These methods are based on the analysis of the products of imagination and fantasy and are aimed at revealing the inner world of the individual, the world of her subjective experiences, thoughts, attitudes, and expectations. The priority in using the term "projection" to refer to a special group of methods belongs to L. Frank, who singled out a number of common features in some well-known by that time and very noticeably different from each other personality assessment techniques. Specific features of projective techniques:

♦ relatively unstructured task, allowing an unlimited variety of possible answers;

♦ ambiguous, vague, unstructured stimuli, acting as a kind of "screen" on which the subject can project his characteristic personality traits, problems, states;

♦ global approach to personality assessment and, above all, to revealing its hidden, unconscious, veiled sides.

Arising, as a rule, in clinical conditions, projective methods have been and remain mainly a tool of a clinical psychologist. Their theoretical foundations were influenced by psychoanalytic concepts and perceptual theories of personality.

Flaws.

1. insufficient objectivity of projective technique,

2. non-compliance of many methods with the requirements usually imposed on psychodiagnostic tools.

3. lack or inadequacy of normative data, which leads to difficulties and subjectivism in the interpretation of individual results, when the psychologist is forced to trust his "clinical experience".

4. In some projective methods, there is no objectivity in determining indicators; the coefficients of homogeneity and retest reliability are often unsatisfactory. Attempts to validate them suffer from methodological shortcomings, either due to poor controllability of the experimental conditions, or due to the unfoundedness of statistical analysis, or due to incorrect sampling.

However, despite the shortcomings noted, the popularity and status of projective techniques remain virtually unchanged. First of all, this is due to the fact that, according to psychodiagnostics, they are less susceptible to falsification by the subject, than questionnaires, and therefore more suitable for personality diagnostics. This advantage of projective methods is due to the fact that their goal is usually disguised, and the subject cannot guess the ways of interpreting diagnostic indicators and their connection with certain manifestations of the personality; therefore, he does not resort to masking, distortion, defensive reactions during the examination.

Projective methods of structuring.

G. Rorschach's inkblot technique .

This technique is one of the most popular. Developed by a Swiss psychiatrist G. Rorschach, it was first described in 1921.

The Rorschach technique uses 10 cards, each of which is printed with a double-sided symmetrical spot. Five of the patches are done in grey-black only, two have extra touches of bright red, and the other three are pastel color combinations. Tables are presented sequentially from 1 to 10 in the standard position indicated on the back. The presentation of Table 1 is accompanied by the instruction: "What is it, what can it look like?". In the future, the instruction is not repeated. After the end of spontaneous statements, the subject is encouraged to continue answering with the help of additional questions. In addition to verbatim recording of the subject's responses to each card, the experimenter notes the response time, involuntary remarks, emotional manifestations, and other changes in the subject's behavior during the diagnosing session. After presenting all 10 cards, the experimenter asks the subject according to a certain system about the parts and features of each of the spots for which associations arose. During the survey, the subject can also clarify or supplement his previous answers.

Interpretation The Rorschach score is based on the relative number of responses that fall into different categories, as well as on certain ratios and relationships between different categories. Directions of interpretation do not have a satisfactory theoretical justification, but are entirely determined by the empirical correlations of individual indicators with certain personality traits. So, for example, it is difficult to explain from a scientific standpoint why the use of rare details in answers indicates uncertainty, anxiety, and the interpretation of a white background by extroverts indicates negativism.

In the psychological conclusion based on the results of the G. Rorschach technique, the intellectual and affective spheres of the personality, as well as the features of its interpersonal interactions, are usually described. The clinical psychologist, when compiling it, also takes into account additional information obtained from external sources.

The main factor that makes it difficult to interpret Rorschach scores is the total number of responses, known as response productivity. It has been empirically shown that the productivity of responses is directly related to the age, intellectual level and education of the individual. Although the methodology described is believed to be applicable to people from preschool to adult age, the normative data were initially obtained, for the most part, in groups of adults.

Diagnostics is carried out on the basis of an analysis of the features of interaction with externally neutral, impersonal material, which, due to its well-known uncertainty, weakly structured, becomes an object of projection.

The peculiarity of the projective approach is that it is a special technique for the clinical study of those personality traits that are not available through observation or questioning.

The term " projective' was first introduced by Lawrence Frank in 1939.

Specific features of projective techniques:

A relatively unstructured problem that allows for an unlimited variety of possible responses.

They use ambiguous, vague, unstructured stimuli, which act as a kind of screen on which the subject can project his characteristic personality traits, problems, and states.

In projective methods, there is a global approach to personality assessment, to the manifestation of its hidden, unconscious, veiled sides.

In addition to the above, one can also name specific atmosphere- an atmosphere of goodwill, the complete absence of value judgments on the part of the psychologist, which should accompany the examination procedure.

A psychologist in a projective examination should be an understanding interlocutor. Thanks to this behavior of the psychologist, a situation is created in which there is a release from the problem (the effect of catharsis).

Projective methods belong to clinical diagnostics  have the same features as clinical diagnostics.

 main drawback: lack of standardization → subjectivity.

Projective Methods: voluminous, difficult to interpret.

Special training is required to work with projective techniques.

!! Moreover, the ability to work with projective methods - not in general, but with a specific one.

Characteristics of projective techniques:

Method groups (according to the task that is set for the client (action to be performed)):

1. Structuring techniques - to give an incentive, to give it meaning.

Ex 1:Rorscharch inkblot test.

10 standard tables with black and white and color symmetrical amorphous images.

Tables are presented in the standard position;

The task of the client is to formalize these incentives;

All statements of the client are recorded verbatim, the time of the description / statement, the behavior of the client is recorded;

1-localization- choice for answering the entire image or individual details (or their mix);

2-determinants- allow you to evaluate the characteristics of the proposed material: color, shape (which is more important, what he chooses to describe).

3-form- how adequately the shape of the image is presented in the responses of the subject;

5-originality or popularity of the answer(original - answers that occur in less than 30% of cases).

The test provides information about...

a) temperament type - the general orientation of the personality as a ratio between introversion and extraversion.

b) an idea of ​​how realistic the representation is;

v) the idea of ​​anxiety, restlessness, etc., which can hinder the development of the personality.

The experience of a psychologist is of great importance.

Ex 2:Cattell unstructured pictures.

(To study the level of extraversion - introversion).

Pictures with different icons.

Presented within a certain period of time.

The task is to find as many images as possible.

The indicator is the number of images (images that are repeated from picture to picture are counted as one).

2. Design techniques - it is required to create a whole from separately designed parts.

Ex 1:Peace Test.

The first version was created in 1939.

Stimulus material: 232 models of objects, which are distributed in different proportions in 15 categories: various buildings, vehicles, people, by gender, different categories of prof. accessories, etc.

Models- small in size, made of wood or metal, have a bright color.

Task - the subject of these models must make up the world in which he must live.

Are fixed objects that are selected first, the number of objects of a certain category (which prevails - either people or material objects), the space occupied by the entire structure is estimated, and behavioral features.

The main approaches to designing the world:

Practical;

Logical;

social;

Aesthetic.

Age is not limited.

3. Interpretation techniques - the subject is required to interpret any event, any situation.

Etc:TAT (Thematic Apperception Test).

Stimulus material: set of 31 tables. They show 30 black-and-white pictures and 1 empty table (so that the subject can imagine any picture on it).

Each picture depicts an ambiguous situation.

The story is written down verbatim and interpreted.

During processing, the Main characteristics:

The senses;

Desires (according to Murray - needs);

The forces coming from the hero and coming from the outside (from the environment) are analyzed.

Their comparative evaluation forms a topic, and so it is called a "thematic apperception test".

Explores human needs.

In the final version, you can get information about basic needs, aspirations, conflicts that arise in interaction with people, etc.

There is also a children's version of TAT - pictures that depict animals, but they are placed in human situations.

Main problem:

- subjectivity

– difficult to interpret the results.

4. Catharsis Techniques - require the implementation of gaming activities in specially organized conditions.

Etc:Psychodrama.

Proposed by Morin in 1946.

It is carried out in the form of theatrical improvisation, in which the subject plays the role of himself or an imaginary person.

Imaginary situations depend on the problems of the client.

Losing the situation, the subject lives it again and, to a certain extent, is freed from it.

5. Methods for studying expression - the subject is given the task to draw something (either on a free or on a specific topic).

Allows you to identify the relationship of a person to the depicted.

Etc:"Family Drawing".

As indicators of attitude - the image or non-image of family members (if someone is not depicted, it means a negative attitude).

6. Techniques are impressive - suggest the expression of preference for some stimuli over others.

Etc:Luscher test(1948).

Stimulus material: 75 squares - 25 colors and shades.

A shortened version of 8 color squares is usually used.

Primary colors: blue, green, red, yellow.

Additional colors: purple, brown, black, grey.

In front of the subject, the cards are placed in a chaotic manner, and it is proposed to choose one of the most pleasant colors from the set. The selected square is flipped and the color is selected again.

1 and 2 positions are clearly preferred;

3, 4 - preferred;

5, 6 - neutral;

7, 8 - causing antipathy, negative attitude.

Each color has a specific meaning.

Each position has a specific meaning:

1 is a means to an end.

3.4 - the true state of affairs.

5.6 - unused reserves of personality.

7.8 - the presence of a suppressed need.

7. Supplementation Techniques (additive)- require the completion of a sentence, story or story.

Etc:Unfinished sentences- the study of various characteristics of a person.

Jung's association experiment.

Rosenzweig– the study of frustration tolerance.

Projective methods are methods of indirect study of personality, based on the construction of a specific, poorly structured stimulus situation, the desire to resolve which contributes to the actualization in the perception of attitudes, relationships and other personal characteristics.

Main Feature projective methods can be described as a relatively unstructured task, i.e. a problem that allows for an almost unlimited variety of possible answers. In order for the fantasy of the individual to be free to manifest itself, only brief, general instructions. For the same reason, test stimuli are usually vague or ambiguous. The hypothesis underlying such tasks is that the way in which an individual perceives and interprets the test material or "structures" of the situation should reflect fundamental aspects of the functioning of his psyche. In other words, it is assumed that the test material should work as a kind of screen on which the respondent "projects" his characteristic thought processes, needs, anxiety and conflicts.

Usually projective methods are also methods of masked testing, since the subject rarely suspects the type of psychological interpretation that will be given to his answers.

For a long time, peering into the clouds floating across the sky, watching the play of light and shadow on the surface of the sea, people “saw” different animals, creatures, tried to guess their future, considering the bizarre configurations formed when molten wax or lead entered the cold water. It has long been known that the personality of a writer, an artist is always present in one way or another in his works. However, centuries must have passed before well-known observations were used to investigate personality.

Projective techniques take their origins in the research of F. Galton, who studied the associative process. Galton is the first to be convinced that the so-called free associations are not such, but are determined by the past experience of the individual.

Later, K. Jung believed that emotions affect the ability of a person to form and perceive ideas. He prepared a list of 100 words and closely watched people's behavior as they tried to respond with a different word to each one.

Many scientists have welcomed the method of free association as a promising diagnostic tool for in-depth analysis of personality. Some psychologists, and Jung himself, relied so much on the effectiveness of the free association test that they tried to use it in the course of investigating crimes.

In America, G. Kent and A. Rozanov tried to diagnose a mental disorder based on typical free associations reproduced in response to a list of 100 words. Almost nothing came of this, since patients (for example, patients with epilepsy) practically did not give atypical associations. However, an important consequence of this work was that scientists, having examined about a thousand people, compiled an extensive list of associations of healthy people (typical answers). A little later, Rozanov and co-authors published the results of a new study: free associations in children. After testing 300 children of various ages, they found that by the age of 11 there was a significant increase in individual responses.

Projective methods originated in the clinical setting and remain primarily a clinician's tool. The first projective technique, i.e. the one that was based on the corresponding theoretical concept - the psychological concept of projection, is considered the thematic apperception test (TAT) by the American psychologist Henry Murray (1935). He considers projection as a natural tendency of people to act under the influence of their needs, interests, and the entire mental organization.

The concept of "projection" is characterized by the fact that its various interpretations reflect the ambiguity inherent in psychology in understanding even the most important categories and concepts.

Projection (from Latin - ejection) as psychological concept appeared for the first time in psychoanalysis and belongs to Sigmund Freud. The projection was considered as one of the protective mechanisms. The process of conflict between unconscious drives and attitudes of society, in accordance with the teachings of Freud, is eliminated due to a special mental mechanism - projection. Freud, however, also mentions that the projection not only arises in the event of a conflict between the "I" and the unconscious, but also takes the greatest part in the formation of the external world. However, this extended interpretation of projection was not accepted by psychoanalysis. The understanding of projection as a defense mechanism has been called "classical projection".

It is assumed that the classical projection is directed at negatively evaluated persons, but when an individual is aware of negative traits in himself, he endows them with persons to whom he has a positive attitude. Such an understanding of projection - endowing one's own motives, needs, feelings of other people, and, accordingly, an understanding of their actions - is based both on centuries of prescientific observations and experimental studies, and therefore is considered by many psychologists to be the only reasonable one.

Attribute projection is associated with the ability to evaluate and assimilate negative information about one's own personality and is a normal process that does not necessarily serve to protect the "I". Classical projection is, if I may say so, a more “pathological” process, because it indicates an inability to agree with negative information about oneself (Figure 11).

In addition to the two most important types of projection considered, others are distinguished in a number of works. "Autistic projection" was a phenomenon that explains the perception of an object by actual human needs. This phenomenon was discovered during the demonstration of defocused images of various objects on the screen. It turned out that images of food are recognized earlier as hungry than full, and this has been called "autism."

Thus, projection theory as a psychological theory has its own way of development. Therefore, when designating certain methods that exist as projective, they apply the existing concepts of projection to them, in relation to the tasks of personality diagnostics.

The concept of projection was first used to refer to a certain type of psychological technique by Lawrence Frank (full study in 1948). He put forward three basic principles that underlie the projective study of personality:

1. The focus on uniqueness in the structure of personality (considered as a system of interrelated processes, and not a list of abilities or traits).
2. Personality in the projective approach is studied as a relatively stable system of dynamic processes organized on the basis of needs, emotions and individual experience.
3. 3Each new action, each emotional manifestation of an individual, his perceptions, feelings, statements, motor acts bear the imprint of personality. This third and basic theoretical proposition is usually called the "projective hypothesis".

Projective methods are characterized by a global approach to personality assessment. Attention is focused on the overall picture of the personality as such, and not on measuring its individual properties. Finally, projective methods are considered by their supporters as the most effective procedures to discover hidden, veiled or unconscious sides of the personality. Moreover, it is argued that the less structured the test, the more sensitive it is to such veiled material. This follows from the assumption that the less structured and unambiguous stimuli are, the less likely they are to elicit defensive responses in the perceiver.

L. Frank does not consider projective methods as a replacement for already existing psychometric ones. Projective methods successfully complement the existing ones, allowing you to look into what is most deeply hidden, eluding when using traditional research methods.

Common to all projective techniques are the following features:

1. uncertainty, ambiguity of the incentives used;
2. no restrictions on the choice of answer;
3. the lack of evaluation of the answers of the subjects as "correct" and "erroneous".

1.7. Test as the main tool for psychodiagnostics

Test classification

TESTS - standardized and usually short and time-limited tests designed to establish quantitative and qualitative individual psychological differences between people.

The word "test" comes from the Old French language and is synonymous with the word "cup" (Latin testa - clay vase). This word denoted small vessels made of baked clay, used by alchemists for experiments. In Russian, the word "test" for a long time had two meanings:
1) the probationary oath, a religious English oath that everyone entering public office must take to prove that he is not a secret Catholic;
2) a flat melting vessel or a vessel of leached ash for separating tin from gold or silver.

3 main characteristics of tests:
Validity
Reliability
Standardization

Test classification:

I. According to the form of testing:

1) Individual and group

Individual tests are a type of technique when the interaction between the experimenter and the subject takes place one on one. Individual testing has its advantages: the ability to observe the subject (his facial expressions, involuntary reactions), hear and record statements that are not provided for by the instructions, which allows you to assess the attitude to the examination, note the functional state of the subject, etc.

Group tests are a type of methods designed for the simultaneous examination of a group of subjects. By their nature, group tests are, as a rule, typical psychometric tests with very strict regulation of the examination procedure, data processing and interpretation.

2) Oral and written

3) Blank(conducting a standardized test in the form of paper technology - using a test booklet with tasks and a form (response sheet) on which the subject records his answers to the tasks),
subject(material test tasks presented in the form of real objects: cubes, cards, details of geometric shapes, structures and nodes of technical devices, etc. n) ,
hardware(require the use of special equipment to conduct research or record the data obtained)
computer(tests that offer the collection of test information in the mode of dialogue between the subject and the computer)

4) verbal and non-verbal. These tests differ in the nature of the stimulus material.

In verbal tests, the main content of the work of the subjects is operations with concepts, mental actions carried out in a verbal form. The tasks that make up these methods appeal to memory, imagination, and thinking in their mediated linguistic form. They are very sensitive to differences in linguistic culture, educational level, and professional characteristics. The verbal type of tasks is most common among intelligence tests, achievement tests, and when evaluating special abilities.

Non-verbal tests are a type of methodology in which the test material is presented in a visual form (in the form of pictures, drawings, graphics, etc.). The subjects are required to understand verbal instructions, while the performance of tasks itself relies on perceptual and motor functions.

Non-verbal tests reduce the impact of language differences on test results. They also facilitate the testing of test subjects with speech, hearing, or low educational levels. Non-verbal tests are widely used in assessing spatial and combinatorial thinking. As separate subtests, they are included in many tests of intelligence, general and special abilities, tests of achievement.

II. According to the content of testing

1) Intelligence Tests(standardized methods aimed at measuring general level the ability of an individual to solve a wide class of mental problems)
2) Special Ability Tests(tests aimed at measuring the level of success in solving problems of a specific type and in specific areas of activity)
3) Achievement Tests(tests aimed at assessing the assimilation by the subject of specific knowledge, skills and abilities acquired as a result of a particular course of study or training)
4) Personality tests(tests aimed at measuring non-intellectual manifestations of personality. Includes projective methods, personality questionnaires and any other methods designed to diagnose the emotional, motivational, interpersonal properties of an individual.

III. According to the purpose of testing

Definition of deviations of mental development
-Individual consultation
- Professional selection and professional selection
-Determination of the level of achievements (mastery of knowledge, skills, abilities)
-Training process
-Forensic psychological examination

Requirements for measurement methods (tests ):

The goals, subject and scope of the methodology should be unambiguously formulated. The subject, the diagnostic construct, must be correlated with the existing theoretical justifications, checked for relevance. The area of ​​application should be clearly identified and marked, the contingent of the examined should be indicated. The purpose of using the results should be clearly defined.

The procedure should be given in the form of an unambiguous algorithm that could be transferred to a computer or to a specialist who does not have special psychological knowledge.

The processing procedure should include statistically justified methods for calculating and standardizing the test score (according to statistical or criterion test norms). Conclusions (diagnostic judgments) based on the test score should be accompanied by an indication of the probabilistic level of statistical significance of these conclusions.

Test scales should be tested for representativeness, reliability and validity in a given application. Other developments and users should be able to replicate standardization studies in their field and develop private standards (norms).

Self-report-based procedures should be provided with validation controls to automatically filter out invalid protocols.

It is necessary to maintain a database of data collected on the test, and carry out periodic correction of all standard methods.

1.8. Projective technique

PROJECTIVE TECHNOLOGY - a group of techniques designed to diagnose personality. They are characterized by a global approach to assessing the personality, rather than identifying its individual features. The most significant feature is the use of vague stimuli in them, which the subject himself must supplement, interpret, develop, etc. In this case, the mental properties of the subject are projected (transferred) onto the task material, which makes it possible to reveal his hidden personal peculiarities.

The purpose of projective techniques is relatively masked, which reduces the ability of the subject to give answers that allow him to make the desired impression of himself.

These methods are mostly individual in nature and for the most part are subject or blank.

First projective technique , that is, one that was based on the corresponding theoretical concept - the psychological concept of projection, appeared in 1938 and belongs to the American psychologist Henry Murray, author of the famous Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). The methods that appeared earlier, and the most famous Rorschach test published in 1922, were comprehended from the standpoint of the projective approach that was formed later.

G. Murray was the first to describe the process of projection in situations with stimuli that allow their different interpretations. He considers projection as a natural tendency of people to act under the influence of their needs, interests, and the entire mental organization.

The concept of projection (from lat. projectio - ejection) as a psychological concept appears for the first time in psychoanalysis and belongs to 3. Freud (Freud, 1894). He believed that anxious neuroses arise when the psyche cannot master the endogenously developed sexual excitation, and in this case, this excitation is projected into the external world. Projection (along with repression, rationalization, sublimation, etc.) was considered as one of the protective mechanisms. The process of conflict, according to 3. Freud, is eliminated due to a special mental mechanism - projection. The founder of psychoanalysis in his work “Totem and Taboo” writes that “hostility, about which you know nothing and also no longer want to know, is transferred from internal perception to the external world and, at the same time, is taken away from oneself and attributed to others.”

« Projection- this is a defense mechanism used by the unconscious sphere of the "I", by means of which internal impulses and feelings, unacceptable in general for the personality, are attributed to an external object and then penetrate into consciousness as an altered perception of the external world. Encyclopedia of Psychoanalysis

Attributing negative trait others on the basis of comparison, you can minimize or deny it in yourself.

“Projection is not created to reflect emotional experiences, it also takes place where there are no conflicts,” writes 3. Freud. The projection, not tightly tied to the sphere of the unconscious, always in conflict with consciousness, but understood as a human feature, without which there is no one's own vision of objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality, was called " attributive projection ".

Classical and attributive projection, according to different authors, can be distinguished by the "targets" chosen for the projection. It is assumed that the classical projection is directed at negatively evaluated persons, and when an individual is aware of negative traits in himself, he endows them with persons to whom he has a positive attitude. Those. endowing one's own motives, needs, feelings of other people and understanding their actions.

« autistic projection ”was called the phenomenon, which is based on the determinism of perception by actual human needs. This phenomenon was discovered during the demonstration of defocused images of various objects on the screen. It turned out that images of food are recognized earlier as hungry than full, and this has been called "autism." Further research made it possible to establish that there is not only a decrease in the recognition threshold, but also a projection of needs.

If in the case of a classical projection we are talking about attributing unconscious features and characteristics, those that are repressed, then in a close to it rationalized projection the subject is aware of undesirable (disapproved) own personality traits or behavior, but always finds an excuse for them.

D. Holmes (Holmes, 1968), summing up the results of numerous studies, proposes to single out two "dimensions" of projection. First - what is projected (presence-absence of a projected feature), the second - awareness of the projected . By combining these measurements, it is possible to classify the known types of projection

Simulative projection , in accordance with the psychoanalytic concept, performs a protective function. The subject is not aware of his own trait.

Complementary projection involves the projection of features that are additional to those that the subject actually possesses. For example, sometimes, when we are afraid, we tend to perceive almost every person as a threat to us. In this case, a trait attributed to others, say aggressiveness, allows one to explain one's own state.

To designate a certain type of psychological techniques The concept of projection was first used by L. Frank in 1939. He puts forward three basic principles underlying the projective study of personality.

PRINCIPLES OF PROJECTIVE RESEARCH OF PERSONALITY (L. Frank, 1948)

Focus on unique in the structure or organization of the individual. Personality is considered as a system of interrelated processes, and not a list (set) of abilities or traits

Personality is studied as a relatively stable system of dynamic processes organized on the basis of needs, emotions and individual experience.

This system of basic dynamic processes is constantly, actively operating throughout the life of the individual, forming. directing, distorting, changing, reshaping each situation into the system of the individual's inner world.
Each new action, each emotional manifestation of the individual, his perceptions, feelings, statements, motor acts bear the imprint of personality. This third and basic theoretical proposition is usually called the "projective hypothesis".

"My personality is in everything"

Defining the specifics of the projective approach, L. Frank writes that this is a method of personality research, with the help of which the subject is placed in a situation, to which he reacts depending on the significance of this situation for him, his thoughts and feelings. Stimuli in projective methods acquire meaning not simply because of their objective content, but primarily in connection with the personal meaning attached to it by the subjects.

Common features of projective techniques

Uncertainty, ambiguity of the incentives used
- no restrictions on the choice of answer
- the lack of evaluation of the answers of the subjects as "correct" or "erroneous"

L. Frank was the first to develop a classification of projective methods:

Types of projective techniques

Constitutive (structuring methods)
The subject must give meaning to some amorphous material
Rorschach test
It is believed that in the process of interpreting images, giving them meaning, the subject projects his inner attitudes, aspirations and expectations onto the test material.

Constructive techniques
Decorated details are offered (figures of people and animals, models of their dwellings, etc.), from which you need to create a meaningful whole and explain it.
Peace Test

Interpretive techniques
Interpretation of any event, situation
The subject is offered table-pictures, which depict relatively vague situations that allow ambiguous interpretation. During the survey, the subjects compile a short story in which they must indicate what led to the depicted situation, what is happening at the present time, what they think about, what they feel characters how this situation ends. It is assumed that the subject identifies himself with the "hero" of the story, which makes it possible to reveal the inner world of the subject, his feelings, interests and motivations.
Thematic Apperceptive Test(TAT)

Cathartic techniques
Implementation of gaming activities in specially organized conditions in order to achieve gaming catharsis
Psychodrama
Psychodrama in the form of an impromptu theatrical performance allows the subject not only to react affectively and thereby achieve a therapeutic effect, but also gives the researcher the opportunity to detect conflicts, problems, and other personally saturated products that are brought outside.

Refractive techniques
Involuntary changes in generally accepted means of communication (speech, handwriting)
Graphology

Expressive techniques
Drawing for free or given topic
"House - tree - man." Projective drawing of a man
According to the drawing, conclusions are drawn about the affective sphere of the personality, the level of psychosexual development and other features.

Impressive techniques
Preference for some stimuli (as the most desirable) over others
Luscher test. Psychological interpretation comes from the symbolic meaning of color. Virtually any living and inanimate nature.

Additive Methods
Completion of a sentence, story, or story that has begun.
For example, a series of unfinished sentences is offered such as: "The future seems to me ...", "I think that a true friend... ", etc. These techniques are designed to diagnose a variety of personality variables.

Perm State National Research University

Department of General and Clinical Psychology

Projective Methods

4th year students

Faculty of Philosophy and Sociology

specialty "Psychology"

full-time education

Mironova Xenia

Introduction

History of the development of projective methods

The role of the "New Look" in the development of projective methods

Projection Concepts in the Justification of the Projective Method

Classification and general characteristics projective techniques

Rosenzweig's pictorial frustration technique

Methodology "Family Drawing"

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Projective techniques are techniques based on the phenomenon of projection. They are designed to explore those deep individual features individuals who are least accessible to direct observation or questioning.

Projection is a special phenomenon of mental life, which is expressed in the attribution to external objects (in particular, other people) of special properties that are in a certain relationship with the mental properties inherent in the individual himself. It is based on the fact that the perception and interpretation of reality, presented incentives, etc., to a certain extent depends on the needs, motives, attitudes, mental state of the individual.

The steady interest of psychologists in projective diagnostics has been preserved for more than half a century. Various projective techniques are widely used in the practice of personality research in all areas of modern psychology.

The main feature of projective methods can be described as a relatively unstructured task, i.e. a problem that allows for an almost unlimited variety of possible answers. In order for the fantasy of the individual to play out, enough brief instructions.

Graphic projective techniques are used not only for diagnostic, but also for therapeutic purposes: it is believed that, thanks to the opportunity to express oneself in a drawing, an individual not only discovers some of his traits and experiences, but also frees himself from them.

Until recently, projective tests were not widely used in our country, but in Lately interest in these methods has increased and many author's developments on their use have appeared, therefore our appeal to the topic of research of projective methods can be considered relevant.

The methodological technique of projective methods consists in presenting the subject with an insufficiently structured, indefinite, incomplete stimulus. The stimulus material, as a rule, is not indifferent to the subject, since, as a result of an appeal to past experience, it acquires one or another personal meaning. This gives rise to the processes of fantasy, imagination, in which certain characteristics of the personality are revealed. In this case, there is a projection (attribution, transfer) of the mental properties of the subject on the material of the task

1. History of the development of projective methods

The history of the development of the projective method shows that it does not exist outside the theory of personality; at the same time, the relationship between the projective method and theory is not unambiguous and unchanging. Even more complex and mediated are the relationships between one theory or another and a single technique. "Of course, the birth of a method is to some extent prepared by an already established theory, although this fact may not be fully realized by the researchers themselves. In this case, the impression arises that a technique is nothing more than a successful discovery of its creator, who is often little concerned about theoretical research.The paradoxical nature of such a situation became particularly obvious when, decades after the emergence of projective techniques, their connection with the main theories of personality became the subject of methodological reflection, i.e., turned into a special research task.

The main feature of projective methods can be described as a relatively unstructured task, i.e., a task that allows for an almost unlimited variety of possible answers. In order for the individual's fantasy to play freely, only brief, general instructions are given. For the same reason, test stimuli are usually vague or ambiguous. The hypothesis underlying such tasks is that the way in which an individual perceives and interprets the test material or "structures" of the situation should reflect fundamental aspects of the functioning of his psyche. In other words, it is assumed that the test material should work as a kind of screen on which the respondent "projects" his characteristic thought processes, needs, anxiety and conflicts.

Usually projective methods are also methods of masked testing, since the subject rarely suspects the type of psychological interpretation that will be given to his answers. Projective methods are also characterized by a global approach to personality assessment. Attention is focused on the overall picture of the personality as such, and not on measuring its individual properties. Finally, projective techniques are considered by their supporters as the most effective procedures for discovering hidden, veiled or unconscious aspects of the personality. Moreover, it is argued that the less structured the test, the more sensitive it is to such veiled material. This follows from the assumption that the less structured and unambiguous stimuli are, the less likely they are to elicit defensive responses in the perceiver.

One of the new areas of projective psychodiagnostics is psychogeometric testing, the predecessors of which were:

Three-dimensional apperception test (1947, D. Twidgel-Allen);

Symbol development test (1950, D. Krout);

Drawing test by Wartegt (1953);

Test of symbolic arrangement (1955, T. Cann).

It is traditionally believed that the studies that anticipated the creation of projective tests were the works of W. Wundt and F. Galton. It is to them that the honor of first using the method of free ("verbal") associations belongs. However, it must be remembered that the purpose of the experiments of these scientists, as well as psychologists of the Würzburg school, was to study the nature and pace of reactions to stimulus words; based on other principles and having a different purpose than the associative experiment, these experiments, perhaps, had nothing in common with projective methods of studying personality, with the exception, perhaps, of external resemblance. Many believe that the first projective test in the usual sense of the word was the free association method of K.G. Jung: "It is Jung who owns the discovery and proof of the phenomenon underlying all projective methods, namely, the possibility, through indirect influence on significant areas of human experience and behavior ("complexes"), to cause perturbations in experimental activity." Having selected stimulus words that, in his opinion, could have an affective meaning, Jung, in accordance with the principles of the scientific school, analyzed the responses of the subject in relation to the reaction time to them, and also subjected the subsequent interpretation to the formal side of the responses.

In the same year as Jung (1910), G. Kent and A. Rozanov (USA) designed and applied a test that is extremely reminiscent of Jung's; they offered the subject 100 commonly used stimulus words, selected due to the fact that they evoked the same reactions in almost everyone (table - chair, dark - light, etc.). Studies have shown that mentally ill subjects gave a greater number of original answers, called by the authors "individual", answers than healthy ones. However, the method was not widely known due to the fact that the production of "individual" responses could depend not only on the psychological status of the individual, but also on his age, social status, educational level, and other factors. The authors, apparently, for the first time drew attention to a phenomenon that was widely discussed later and became a trump card in the hands of opponents of projective methods - the phenomenon of external determinants influencing responses, which, in their opinion, reduces their reliability.

It must be said that Jung's associative experiment was then reworked by many researchers. So, D. Rapaport, inspired by the example of Jung in 1946, having selected 60 stimulus words from the point of view of their psychoanalytic significance, worked quite successfully with patients, analyzing their internal conflicts and using his own method to identify mental disorders. However, there is reason to believe that Jung does not "belong to the discovery and proof of the phenomenon underlying all projective methods." Indeed: is not the method of free association discovered by Freud between 1892 and 1898 the source of projective tests? Already in his "Studies in Hysteria" (1895), Freud speaks of a new method, however, rather vaguely; analyzing the case of Emilia von N., he writes: “What she says is far from being as spontaneous as it seems; her words reproduce, and, quite correctly, her memories, as well as new impressions that influenced her during our last meeting. And they arise - sometimes quite unexpectedly - on the basis of those pathogenic memories from which she herself voluntarily freed herself as a result of verbal discharge. In On Psychoanalysis (1909) he mentions, along with the interpretation of dreams and erroneous actions, the basic rule of the psychoanalytic process, the rule of free association.

But the book of Hermann Rorschach "Psychodiagnostics" (1921) made a real revolution. It was from 1921 that a new stage began in the development of the experimental study of personality - the stage of its projective study. It would not be an exaggeration to say that the Rorschach test, like H. Murray's TAT, are two fundamental methods that determined the movement of psychological diagnostics for many decades to come.

"In the early 1890s, the psychologist George Whipple published a table of standard responses to a series of projective tests, where he indicated the reaction time and number of questions, as well as the degree of difficulty of the subjects' answers, but it is doubtful that Rorschach was familiar with this publication," they write. F. Alexander and S. Selesnik, reflecting on the origins of the Rorschach method. Anyway, after fourteen years of work, "Psychodiagnostics" was published.

In fairness, it should be noted that Russian scientists also contributed to the creation of projective psychodiagnostics: for example, V.V. Abramov in 1911 proposed a method of supplementing a phrase to study the creative activity of the mentally ill. However, as mentioned above, all these studies have become only a preparatory stage in the development of the method. The starting point, no doubt, can be considered "Psychodiagnostics".

Projective methods originated in the clinical setting and remain primarily a clinician's tool. Some of these have evolved from therapeutic methods (such as art therapy) applied to the mentally ill. The influence of psychoanalytic concepts affects the theoretical constructions of projective methods. There are also scattered attempts to base projective methods on the theory of perception and perceptual theories of personality. Of course, it should be noted that there is no need to evaluate specific techniques in terms of their theoretical orientation or history of origin. A technique may be practically useful, or empirically valuable, for reasons other than those put forward to justify its introduction for use by professionals.

Projective ideology was formed under the influence of two directions - psychoanalysis and holistic psychology. Within each of these areas, the projective method solves special problems and uses a special vocabulary of concepts. Thus, in psychoanalytic theories, where the essence of the personality is considered as a product of transformations of instinctive drives under the influence of social and cultural requirements of the environment, the projective method is focused on identifying precisely those unconscious tendencies and their various transformations. Proceeding from this, the object of the projective method is a deeply conflicted undated personality; therefore, such concepts as attraction, conflict, defense in their psychoanalytic understanding form the basis of the analysis and interpretation of almost any technique. Therefore, the projective method used in the system of psychoanalysis will have the following hallmarks:

Focus on diagnosing the causes of maladaptation - unconscious drives, conflicts and ways to resolve them (protection mechanisms);

The interpretation of all behavior, and projective in particular, as a manifestation of the dynamics of unconscious drives;

The premise of any projective research - the uncertainty of the test conditions - will be interpreted as the removal of the pressure of reality, in the absence of which the personality will show not conventional, but supposedly intrinsic behaviors.

Let us now turn to the concept of the projective method within the framework of holistic psychology. The core of the personality, according to Frank, is the subjective world of desires, opinions, ideas, etc. The relationship between the personality and its social environment is the process of structuring "living space" in order to create and maintain a "personal world". A projective experiment models these relationships: the subject in the face of uncertain situations gets freedom in choosing the elements of "living space" and ways to structure them. The projective method thus acts as a means of knowing the content and structure of the "personal world". The diagnosis of individual personality traits comes to the fore. As a rule, projective methods are aimed at diagnosing the personality as a whole, rather than at identifying the severity of one or more personal qualities - from this point of view, they can hardly be called tests. In addition, often projective methods do not meet the requirements that are traditionally imposed, for example, on personality questionnaires (meaning their validity and reliability).

2. The role of the "New Look" in the development of projective methods

Numerous New Look experiments have shown that the perception of emotionally significant, but socially forbidden material (“taboo words”, plot pictures) in the face of technical difficulties in the process of its identification can be subject to significant fluctuations. This applies to both the recognition threshold and the perceived content. To explain these phenomena, a hypothesis was put forward about three mechanisms of perception selectivity.

The principle of resonance - incentives that are relevant to the needs, values ​​of the individual are perceived more correctly and faster than those that do not correspond to them.

The principle of protection - incentives that are contrary to the expectations of the subject or carrying information, potentially hostile to the ego, are less recognized and more distorted.

The principle of sensibility - stimuli that threaten the integrity of the individual, which can lead to serious disturbances in mental functioning, are recognized faster than all others.

After Bruner specifically emphasized in one of their papers the closeness of the experimental design used by New Look to the paradigm of projective research, Eriksen and Lazarus published data on the effect of perceptual defense and sensitization in the Rorschach and TAT tests. According to the point of view of these authors, the discovered perceptual phenomena represent a special case of the operation of psychological defense mechanisms previously described by clinical psychoanalysis. Experimental data showed the existence of individual differences in response to stressful material. So, we can talk about "repressors", people of a hysterical warehouse with displacement as a predominant type of protection. Their behavior in life, the nature of relationships with other people, cognitive processes have a number of common features: avoidance of emotionally intense situations, "forgetting" events associated with their own failures, ambivalent feelings towards parents, sexual problems and social phenomena; characteristic of them high level anxiety, rigidity of thinking and perception, etc. Subjects with a similar set of personality traits most often demonstrate the phenomenon of perceptual defense. A different type of behavior distinguishes people who are prone to isolation or rationalization. In conflict situations, they do not shy away from meeting with the threat, but neutralize it, interpreting it in a way that is painless for themselves; they are proactive in relations with their social environment; they can understand and accept themselves as they are, etc. Lazarus, Eriksen and Fonda showed that subjects of this typology recognize negative affectogenic stimuli earlier than others, that is, they set in motion the mechanism of sensitization.

Thanks to New Look research, the question of the possibility of direct diagnosis of needs based on projective tests has received its final resolution. The relationship between the content of the need, its intensity and projective expression was proved. It turned out that needs that do not pose a threat to the “I”, i.e., socially acceptable, but due to objective circumstances that do not find satisfaction in open behavior, can directly (autistically) manifest themselves in projective production. The situation is different with latent needs, the discharge of which into behavior is blocked by the censorship instances of the personality; in projective tests, they are usually mediated by defense mechanisms. Similarly, the need is directly reflected in projective production as long as its increase in intensity does not lead to stress; an extremely strong need appears only in one or another protective form. The experiments of New Look also contributed to the reorientation of projective research towards the diagnosis of defense mechanisms and their specific forms in one test or another.

From 40-50s. to substantiate the projective method, new psychological categories begin to be involved, among which, in particular, such as “control” and “cognitive style” can be distinguished. The introduction of the concept of "protection" into the context of the projective methodology meant a shift in emphasis to the "secondary", cognitive processes of the "Ego". But within the framework of the defensive concept of response, it remained unclear how adaptation to reality is achieved if the individual is still oriented to a greater extent not on its objective properties, but on his own affective states. It was necessary to assume, firstly, the existence of processes that serve the goals of adaptation, and, secondly, the mechanisms by which this adaptation is achieved. The theoretical foundation of research in this direction was the provisions of Hartman and Rapaport on the "functions of the "Ego" - free from conflict" and control mechanisms. According to D. Rapaport, the development of the "Ego" is characterized by two kinds of processes: the progressive liberation of cognitive functions from the influence of primitive affect, on the one hand, and the differentiation of the affective structures themselves, their autonomy from basal drives, on the other. As a result, not only the distorting influence of "drives" and conflicts on cognitive processes is eliminated, which are thus transformed into 8 "functions - "Ego" - free from conflict", but also more advanced mechanisms for their regulation arise. One of these mechanisms is control. Control is arbitrary from the basal drives, it is, as it were, a product of their secondary "delay", and in relation to them it can be considered as a motivational structure of a higher order. At the same time, control is a function of the "Ego" and its purpose is to channel the energy of drives in accordance with the requirements of objective reality. Therefore, control mediates the relationship of the individual with environment so that the needs of the individual himself and the objective properties of stimulation are simultaneously taken into account.

3. Concepts of projection in the justification of the projective method

As already mentioned, the term “projection” entered the projective methodology thanks to L. Frank; however, in his works, the projection was actually devoid of a specific psychological content.

The main provisions of his concept could be considered only as the most general methodological principles; the task of identifying the actual psychological patterns and mechanisms needed to be resolved. The consequence of this was the appeal of some researchers, oriented mainly psychoanalytically to the concept of projection 3. Freud. However, as noted by a number of authors, when trying to justify the projective method on the basis of the Freudian concept, a number of difficulties arise, the main of which are:

Insufficient development, ambiguity of the term "projection" in psychoanalysis, the diversity of the described phenomena;

Only a partial similarity of the phenomena denoted in psychoanalysis by this term with the processes taking place in projective research;

Differences in projection types in different projective tests. Let's take a look at each of these points.

For the first time, the term "projection" in its psychological meaning was used by 3. Freud to explain the pathological symptoms of paranoia in 1896, and then when analyzing the "Schreber case" in 1911. In these works, projection was understood as attributing socially unacceptable desires to other people, in which a person, as it were, denies himself. In this case, the projection was considered by Freud as a defense mechanism against unconscious asocial drives, in particular homosexuality, which underlies delusions in paranoia. Subsequently, the so-called phobic defensive projection was described - taking out, exteriorization of fear, anxiety, which in fact have an endogenous nature. In the works of subsequent years, finally, along with the concept of a protective projection, which is part of various pathological conditions, Freud introduces the concept of projection as a normal psychological process involved in shaping our perception of the outside world. The projection is interpreted by him as the primary process of "assimilating" the surrounding reality to his own inner world. Such is the mechanism, for example, of children's and religious-mythological perception of the world. Thus, by projection, Freud calls two essentially different phenomena, which are allegedly based on the process of self-defense and the process of "assimilation". They are united by the unconsciousness of the transformations that the initial drives undergo - only the product of these transformations appears in consciousness. Over time, projection became such a common term that it became extremely difficult to differentiate it from the phenomena of identification, transference, and some other psychoanalytic phenomena. For example, they talk about projection in a psychotherapeutic situation, when feelings intended for another person are "transferred" to the doctor; called a projection a kind of identification of the artist with his creation (G. Flaubert said: “Emma is me”), as well as “empathy” in the perception works of art; projection explain the existence of racial and ethnic prejudices.

Murstein and Pryer, criticizing the ambiguity and, consequently, the insufficient development of the concept of projection, propose to distinguish between several types of projection. Freud's classic defensive projection finds support in many observations. Attributive projection - the attribution of one's own motives, feelings and actions to other people (sense is close to Freud's "assimilation"). Autistic projection - the determinism of perception by the needs of the perceiver; To illustrate this kind of projection, the authors refer to the New Look experiments. The rational projection differs from the classical "rational" motivation: for example, according to one of the experiments, when students were asked to comment on the structure educational process, it turned out that inveterate truants complained about the lack of discipline, and the losers were dissatisfied with the insufficient qualifications of teachers. Here, as in the case of ordinary rationalization, instead of recognizing their own shortcomings, the subjects tended to attribute responsibility for their own failures to external circumstances or to other people.

Holmes, summing up the results of many years of research, considers it necessary to single out two "dimensions" of projection. The first of these refers to what is projected: the subject perceives in the other his own features or features that are not inherent in himself. The second dimension is whether or not the subject is aware of possessing the trait that is being projected. The combination of these measurements makes it possible to classify all known types of projection as follows.

4. Classification and general characteristics of projective techniques

Projective techniques are a special technique for clinical and experimental research of those personality traits that are least accessible to direct observation or questioning.

Term projective was first used by L. Frank in 1939 to combine methods already known by that time, but, it would seem, such extremely distant methodological techniques as the Jung association test, Rorschach test, TAT and others. Having singled out some formal features inherent in most projective techniques, Frank tried to give them a classification. This classification, despite the abundance of others, with the changes and additions proposed later, today most fully characterizes the projective technique. There are the following groups of projective methods:

Constitutive. The techniques included in this category are characterized by a situation in which the subject is required to create some structure from unstructured material, that is, some amorphous material is offered to which it is necessary to give meaning. Examples of such methods for completing a task are:

Unfinished sentences

unfinished drawings

Incomplete sentences are a very popular technique used in a wide variety of studies. It may have some interpretations, for example, the respondent is invited to complete the sentence himself or choose from several proposed options. Unfinished drawing techniques such as the Wartegg test or the VAT`60. In contrast to Frank, who relegates the Rorschach test to a secondary role here, Zubin refers to it as the best example of a constitutive method. The inclusion of a Rorschach test in this category depends on how many "structures" a person is willing to see in ink stains. And also modeling from plasticine or a similar substance is the kind of activity that comes to mind most quickly. As another example, Frank cites a finger-painting technique elaborately developed by Napoli that claims to be a technique even though it was not really popular.

Constructive. Decorated details are offered (figures of people and animals, models of their dwellings, etc.), from which you need to create a meaningful whole and explain it. A scene test, for example, consists of miniature human figures, animal figurines, trees, and everyday objects. The subjects, usually children and adolescents, create different scenes from their lives (or given to them by the experimenter), and based on certain features of these scenes and the story about them, conclusions are drawn both about the personality of their creator and about the specifics of the social environment. The difference between this category and the constitutive one is analogous to the difference between "raw" and "recycled" material. The latter, in the form of building blocks, jigsaw pieces, and the like, lends itself more to ordering than to patterning. Perhaps this distinction will seem too subtle, but everyone determines the level of difficulty. An example that falls into this category would be the "Drawing of a Person" test or other forms of drawing tasks other than "free expression" according to one's own inclinations.

Interpretive methods - as it is clear from the definition, the subject must interpret some stimulus, based on his own considerations - TAT is a good illustration of this type of technique. The subject is offered table-pictures, which depict relatively uncertain situations that allow ambiguous interpretation. In the course of the survey, the subjects compile a short story in which they must indicate what led to the depicted situation, what is happening at the present time, what they think, what the actors feel, how this situation will end. It is assumed that the subject identifies himself with the "hero" of the story, which makes it possible to reveal the inner world, his feelings, interests and motivations.

cathartic. It is proposed to carry out gaming activities in specially organized conditions. For example, psychodrama in the form of an improvised theatrical performance allows the subject not only to react affectively (play catharsis) - and thereby achieve a therapeutic effect - but also gives the researcher the opportunity to detect conflicts, problems, and other personally saturated products that are brought out. Here we see a shift in focus from percentage to result. Play techniques involve the subject's imagination and are therefore a typical example of this category.

Expressive. Analysis of handwriting, features of speech communication. The subject's performance of visual activity, a drawing on a free or given topic, for example, the "House-tree-man" method. According to the drawing, conclusions are drawn about the affective sphere of the personality, the level of psychosexual development and other features.

Impressive. These techniques are based on the study of the results of choosing stimuli from a number of proposed ones. The subject chooses the most desirable, preferred stimuli. For example, the Luscher test, consisting of 8 colored squares. All squares are presented with a request to choose the most pleasant one. The procedure is repeated with the remaining squares until a row is formed in which the colors are arranged according to their attractiveness. Psychological interpretation comes from the symbolic meaning of color. Virtually any objects of animate and inanimate nature can act as incentives.

Additive. The subject is required to complete a sentence, story, or story that has a beginning. These techniques are designed to diagnose a variety of personality variables, from the motives of certain actions to attitudes towards sexual education of young people.

All of the above methods, according to Frank, are united by the ability to reflect the most significant aspects of the personality in their interdependence and integrity of functioning as on the screen. These methods are also characterized by the commonality of the formal construction and the similarity in the strategy of the projective experiment: the behavior of the psychologist-researcher, the selection of stimulus material, and the formulation of diagnostic tasks. It is customary to talk about the following distinctive features of projective methods:

) the so-called uncertainty of the stimulus material or instructions for the task, due to which the subject has relative freedom in choosing an answer or tactics of behavior;

) the activity of the subject takes place in an atmosphere of goodwill and in the complete absence of an evaluative attitude on the part of the experimenter. This moment, as well as the fact that the subject usually does not know what is diagnostically significant in his answers, leads to the maximum projection of the personality, not limited by social norms and assessments;

) projective methods do not measure this or that mental function, but a kind of personality modus in its relationship with the social environment.

In addition to the many intersections between the categories identified by Frank, there is also doubt about their position in the classification. There is no unequivocal explanation why he takes the nature of the response as the basis for classification, especially after it was noted that the response is largely determined by the nature of the stimulus itself. Perhaps the main difference between projective techniques lies in the purpose of their application, although here, too, overlaps cannot be ruled out.

G.M. Proshansky tried to trace all these differences in the three-stage scheme of the analysis of projective techniques. A brief summary of this three-stage classification is as follows:

Stimuli: a) verbal; b) visual; c) specific; d) other modalities;

Answer: a) associative; b) interpretive; c) manipulative; d) free choice;

Purpose: a) description; b) diagnostics; c) therapy.

A feature of this classification is that the last item of each category falls out of the general system or is the opposite of other items. It is possible that this phenomenon is the source of overlaps between the categories discussed earlier.

. Rosenzweig's pictorial frustration technique

projective constitutive additive frustration

The text of the experimental psychological methodology for studying frustration reactions of S. Rosenzweig was modified at the Research Institute. V. M. Bekhtereva. The Rosenzweig technique, like the hand test, is projective, and therefore very necessary for a qualitative study of the personality of the subjects.

The theory of frustration by S. Rosenzweig, like many scientific theories in general, is, of course, not free from a broad understanding of its significance in the diagnosis and prognosis of personal development and growth. But in general, the experience of using this technique testifies to its value in the differential diagnosis of character accentuations, behavioral disorders (including socially dangerous ones), neurotic conditions, as well as in a positive way of establishing the optimal state of mental health of children and adults.

Experimental-psychological method of studying frustration reactions.

This technique was first described in 1944 by S. Rosenzweig under the title "Pictorial Frustration Method". The stimulating situation of this method is in a schematic outline drawing, which shows two or more people engaged in an unfinished conversation. The depicted characters may differ in gender, age and other characteristics. Common to all drawings is finding the character in a frustrating situation.

The technique consists of 24 drawings, which depict faces in a frustration situation.

The situations presented in the text can be divided into two main groups.

obstacle situations. In these cases, some obstacle, character or object discourages, confuses a person in a word or in some other way. This includes 16 situations - pictures 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24.

Accusation situations. The subject thus serves as object of accusation. There are eight of them: figures 2, 5, 7, 10, 16, 17, 19, 21.

There is a connection between these types, since the "accusation" situation suggests that it was preceded by the "obstruction" situation, where the frustrator was, in turn, frustrated. Sometimes the subject may interpret the situation of "accusation" as a situation of "obstruction" or vice versa.

The procedure of the experiment is organized according to the instructions attached to the set of drawings.

Test score. Each response is evaluated in terms of two criteria: the direction of the response and the type of response.

Extrapunitive reactions (the reaction is directed at the living or inanimate environment - the degree of the frustrating situation is emphasized, the external cause of frustration is condemned, or the resolution of this situation is charged to another person).

Intropunitive reactions (the reaction is directed by the subject to himself: the subject accepts the frustrating situation as favorable for himself, takes the blame on himself or takes responsibility for correcting this situation).

Impulsive reactions (the frustrating situation is considered by the subject as insignificant, as the absence of someone else's guilt, or as something that can be corrected by itself, one has only to wait and think).

Reactions also differ in terms of their types:

The type of reaction “with fixation on an obstacle” (in the response of the subject, the obstacle that caused frustration is emphasized in every possible way or interpreted as a kind of blessing or described as an obstacle that does not have a serious significance).

The type of reaction “with a fixation on self-defense” (the main role in the response of the subject is played by the defense of oneself, one’s “I”, the subject either blames someone, or admits his guilt, or notes that no one can be attributed responsibility for frustration).

The type of reaction “with a fixation on meeting the need” (the answer is aimed at resolving the problem; the reaction takes the form of a demand for help from other persons to solve the situation; the subject himself undertakes to resolve the situation or believes that time and the course of events will lead to its correction).

R1z combinations of these six categories get nine possible factors and two additional options. To indicate the direction of the reaction, the letters E, I, M are used:

E - extrapunitive reactions; I - intropunitive; M - impulsive.

The types of responses are denoted by the following symbols: OD - "fixed on an obstacle", ED - "fixed on self-defense", and NP - "fixed on satisfying a need".

To indicate that the idea of ​​an obstacle dominates in the answer, the sign "prim" (E", I", M") is added. The type of reaction "with fixation on self-defense" is indicated in capital letters without a sign. The type of reaction "with fixation on meeting the need" is indicated lowercase e, i, m.

The corresponding table contains methods for evaluating the answers of the subjects. The grades are recorded on the registration sheet for further processing. It involves the calculation of the GCR indicator, which can be referred to as the "degree of social adaptation." This indicator is calculated by comparing the answers of a particular subject with the "standard", average.

Description of the semantic content of factors

OD “fixed on an obstacle” ED “fixed on self-defence” NP “fixed on meeting the needs of EE” - the presence of an obstacle is emphasized in the answer. Example: “This situation definitely frustrates me (annoys, worries)”. obstacle E - hostility, censure directed against someone or something in the environment. The answer contains accusations, reproaches, sarcasm. Example: "Go to hell!", "You are to blame!" The subject asset but denies being responsible for the wrongdoing.Example: "I didn't do what you accuse me of."e - It is required, expected, or explicitly implied that someone must resolve this situation.Example: "You need to resolve this this question. "II" - the frustrating situation is interpreted as favorable and useful, as bringing satisfaction (or deserving punishment). I - censure, condemnation is directed at oneself, the feeling of guilt, one's own inferiority, remorse dominates. i - the subject himself undertakes to resolve frustrating situation, openly admitting or hinting at his guilt. MM" - the difficulties of the frustrating situation are not noticed or are reduced to its complete denial. Example: "This situation does not matter." M - the responsibility of the person in the frustrating situation is minimized, condemnation is avoided. Example: "Nothing, on mistakes we learn.”m - the hope is expressed that time, the normal course of events will solve the problem, you just have to wait a bit, or that mutual understanding and mutual compliance will eliminate the frustrating situation.

There are only 14 situations that are used for comparison. Their values ​​are presented in the table (see below). A “+” sign is placed on the left side of the subject's protocol sheet if the subject's answer is identical to the standard answer. When two types of responses to a situation are given as a standard response, at least one response that matches the meaning of the standard is sufficient. In this case, the answer is also marked with a "+" sign. If the subject's answer gives a double mark and one of them corresponds to the standard, it is worth 0.5 points. If the answer does not correspond to the standard, it is indicated by the sign "-". The scores are summed up, counting each plus as one and each minus as zero. Then, based on 14 situations (which are taken as 100%), a percentage value is calculated GCRsubject. quantitative value GCRcan be considered as a measure of individual adaptation of the subject to his social environment.

profiles.The frequencies of occurrence of each of the 9 counting factors are entered in the squares of the profiles. In this case, each counting factor by which the answer was evaluated is taken as one point. If the answer is scored by multiple scoring factors, then in this scoring, any division between the scoring factors is calculated on a proportional basis, with each of the factors given equal weight.

When the 9 squares of the profiles are filled (see the test subject's answer sheet), the numbers are summed up in columns and lines. Since the number of situations is 24, the possible maximum for each case is 24, and based on this, the percentage of each amount received is calculated. The percentage ratio E, I, M, OD, ED, MP calculated in this way represents the quantitative features of the subject's frustration reactions.

Samples.Based on the numerical data profile, three main samples and one additional sample are generated.

The first sample expresses the relative frequency of different directions of response, regardless of its type. Extrapunitive, intropunitive and impunitive responses are arranged in order of their decreasing frequency. For example, frequencies E - 14, I - 6, M - 4 are written: E> I> M.

The second sample expresses the relative frequency of response types regardless of their directions. Signed characters are written in the same way as in the previous example. For example, we got OD-10, ED - 6, NP - 8. It is written: OD > NP > ED.

The third sample expresses the relative frequency of the three most frequently occurring factors, regardless of the type and direction of the response. It is written, for example: E\u003e E "\u003e M.

The fourth additional sample includes a comparison of responses E and I in the "obstacle" and "accusation" situations. The sum of E and I is calculated as a percentage, based also on 24, but since only 8 (or 1/3) of the test situations allow the calculation of E and I, the maximum percentage of such answers will be 33. For the purposes of interpretation, the percentages obtained can be compared with this number.

Trend analysis.During the experiment, the subject can noticeably change his behavior, moving from one type or direction of reactions to another. Such a change has great importance for understanding the reactions of frustration, as it shows the attitude of the subject to his own reactions. For example, the subject may at the beginning of the experiment give extrapunitive reactions, and then, after nine or ten situations that make him feel guilty, he begins to give answers of the intropunitive type. Analysis involves identifying the existence of such tendencies and clarifying their nature. Trends are written in the form of an arrow, above the shaft of which indicate a numerical assessment of the trend, determined by the sign "+" (positive trend) or "-" (negative trend).

The formula for calculating the numerical assessment of the trend: (a - b) / (a ​​+ b), where a - quantitative assessment in the first half of the protocol, b - quantitative assessment in the second half. For a trend to be considered indicative, it must fit into at least four responses and have a minimum score of 0.33.

Five types of trends are analyzed.

Type 1.The direction of the reaction in the OD graph is considered. For example, factor E" appears six times: three times in the first half of the protocol with a score of 2.5 and three times in the second half with a score of 2 points. The ratio is +0.11. Factor I" appears only once in general , factor M" appears three times. There is no Type 1 trend.

Type 2.Factors E, I, M are considered similarly.

Type 3.The factors e, i, m are considered similarly.

Type 4th.The directions of reactions are considered without taking into account the graph.

Type 5th.Cross-trend considers the distribution of factors in three columns, without taking into account the direction; for example, looking at the OD column indicates there are 4 factors in the first half (score marked 3) and 6 in the second half (score 4). The graphs ЕD and NP are considered similarly.

Interpretation

The subject consciously or subconsciously identifies himself with the frustrated character of each pictorial situation. The interpretation technique includes several stages.

The first stage is to study GCR,which is an important indicator of the technique. So, if the subject has a low percentage GCR,then we can assume that he often has conflicts (of various types) with those around him, that he is not sufficiently adapted to his social environment. The second step is to examine the scores of the six factors in the profile table. Estimates regarding the direction of reactions (E, I, M) have meanings arising from theoretical ideas about frustration.

So, for example, if we get a test score M - normal, E - very high, I - very low, then on the basis of this we can say that the subject in a frustration situation will respond with increased frequency in an extrapunitive manner and very rarely in an intropunitive one. It can be assumed that he makes increased demands on others, and this may be a sign of inadequate self-esteem.

Estimates regarding types of reactions have different meanings.

The OD score (type of reaction “with fixation on an obstacle”) shows the extent to which the obstacle frustrates the subject. Thus, if we received an increased OD score, then this indicates that in frustration situations the subject is dominated, more than normally, by the idea of ​​an obstacle.

The ED score (type of reaction "with fixation on self-defense") means a weak, vulnerable person. The subject's reactions are focused on protecting his "I".

The NP score is a sign of an adequate response, an indicator of the extent to which the subject can resolve frustration situations.

The third stage of interpretation is the study of trends. It can be of great importance in understanding the attitude of the subject to his own reactions. The duration of the examination is 20-30 minutes.

In general, it can be added that on the basis of the survey protocol, conclusions can be drawn regarding some aspects of the adaptation of the subject to his social environment.

The methodology in no way provides material for conclusions about the structure of personality. It is only possible with a greater degree of probability to predict the emotional reactions of the subject to various difficulties or obstacles that stand in the way of satisfying his needs, to achieve the goal.

Figure No. OD EDNP1M "E" 2 I 3 4 5 i6 e 7 E 8 9 10 E 11 12 E m13 e 14 15E "E I 16 17 e 18E" I 19 20 21 22M "23 24M"

FORM FOR PROCESSING RESULTS

Evaluation of the answers of the subject. Profile table

ODEDND ODEDNPS% std1 2 E 3 I 4 5 M 6 sum 7 8 % 9 std.205030 10 11 Samples 4. 5.12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 General pattern of behavior: 20 21 22 23 24

Percentage table

0.5 = 2.18.5 =- 35.416.5 = 68.71.0 = 4.29.0 = 37.517.0 = 70.81.5 = 6.29.5 = 39.517.5 = 72.92.0 = 8.310.0 = 41.618.0 = 75.02 .5 = 10.410.5 = 43.718.5 = 77.13.0 = 12.511.0 = 45.819.0 = 79.23.5 = 14.611.5 = 47.919.5=81.34.0 = 16.612.0 = 50.020.0 = 83.34.5 = 18.712.5 = 52.120.5 = 85.45.0 =- 20.813.0 = 54.221.0 = 87.55.5 = 22.913.5 = 56.221.5 = 88.66.0 = 25.014.0 = 58.322.0 = 91.66.5 = 27.014.5 = 60.422. 5= 93.77.0 = 29.115.0 = 62.523.0 = 95.87.5 =i[,215.5 = 64.523.5 = 97.98.0 = 33.316.0 = 66.624.0= 100

6. Method "Family drawing"

The technique is designed to identify features family relations. It will help clarify the child's relationship to his family members, how he perceives them and his role in the family, as well as those characteristics of the relationship that cause disturbing and conflicting feelings in him.

Description of the technique

The family situation, which parents evaluate positively from all sides, the child may perceive in a completely different way. Having learned how he sees the world around him, family, parents, himself, you can understand the causes of many problems of the child and effectively help him in resolving them.

Instruction

The child is given a simple pencil of medium softness and a standard blank sheet of A4 paper. The use of any additional tools is excluded.

Instruction: "Draw, please, your family." No instructions or clarifications should be given. To the questions that arise in the child, such as "Who should be drawn and who should not?", "Should I draw everyone?", "Do I need to draw grandfather?" etc., answer should be evasive, for example: "Draw the way you want."

While the child draws, you should unobtrusively observe him, noting such points as:

· The order in which the free space is filled.

· The order in which the characters appear.

· Start and end time of work.

· The occurrence of difficulties in depicting a particular character or elements of a drawing (excessive concentration, pauses, noticeable slowness, etc.).

· Time taken to complete individual characters.

· The emotional mood of the child during the image of one or another character in the picture.

At the end of the drawing, ask the child to sign or name all the characters in the drawing.

After the drawing is completed, the second stage of the study begins - the conversation. The conversation should be light, relaxed, without causing the child to feel resistance and alienation. Here are the questions to ask:

· Whose family is shown in the picture - the family of the child, his friend or a fictitious person?

· Where is this family located and what are its members currently doing?

· How does the child describe each of the characters, what role does he assign to each in the family?

· Who is the best in the family and why?

· Who is the happiest and why?

· Who is the saddest and why?

· Who is the child's favorite and why?

· How does this family punish children for bad behavior?

· Who will be left at home alone when they go for a walk?

Interpretation of test results

The resulting image, as a rule, reflects the child's attitude to the members of his family, how he sees them, and what role he assigns to each in the family configuration.

1. Evaluation overall structure

What we see in the picture: indeed, a family whose members are depicted together, standing close or busy doing some common business, or are they just a few isolated figures that do not contact each other in any way. It should be borne in mind that this or that image of the family situation may be connected with the real situation in the family, and may contradict it.

· If, for example, family members are shown holding hands, then this may correspond to the real situation in the family, or it may be a reflection of what is desired.

· If two people are depicted close to each other, then perhaps this is a reflection of how the child perceives their relationship, but at the same time it does not correspond to reality.

· If a character is distant from other figures,this may speak of the "distance" that the child notices in life and highlights it.

· Putting one family member above the rest, the child thus gives him an exceptional status. This character, according to the child, has the most power in the family, even if he draws him as the smallest compared to the size of the others.

· Below the rest, the child tends to place the onewhose influence in the family is minimal.

· If the child above all interferes with his little brother, then, in his opinion, he is the one who controls all the others.

2. Determining the most attractive character

It can be identified by the following features:

· he is depicted first and placed in the foreground;

· he is taller and larger than the rest of the characters;

· made with more love and care;

· the rest of the characters are grouped around, turned in his direction, looking at him.

A child can distinguish one of the family members by depicting him in some special clothes, endowing him with some details and in the same way depicting his own figure, thus identifying himself with this character.

The size of a family membertalks about the meaning that this character has for the child. For example, if the grandmother is drawn larger than the father and mother, then most likely the relationship with the parents is currently in the background for the child. On the contrary, the least significant character shown in the figure as the smallest, is drawn last and placed away from the others. With such a character, a child can do more categorically: cross out with a few strokes or erase with an elastic band.

Strong shading or strong pencil pressurewhen depicting a particular figure, they give out a sense of anxiety that the child experiences in relation to this character. And vice versa, just such a figure can be depicted with the help of a weak, thin line.

Preference for one or another parent is expressed in the fact that closer to which of the parents the child drew himselfwhat facial expression is read in the figures of the parents.

Distance between family members- one of the main factors reflecting the preferences of the child. The distances in the figure are a reflection of the psychological distance. Thus, the closest people are depicted in the figure closer to the figure of the child. The same applies to other characters: those whom the child interferes with in the drawing next to him are close, in his opinion, in life.

3. Child about himself

If the child most of all highlights his figure in the picture, draws himself more carefully, drawing all the details, depicting more vividly, so that it catches the eye, and the rest of the figures are just a background, then he thereby expresses the importance of his own personality. He considers himself the main character around whom family life revolves, the most significant, unique. A similar feeling arises on the basis of the parental attitude towards the child. In an effort to embody in the child everything that they could not achieve themselves, to give him everything that they were deprived of, parents recognize his priority, the primacy of his desires and interests, and their auxiliary, secondary role.

Small, weak figure, depicted surrounded by parents, in which the child recognizes himself, can express a sense of helplessness and a demand for care and care. This situation may be due to the fact that the child is used to the atmosphere of constant and excessive guardianship that surrounds him in the family (often observed in families with only one child), so he feels weak and can even abuse it, manipulating his parents and constantly demanding from them help and attention.

The child can draw himself close to parentspushing the rest of the family out. Thus, he emphasizes his exceptional status among other children.

If a child draws himself next to fatherand at the same time exaggerates the size of his own figure, then this probably indicates a strong sense of rivalry and the desire of the child to take the same strong and authoritative place in the family as the father.

4. Additional characters

When drawing a family, a child can add people non-family circle, or animals. Such behavior is interpreted as an attempt to fill the gaps, compensate for the lack of close, warm relationships, compensate for the lack of emotional ties, etc. So, for example, a boy, being the only child in the family, can include in his drawing cousins ​​or brothers, the most distant relatives and various animals - cats, dogs and others, thereby expressing the lack of close communication with other children and the need to have a constant companion in games with which it would be possible to communicate on an equal footing.

The figure may include fictional characters, which also symbolize the unmet needs of the child. Not getting their satisfaction in real life, the child satisfies these needs in his fantasy, in imaginary relationships. In this case, you should ask the child to tell more about this character. In his answers you will find what he lacks in reality.

The child can depict near one of the family members a pet that is actually absent. This may indicate the child's need for love, which he would like to receive from this person.

5. Parent couple

Parents are usually pictured together, the father is taller and larger on the left, the mother is lower on the right, followed by other figures in order of importance. As already noted, it should be borne in mind that the drawing does not always reflect reality, sometimes it is only a reflection of what is desired. A child who is brought up by one of the parents may nevertheless portray both of them, thereby expressing his desire for their union to be restored.

If child drawing one parentwith whom he lives, this means his acceptance of a real-life situation to which the child has more or less adapted.

One of the parents may be in an isolated position in the figure. If the figure of the parent of the same sex as the child is depicted away from the rest, then this can be interpreted as the desire of the child to be with a parent of the opposite sex. Jealousy caused by the Oedipus complex is quite normal for a child until he reaches puberty (average 12 years).

The case when the figure of a child and a parent of the opposite sex are removed from each other, can, apparently, be considered as a slight violation of the natural order of relationships with a parent of the opposite sex.

If in the figure parents interact with each other, for example, they hold hands, it means that in life there is a close psychological contact between them. If there is no contact in the figure, then most likely it does not exist in reality.

Sometimes a child, ignoring the real situation, depicts one of the parents of an unnaturally large size,often it concerns the mother figure. This suggests that in his eyes this parent is perceived as a suppressive figure, suppressing any manifestation of independence and initiative. If a child has an image of one of the parents as a dominant, overwhelming, hostile, frightening person, then he is inclined to give his figure a large size compared to the figures of other family members, without taking into account their real physical sizes. Such a figure can be depicted with large hands, demonstrating with his posture an imperious, dictatorial attitude.

In the opposite way, the parent that the child does not take seriously, ignores, does not respect, is depicted as small in size, with small hands or no hands at all.

6. Identification

In the drawing of a family, there is also such an indicative factor as identification. The child easily identifies himself with one or another character in his drawing. He may identify with his father, mother, sibling.

Identification with same-sex parentcorresponds to the normal state of affairs. It reflects his desire to have a preferred relationship with a parent of the opposite sex.

Identification with senior sibling, regardless of gender, is also normal, especially if there is a noticeable age difference.

Sometimes the child may identify with additional characterswho are not part of the family. What is the identification? The figure with which the child identifies himself is depicted as the most attractive, complete; she gets more time. In addition, a lot of information about this usually gives the results of the conversation. In the conversation that should be relied on most of all, completely opposite things are often revealed. It turns out that the child can identify with the most nondescript character in the drawing, which has a fuzzy outline, is placed away from everyone else, and so on. Such a case indicates that the child is experiencing great difficulties and tension in relationships with his family and himself.

7. Refusal to portray a family member

If the child draws himself away from the rest of the family, then he probably experiences a feeling of loneliness and isolation.

If the child is not in the picture at all, then we can talk about the same thing, but in a much stronger manifestation. Experiences such as feelings of inferiority or a sense of lack of community, alienation, also cause the child to exclude himself from the picture of the family. Such examples can often be seen in family drawings made by adopted children. Parental dissatisfaction, excessive criticality, comparisons with brothers or sisters in an unfavorable light for him contribute to the formation of low self-esteem and the suppression of the child's motivation to achieve. In a milder form, this manifests itself when the child draws himself last.

A frequent occurrence in children's drawings - refusal to draw a younger sibling. Explanations such as "I forgot to draw my brother" or "There wasn't enough room for my little brother" should not mislead you. There is nothing accidental in the drawing of the family. Everything has its own meaning, expresses certain feelings and experiences of the child in relation to people close to him.

It is quite common for an older child to be jealous of their parents for younger child because he gets most of the love and attention of his parents. Since in reality he restrains the manifestation of feelings of discontent and aggression, these feelings find their way out in the drawing of the family. The younger sibling is simply not depicted. Denying its existence, the child removes existing problem.

Another reaction may also take place: the child may depict the younger sibling in the drawing, but exclude yourself from the family,thus identifying himself with a rival who enjoys the attention and love of his parents. The absence of adults in the picture may indicate a negative attitude of the child towards this person, the absence of any emotional connection with him.

Conclusion

The question of the application of projective methods in Russian psychology remains hotly debated. Meanwhile, any extremes in solving this extremely important issue seem wrong. Now, when psychologists are in need of experimental methods for studying personality, it is all the more important to make projective methods the object of special research, which, by their many years of history, have proved their suitability for solving many problems of applied psychology.

The formal principles of constructing a projective experiment, its so-called projectivity - a “deaf” instruction, the lack of evaluation by the experimenter, the emphasis on the motivational aspect of activity - are widely used in any personality-oriented research. We note, by the way, that experiments in our pathopsychological practice have long been built on these principles. This does not exclude, but, on the contrary, makes more necessary research work to substantiate the projective method from the standpoint of Soviet psychology, to create a new "dictionary" of explanatory concepts. We need new schemes for the analysis and interpretation of experimental data that correspond to the theoretical approaches to the study of personality developed in Marxist psychology.

Research in this direction seems promising for the following reasons. The fact is that the connection of private methods with a particular theory is not absolutely rigid and unchanging, and projective methods generated by psychoanalysis subsequently begin to "get rid" of it, acquire relative autonomy and are included in other conceptual systems. This gives us the right to raise the question of the possibility of correlating the projective method with certain concepts of domestic psychology. The productivity of using projective methods in applied psychological research there is no doubt, but the stage of their wide introduction into practice must necessarily be preceded by the stage of theoretical testing.

In particular, the projective method can be substantiated on the basis of the general theoretical proposition about the biased nature of mental reflection and the relationship of a person to the world of social phenomena. According to the thesis being developed, the specificity of the projective method lies in its focus on identifying, first of all, subjective-conflict relations and their representation in individual consciousness in the form of “personal meanings” or “significant experiences”. However, in contrast to the traditional psychoanalytic point of view, we consider the conflict not as a consequence of the struggle between different instances, or levels, “within” the personality, but as a product of the structure and dynamics of the conditions of the subject’s very life activity.

The proposed paradigm can also explain many of the phenomena traditionally referred to in foreign psychology by the term "projection". For example, the well-known socio-psychological phenomenon of the “scapegoat” arises from the contradiction between the need for aggression experienced by the subject and the absence of an object of its satisfaction that is suitable from the point of view of social norms. Here, as in other cases, we are dealing with the barrier nature of the circumstances of a person's concrete activity and their reflection in the form of the personal meaning of these circumstances.

In a projective study, the most common life situations are modeled (of course, in a generalized schematic form). But precisely because they are not a reality for the subject, he has, as it were, greater freedom of behavior in them than in life. And this means that in such “model” situations, not only stereotypes of emotional and behavioral response fixed by habit are manifested, not only needs and motives that are openly demonstrated every day, but also remaining “unplayed”, unrealized by the subject. Objective or subjective circumstances of activity act as barriers, barriers that impede their implementation - rigid and sometimes unchangeable requirements of reality, moral or legal norms, qualities of one's own personality. It can be thought that it is the barrier in activity that prompts the subject to sense formation - an assessment of the vital significance for him of the barrier circumstances and his actions in these circumstances. This process is recreated in a projective study, but in imaginary situations it may not be completely identical to the process of meaning formation in real life. So, it does not always appear in the form of a conscious reflection of the personal meaning of certain obstructive circumstances, but it can also manifest itself more directly - in the form of experiencing a need, aspiration, a feeling of joy or resentment. Quite often, however, the activity of searching for meaning is replaced by activity of disguising it, and in this case we will be dealing with the process of meaning formation, but carried out in a distorted form.

The justification of the projective method that we have proposed is certainly not the only possible one; Within the framework of the activity approach, other theoretical paradigms can and should be developed. There is no doubt only the need for research in this direction, without which the introduction of projective techniques into diagnostic practice will inevitably give rise to methodological eclecticism.

Literature

1. Anastasi, A., Urbina, S. Psychological testing / Per. from English. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001. - 688s.

Burlachuk, L.F. Introduction to projective psychology. - Kiev: Vist-S, 1997. - 128s.

Burlachuk, L.F. Psychodiagnostics. Textbook for universities / Burlachuk Leonid Fokich. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006. - 351 p.: ill. - (Textbook of the new century).

Burlachuk, L.F., Morozov, S.M. Dictionary-reference book on psychodiagnostics - St. Petersburg: Peter Kom, 1999. - 528 p.: (Series "Masters of Psychology")

Projective psychology: Per. from English. - M.: April-Press, EKSMO-Press Publishing House, 2000. - 318s.

Psychological diagnostics: textbook for university students / ed. M.K. Akimova, K.M. Gurevich. -3rd ed., revised. and additional -SPb. [and others]: Peter, 2003. -650s., p.: tab. - (Textbook for universities)

Sokolova, E.T. Projective methods of personality research. - M.: MGU, 1980. - 150s.

Shapar, V.B., Shapar, O.V. Practical psychology. Projective methods. / V.B. Shapar, O.V. Chapar. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2006. - 480 p. (Psychological faculty).

Internet resources

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