebbinghaus, A. Binet and V. Henri, E. Kraepelin, A.P. Nechaeva, A.N. Bernstein and others, "Atlas for the experimental psychological study of personality with detailed description and an explanation of the tables compiled in relation to the purpose of pedagogical and medical diagnostic research.

· Work on the creation of psychodiagnostic methods was also carried out in the clinic of the Psychoneurological Institute - V.M. Bekhterev and S.D. Vladychko.

· Actually psychodiagnostic work in Russia began to develop in the post-revolutionary period. Especially many such works appeared in the 20-30s in the field of pedology and psychotechnics in connection with the growing popularity of the test method in Soviet Russia and abroad. Foreign tests were translated and our own were developed. Scale for the study of children's motor skills N.I. Ozeretsky (1923) is still used, including foreign psychology (Lincoln-Ozeretsky Scale). Theoretical developments contributed to the development of testing in our country. The ideas of Lev Semenovich Vygotsky about psychological diagnosis, expressed in the work Diagnostics of Development and the Pedological Clinic of Difficult Childhood (1936), are still relevant today.

· These were the years of mass application of tests in public education, vocational selection and career guidance, in industry and transport. If in pedology, more attention was paid to intelligence tests, then in psychotechnics - to tests of special abilities. The use was intense and uncontrolled. The mass testing was not backed up by a serious check on the quality of the instruments, decisions to transfer some students to classes for mentally retarded children were made on the basis of short tests without taking into account other factors that affect the test results. For example, the mass transfer of quite mentally intact, but pedagogically neglected children (with a low level of development of speech thinking or verbal intelligence) from normal schools to schools for mentally retarded children caused protest.

· In industry, on the basis of the same tests, attempts were made to classify workers into various occupations, without careful consideration of personal inclinations and interests. Technical problems were also inevitable: poor adaptation of foreign test samples, involvement of non-professionals in testing, categorical conclusions, etc.

Objective errors and a number of subjective reasons (for example, they say that I.V. Stalin was dissatisfied with the low test score of his son Vasily) led to the appearance on July 4, 1936 of the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat of Education”, which put a ban on the use of meaningless (as noted there) tests and questionnaires. All psychodiagnostic research was stopped, all pedological institutions and almost all laboratories in the psychotechnics and psychophysiology of labor were closed. The word "test" has become obscene. Sharp criticism of pedology was accompanied by a denial of everything positive that had been done by scientists in the field of pedology, psychotechnics, psychodiagnostics and psychology in general.

· It took about 40 years for psychodiagnostics to be fully restored in its rights. In the 1950s and 1960s, testing was used informally and was often not called that. The turning point in the attitude towards testing occurred after a positive opinion about scientifically based methods of psychological diagnostics of personality was expressed by Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev, Alexander Romanovich Luria and Anatoly Alexandrovich Smirnov in the article "On Diagnostic Methods of Psychological Research of Schoolchildren" in the journal "Soviet Pedagogy" (1969. No. 7).

· Since the end of the 60s, the second period of development of domestic psychodiagnostics begins. It is developing in patho- and neuropsychology, as well as in those areas where the USSR was supposed to retain its advantages - aviation and space medicine, sports psychology and a number of other areas. They used scientific methods for selecting and evaluating candidates: pilots, operators, astronauts, athletes, etc. This period was marked by heated discussions about the place of psychodiagnostics in the system of psychological knowledge, about principles and methods, about the attitude to foreign experience. In the 1970s, the first specialized conferences on psychodiagnostics were held in Tallinn.

· In 1982 Anna Anastasi's textbook "Psychological Testing" was published for the first time in Russian translation. In 1987, the domestic textbook "General Psychodiagnostics" was published. Since the mid-70s and mainly in the 80s, a number of original works on psychodiagnostics have been published. Western tests are being adapted and domestic tests are being created.

In the 1990s, due to the development practical psychology there were much greater opportunities for the development of psychodiagnostics. The main problem of applied psychodiagnostics that has existed for the past two decades is the use by psychologists of methods that do not meet psychometric requirements, taken from unreliable or outdated sources. Increasing professionalism in the use of diagnostic techniques leads to a higher quality level of testing application.

· A lot of work in the creation of highly professional psychodiagnostic methods is currently being carried out by teams of the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University and the Center for Humanitarian Technologies A.G. Shmelev with him, the psychodiagnostic laboratory of the Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education under the direction of M.K. Akimova, the Institute of Applied Psychology L.N. Sobchik, "Cogito-center" at the Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow); psychological laboratory of the St. Petersburg Psychoneurological Institute. V.M. Bekhterev, IMATON (St. Petersburg), Research and Production Center "Psychodiagnostics" (Yaroslavl) and some others.

Ticket number 6: Classification of psychodiagnostic methods.

Classification of methods according to J. Shvantsara:

1. according to the material used (verbal, non-verbal, manipulation, "paper and pencil" tests, etc.);

2. by the number of indicators obtained (simple and complex);

3. by the number of indicators obtained (simple and complex);

4. according to the mental activity of the subjects:

Introspective (subject's report on personal experience, relationships): questionnaires, conversation;

Extrospective (observation and evaluation of various manifestations);

projective. The subject projects unconscious personality traits (internal conflicts, latent inclinations, etc.) onto poorly structured multi-valued stimuli;

Executive. The subject performs any action (perceptual, mental, motor), the quantitative level and qualitative features of which are an indicator of intellectual and personality traits.

Classification of methods according to V.K. Gaide, V.P. Zakharov:

1. by quality: standardized, non-standardized;

2. by appointment:

general diagnostic (personality tests by the type of R. Cattell or G. Eysenck questionnaires, tests of general intelligence);

professional aptitude tests

· tests of special abilities (technical, musical, tests for pilots);

achievement tests;

3. according to the material operated by the subject:

blank;

subject (Kos cubes, "addition of figures" from the Veksler set);

hardware (devices for studying the features of attention, etc.);

4. by the number of subjects: individual and group;

5. according to the form of the answer: oral and written;

6. by leading orientation: speed tests, power tests, mixed tests; in power tests, the tasks are difficult and the solution time is not limited, the researcher is interested in both the success of the execution and the method of solving the problem;

7. according to the degree of homogeneity of tasks: homogeneous and heterogeneous (they differ in that in homogeneous tasks they are similar to each other and are used to measure well-defined personal and intellectual properties; in heterogeneous tests, tasks are diverse and are used to assess various characteristics of intelligence);

8. In terms of complexity: isolated tests and test kits (batteries);

9. by the nature of the answers to the tasks: tests with prescribed answers, tests with free answers;

10. by scope of mental: personality tests and intellectual tests;

11. by the nature of mental actions: verbal, non-verbal.