Methods and techniques of natural research

The concept of methodology and method

In a modern understanding, the methodology is the doctrine of the structure, a logical organization, methods and means of activity. In particular, the methodology of natural science is the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of naturally scientific knowledge.

The method is a combination of techniques, or operations, practical or theoretical activities.

The method is inextricably linked with theory: any objective knowledge system can become a method. The inextricable link between the method and theory is expressed in the methodological role of natural-scientific laws. For example, the laws of conservation in natural science constitute a methodological principle requiring strict compliance with relevant theoretical operations; The reflex theory of higher nervous activity serves as one of the methods of studying animal behavior and man.

Describing the role of the right method in scientific knowledge, F. Bacon compared it with a lamp, illuminating the traveler road in the dark. It is impossible to count on success in studying any question, going false.

The method itself does not predetermine completely success in a naturally scientific study of reality: not only a good method is important, but also the skill of its use.

Various methods of natural science industries: physics, chemistry, biology, etc. are partial in relation to the general dialectical method of knowledge. Each industry of natural science, having its subject of study and its theoretical principles, applies its special methods arising from one or another understanding of the essence of its object. The special methods used, for example, in archeology or geography, usually do not go beyond the data of the sciences, at the same time physical and chemical methods are used not only in physics and chemistry, but also in astronomy, biology, archeology. The use of the method of any branch of science in other industries is carried out due to the fact that their facilities are subject to the laws of this science. For example, physical and chemical methods are used in biology on the grounds that biological research facilities include physical and chemical forms of motion of matter in one form or another.

Comparison, analysis and synthesis

Ancient thinkers claimed: a comparison is the mother of knowledge. The people put it in the proverb: "Without learning of grief, you will not know and joy." It is impossible to know what is good, not knowing the bad, it is impossible to understand small without much, etc. Everything is known in comparison.

To find out what is one thing or another, you must first find out what it is similar to other objects and what is different from them. For example, to determine the mass of any body, it is necessary to compare it with a mass of another body adopted for the standard, i.e. per sample measure. Such a process of comparison is carried out by weighing on scales.

Comparison is the establishment of similarities and differences in objects. Comparison underlies many naturally scientific measurements that make up an integral part of any experiments.

Comparing objects among themselves, a person gets the opportunity to properly know them and thereby correctly navigate in the surrounding world, purposefully affect it. Being a necessary admission of knowledge, the comparison plays an important role in human practical activity and in a natural-scientific study, when objects are truly homogeneous and close to their essence. It makes no sense to compare, as they say, pounds with arches.

Comparison as a very general intake of knowledge often acts in various industries of natural sciences as a comparative method.

The process of natural-scientific knowledge is committed in such a way that we first observe the overall picture of the object being studied, at which particular remains in the shade. With this observation, it is impossible to know the internal structure of the object. To study it, we must define the objects studied. The analysis is a mental or actual decomposition of an object into part of its part. Being a necessary admission of knowledge, analysis is also one of the elements of the process of knowledge.

It is impossible to know the essence of the object, only decomposing it on the elements from which it consists of: a chemist, according to Hegel, puts meat into his retort, exposes it to a variety of operations and then says: I found that it consists of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and t . d. But these things are no longer meat. In each industry of natural science, there is no matter how their limit of the object of the object, followed by another world of properties and patterns.

When the analysis of particular is sufficiently studied, the following stage of cognition occurs - synthesis - a union into a single integer element analysis.

The analysis records mainly the specific, which distinguishes parts from each other. Synthesis reveals that in common, which binds parts into a single whole.

A person decomposes an object on the components in order to first detect the parts themselves, find out what is an integer, and then consider it as consisting of parts, each of which is already examined separately. Analysis and synthesis are in dialectical unity among themselves: in each of its movement, our thinking is equally analytically, how many synthetic.

Analysis and synthesis originated in human practical activity in his work. The person learned to mentally analyze and synthesize only on the basis of practical dismemberment, destroying, grinding, compounds, drawing up objects in the manufacture of workers, clothing, dwellings, etc. only gradually comprehending what is happening with the object when performing practical actions with him, man He studied mentally analyze and synthesize. Analysis and synthesis are the main techniques of thinking: processes of separation and compounds, destruction and creation, decomposition and compounds: bodies are repelled and attracted; Chemical elements come into touch and disconnect; In a living organism, the processes of assimilation and dissimulation are continuously carried out; In production there is a dismemberment of something for the creation of the product of labor, the necessary society.

Abstraction, idealization and generalization

Each object being studied is characterized by a plurality of properties and is associated with a variety of threads with other objects. In the process of natural-scientific knowledge, there is a need to concentrate on one side or the property of the object being studied and distinguished from a number of other qualities or properties.

Abstraction is the mental allocation of any object, in distraction from its connections with other objects, any property of the subject in distraction from its other properties, any relationship of objects in distraction from the items themselves. Initially, the abstraction was expressed in highlighting with their hands, gaze, instruments of the labor of some objects and distractions from others. This is evidenced by the origin of the word "abstract" - from the Latin verb "Tagere" (drag) and the prefixes "AB" (aside). Yes I. russian word "Abstract" comes from the verb "Moody" (dragging).

Abstraction is a necessary condition for the emergence and development of any science and human knowledge at all. The question is that in objective reality is allocated by the abstractioning work of thinking and from which thinking is distracted, in each particular case, it is decided in direct dependence on the nature of the object being studied and those tasks that are put in front of the researcher. For example, in mathematics, many tasks are solved with equations without considering specific things behind them. The numbers are not affected by what is behind them: people or animals, plants or minerals. This consists of a great power of mathematics, and at the same time its limitation.

For mechanics learning the movement of bodies in space, indifferent to the physico-kinetic properties of bodies, except for the mass. I. Kepler were unimportant to the reddish color of Mars or the temperature of the sun to establish the laws of circulation of planets. When Louis de Broglie sought the connection between the properties of an electron as a particle and as a wave, he had the right not to be interested in any other characteristics of this particle.

Abstraction is the movement of thoughts in the end of the subject, the allocation of its essential elements. For example, that this object property is considered as a chemical, you need distraction, abstraction. In fact, to chemical properties The substances do not apply to the change in its shape, so the chemist explores copper, distracting from what is made of it.

In the lively tissue of logical thinking abstraction allow you to reproduce a deeper and accurate picture of the world than can be done using perceptions.

An important technique of naturally scientific knowledge of the world is idealization as a specific type of abstraction. Idealization is the mental education of abstract objects that do not exist and impossible in reality, but for which there are sobrase in the real world. Idealization is the process of formation of concepts, the actual prototypes of which can only be indicated with a certain degree of approximation. Examples of idealized concepts: "Point", i.e. an object that has no length or height, no width; "Straight line", "Circle", "Point Electric Charity", "Perfect Gas", "Absolutely Black Body", etc.

Introduction to the naturally scientific process of research of idealized objects allows the construction of abstract schemes of real processes necessary for deeper penetration into the patterns of their flow.

The important task of naturally scientific knowledge is a generalization - the process of a mental transition from one to a common one, from less common to more common.

For example, a mental transition from the concept of "triangle" to the concept of "polygon", from the concept of "mechanical form of motion of matter" to the concept of "the form of motion of matter", from the judgment "this metal of electrically conductive" to the judgment "all metals of electrically conductive", from judgment "mechanical The energy form turns into a thermal "to judgment" any form of energy turns into a different form of energy ", etc.

A mental transition from more common to less common is the process of restriction. The processes of generalization and restrictions are inextricably linked. No generalization there is no theory. The theory is created to apply it in practice to solve specific tasks. For example, to measure objects, the creation of technical structures is always needed to transition from more common to less general and isolated, i.e., the restriction process is always necessary.

Abstract and concrete

The process of natural scientific knowledge is carried out by two interrelated paths: by climbing the specific, given in perception and representation, to abstractions and by climbing from the abstract to a specific one. On the first way, a visual representation "evaporates" to the degree of abstraction, on the second path the thought is moving again to a specific knowledge, but already by the rich set of numerous definitions. Under the abstract is understood to be one-sided, incomplete reflection of the object in consciousness. The specific knowledge is the reflection of the real relationship of the elements of the object in the system of the whole, consideration of it from all parties, in development, with all the contradictions peculiar to it.

Specific is the result of a scientific study, reflection of objective reality in the system of concepts and categories, theoretically meaningful unity of diverse in the object of the study. The method of theoretical knowledge of the object as a whole is the climbing from the abstract to a specific one.

Analogy

In the nature of the very understanding of the facts is the analogy that connects the thread of the unknown with the known one. New is easier to be comprehended and understood through the images and the concepts of the old known. Analogy is called a likely, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two items in any sign on the basis of the established similarity in other signs. The conclusion turns out to be the more believable, the more similar signs of compared objects and than these signs are essential. Despite the fact that the analogies provide only likely conclusions, they play a huge role in knowledge, as they lead to the formation of hypotheses - scientific guesses and assumptions, which during the subsequent stage of research and evidence can turn into scientific theories. Analogy with what we know helps to understand what is unknown. Analogy with simple helps to understand more complex. So, by analogy with the artificial selection of the best domestic breeds, Ch. Darwin opened the law natural selection In the animal and the plant world. Analogy with a fluid in the tube played an important role in the appearance of an electric current theory. Analogies with the mechanism of muscle action, brain, animal sense and human organs pushed many technical facilities to the invention: excavators, robots, logical machines, etc.

Analogy As a method is most often used in the theory of similarity, on which modeling is based.

Modeling

In modern science and technology, the modeling method is becoming increasingly distribution, the essence of which is to reproduce the properties of the object of cognition on a specially arranged analogue model. If the model has the same physical nature with the original, then we are dealing with physical modeling. The model can be based on the principle of mathematical modeling, if it has a different nature, but its functioning is described by the system of equations identical to the one that describes the original being studied.

Modeling is widely used because it allows you to investigate the processes characteristic of the original in the absence of the original itself and in conditions that do not require its availability. This is often necessary due to the inconvenience of the study of the object itself and for other considerations: high costs, unavailability, delivery difficulties, unreleaseability, etc.

The value of the model is that it is much easier to make it, it is easier to carry out experiments with it than with the original, etc.

IN lately Electronic modeling devices are actively developed, in which electronic processes Reproduce on a given program a real process. The principle of modeling is the basis of cybernetics. Simulation is used in calculating the trajectories of ballistic missiles, in the study of the mode of operation of machinery and entire enterprises, in the distribution material resources etc.

Induction and deduction

As a method of naturally scientific research, induction can be determined as a process of removal of a general position from observing a number of private unit facts.

Typically distinguish two main types of induction: complete and incomplete. Full induction is the withdrawal of any general judgment about all objects of a certain set on the basis of the consideration of each object of this set. The scope of application of such induction is limited to objects whose number of course. In practice, an induction form is more often used, which involves the conclusion about all the objects of the set on the basis of the knowledge of only part of the objects. Such conclusions of incomplete induction are often probabilistic. Incomplete induction based on experimental studies and includes a theoretical rationale, is able to give a significant conclusion. It is called scientific induction. According to the famous French physics Louis de Broglie, induction, because it seeks to push the existing borders of thought, is a true source really scientific progress. Great discoveries, jumps of scientific thought are created ultimately induction - a risky, but important creative method.

Deduction is the process of analytical reasoning from a common to private or less common. The beginning (parcels) of deduction are axioms, postulates or simply hypotheses that have the nature of common statements, and the end is the consequences of the parcels, theorems. If the premises of the deduction are true, then its consequences are true. Deduction is the main means of proof. The use of deduction makes it possible to derive knowledge from obvious truths that can no longer comply with our mind with direct clarity, but they are submitted by the very method of their preparation, quite reasonable and thereby reliable. Deduction, conducted on strict rules, cannot lead to delusions.

1. Features of natural science and humanitarian methods of knowledge

2. The concept of methodology and method

3. Methods of scientific knowledge

1. Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge

2. Forms of scientific knowledge

3. The process of scientific knowledge

4. Criteria for the truth of scientific knowledge

1. Features of natural science and humanitarian methods of knowledge

In the previous lecture, contradictions were noted between the humanitarian and natural science culture. These contradictions are also associated with differences in the methods of knowledge of the world. Differences between natural science and humanitarian methods of knowledge is convenient to present in the form of the following table.

Natural scientific knowledge	Humanitarian-artistic
1. It is objective	Wears subjective in nature
2. The subject of knowledge is typical	Subject of knowledge of individual
3. Histority is not obligatory	Always historical
4. Creates only knowledge	Creates knowledge as well as opinion and evaluation of a learned subject
5. The naturalist seeks to be a third-party observer	Humanitarian inevitably participates in the process under study
6. Rely on the language of terms and numbers	Relies on the language of images

Currently notes "Humanitarianization of natural science", i.e. It is from the side of the natural science culture that there is a movement on rapprochement with the culture of humanitarian in the desire for a single culture. This rapprochement concerns PP. 2, 3 and 6, i.e. Natural science is increasingly interested in unique objects (man, biosphere, universe), natural science has become evolutionary, historical, the necessary elements of scientific thinking recognize imagery, intuition.

2. The concept of methodology and method

It is important to distinguish such concepts as a methodology and method.

Methodology - This is a doctrine of the structure, logical organization, methods and activities.

Methodology of natural science - The doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of natural science knowledge. For example, the laws of conservation are in natural science. With any research, theoretical constructions, they must be taken into account.

Method - This is a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical activities. The method can also be characterized as the form of theoretical and practical development of reality emanating from the patterns of behavior of the object being studied. F. Bacon 1 compared the correct scientific method with the lamp, illuminating the traveler road in the dark.

The methods of scientific knowledge include the so-called universal Methods . Universal techniques of thinking, general scientific methods and methods of specific sciences. Methods can be classified and as a ratio empirical knowledge (i.e., the knowledge of the experience gained, experienced knowledge) and the knowledge of theoretical, the essence of which is the knowledge of the essence of phenomena, their internal connections. The classification of scientific knowledge methods is presented in Fig. 1.2.

It should be borne in mind that each industry of natural science, along with general scientific, applies its specific scientific, special methods caused by the essence of the object of the study. However, often methods characteristic of any specific science are applied in other sciences. This is because the objects of studying these sciences are also subject to the laws of this science. For example, physical and chemical research methods are applied in biology on the grounds that biological research facilities include physical and chemical forms of motion of matter and, therefore, are subject to physical and chemical laws (remember "Staircase Kekule"considered by us in the first lecture).

Universal methods In the history of knowledge - two: dialectical and metaphysical. These are general philosophical methods.

The dialectical method is the method of knowledge of reality in its contradictory, integrity and development.

Metaphysical 2 method is a method opposite to dialectical, considering phenomena outside of their mutual communication and development.

From the mid-19th century, the metaphysical method has more and more supplanted from natural science by a dialectical method.

Scientific knowledge is a system that has several levels of knowledge that differ in a variety of parameters. Depending on the object, the nature, type, method and method of the obtained knowledge, highlight the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge. Each of them performs certain functions and has specific research methods. Levels correspond to interrelated, but at the same time specific species cognitive activity: Empirical and theoretical research. Having mediating the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge, the modern researcher is aware that if in everyday knowledge, it is legitimate to distinguish between sensual and rational levels, then in a scientific study, the empirical level of the study is never limited to a purely sensual knowledge, theoretical knowledge is not pure rationality. Even the initial empirical knowledge obtained by observation is recorded using scientific terms. Theoretical knowledge is also not pure rationality. When building the theory, visual representations are used, which are the basis of sensual perception. Thus, it can be said that at the beginning of an empirical study prevails sensual, and in theoretical - rational. At the level of empirical research, the identification of dependencies and links between phenomena, certain patterns, is not excluded. But if the empirical level can only catch an external manifestation, then the theoretical reaches the explanation of the essential links of the object under study.

Empirical knowledge is the result of the direct interaction of the researcher with reality in observation or experiment. On the empirical level there is not only the accumulation of facts, but also their primary systematization, classification, which allows identifying empirical rules, principles and laws that are transformed into observable phenomena. At this level, the object under study is reflected mainly in external relations and manifestations. The complexity of scientific knowledge is determined by the presence of in it not only levels and methods of knowledge, but also forms in which it is fixed and developing. The main forms of scientific knowledge are facts, problems, hypothesesand theories.Their meaning is to disclose the dynamics of the process of cognition during the study and studying any object. The establishment of the facts is a necessary condition for the success of natural science research. To construct the theory, the facts should not only be reliably installed, systematized and summarized, but also considered in relationships. The hypothesis is an estimated knowledge that is probabilistic and requires verification. If during the inspection the content of the hypothesis is not consistent with empirical data, it is rejected. If the hypothesis is confirmed, then we can talk about it with a particular degree of probability. As a result of testing and evidence, some hypothesis become theories, others are specified and specified, the third is discarded if their test gives a negative result. The main criterion for the truth of the hypothesis is practice in different forms.

Scientific theory is a generalized knowledge system, which gives a holistic mapping of natural and substantial relations in a certain area of \u200b\u200bobjective reality. The main task of the theory is to describe, systematize and explain all many empirical facts. Theories are classified as descriptive, scientificand deductive.In descriptive theories, researchers formulate common laws Based on empirical data. Descriptive theories do not imply logical analysis and concreteness of evidence (physiological theory of I. Pavlov, the evolutionary theory of Ch. Darwin, etc.). In scientific theories, the model is designed, replacing the real object. The consequences of the theory are checked by experiment (physical theories, etc.). In deductive theories, a special formalized language has been developed, all the terms of which are subject to interpretation. The first of them is the "beginning" Euclidea (the main axiom is formulated, then the provisions logically derived from it are added to it, and all evidence is carried out on this basis).

The main elements of scientific theory are principles and laws. Principles represent general and important confirmations of the theory. In the theory, the principles play the role of primary prerequisites forming it. In turn, the content of each principle is disclosed with the help of laws. They specify the principles, disclose the mechanism of their action, the logic of the relationship arising from them consequences. Laws are the form of theoretical statements that reveal the general links of studied phenomena, objects and processes. In the formulation of the principles and laws, the researcher is quite difficult to see for numerous, often completely dissimilar evident facts precisely the essential properties and characteristics of the studied properties of objects and phenomena. The difficulty lies in the fact that in direct observation, the essential characteristics of the object under study are difficult. Therefore, directly move from the empirical level of knowledge to theoretical one. The theory is not built by directly generalizing the experience, so the next step is to formulate the problem. It is defined as a form of knowledge, the content of which is a conscious question, to answer which knowledge available is not enough. Search, formulation and solving problems are the main features of scientific activity. In turn, the presence of a problem in comprehending the inexplicable facts entails a preliminary conclusion that requires experimental, theoretical and logical confirmation. The process of knowledge of the surrounding world is a solution to a different kind of tasks arising in the course of human practical activity. These problems are solved by using special techniques - methods.

Metolas science- A combination of techniques and operations of the practical and theoretical knowledge of reality.

Research methods optimize human activity, arm it with the most rational ways of organizing activities. A. P. Sadokhin In addition to the allocation of levels of knowledge in the classification of scientific methods, the criterion of the methods of the method is given and allocates common, special and private methods of scientific knowledge. Selected methods are often combined and combined during the study.

General methodscognition relate to any discipline and make it possible to connect all stages of the process of knowledge. These methods are used in any area of \u200b\u200bresearch and allow you to detect links and signs of objects under study. In the history of science, researchers include metaphysical and dialectical methods. Private methodsscientific knowledge is methods applied only in a separate industry of science. Various methods of natural science (physics, chemistry, biology, ecology, etc.) are private in relation to the overall dialectical method of knowledge. Sometimes private methods can be used outside of those industries in which they arose. For example, physical and chemical methods are used in astronomy, biology, ecology. Often researchers use a complex of interconnected private methods to the study of one subject. For example, ecology simultaneously uses the methods of physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology. Private cognition methods are associated with special methods. Special methodsexplore certain signs of the object being studied. They can manifest themselves on empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge and be universal.

Among special empirical methods of knowledgeallocate observation, measurement and experiment.

Observationit is a targeted process of perception of reality items, sensual reflection of objects and phenomena, during which a person receives primary information about the world around. Therefore, the study most often begins with observation, and only then researchers go to other methods. Observations are not associated with any theory, but the purpose of the observation is always associated with a certain problem. Surveillance assumes the presence of a specific study plan, an assumption that is analyzed and verified. Observations are used where it is impossible to put a direct experiment (in volcanology, cosmology). The results of the observation are recorded in the description, noting the signs and properties of the object being studied, which are subject to study. The description should be the most complete, accurate and objective. It is the descriptions of observation results that make up the empirical basis of science, they are based on empirical generalizations, systematization and classification.

Measure- This is determined by the quantitative values \u200b\u200b(characteristics) of the parties studied or object properties using special technical devices. A large role in the study is played by units of measurement with which the data obtained is compared.

Experiment -a more complex method of empirical knowledge compared to observation. It is a focused and strictly controlled impact of the researcher on an object of interest or a phenomenon for studying its various sides, relations and relationships. In the course of an experimental study, the scientist interferes with the natural course of processes, converts the object of the study. The specifics of the experiment also consists in the fact that it allows you to see the object or the process in its pure form. This is due to the maximum exclusion of the impact of foreign factors. The experimenter separates substantial facts from insignificant and thereby significantly simplifies the situation. Such simplification contributes to a deep understanding of the essence of phenomena and processes and creates the ability to control the factors and values \u200b\u200bimportant for this experiment. For modern experiment, features are characterized: an increase in the role of the theory at the preparatory stage of the experiment; complexity of technical means; Experimentability. The main task of the experiment is to verify the hypotheses and the conclusions of theories that have fundamental and applied value. In experimental work, at the active impact on the object under study, these or other properties are artificially distinguished, which are the subject of study in naturally or specially created conditions. In the process of naturally scientific experiment, it is often resorted to the physical modeling of the object under study and create various controlled conditions for it. S. X. Karpenkov subdivides experimental means in content to the following systems:

♦ a system containing the object under study with the specified properties;

♦ system ensuring the impact on the object under study;

♦ Measuring system.

S. H. Karpenkov indicates that, depending on the task, these systems play a different role. For example, when determining magnetic properties Substances The results of the experiment largely depend on the sensitivity of the instruments. At the same time, in the study of the properties of a substance not occurring in nature under normal conditions, and even at low temperatures, all systems of experimental means are important.

In any natural science experiment, these steps are distinguished:

♦ Preparatory stage;

♦ step of collecting experimental data;

♦ Stage processing of results.

The preparatory stage is the theoretical substantiation of the experiment, its planning, the manufacture of the sample of the object under study, the choice of conditions and technical means of research. The results obtained on a well-prepared experimental base are usually easier to be complex mathematical processing. Analysis of the results of the experiment allows you to estimate certain signs of the object under study, compare the results obtained with the hypothesis, which is very important when determining the correctness and degree of reliability of the final results of the study.

To increase the reliability of the results obtained, the experiment requires:

♦ multiple repetition of measurements;

♦ Improving technical means and instruments;

♦ strict accounting of factors affecting the object under study;

♦ Clear experiment planning, allowing to take into account the specifics of the object under study.

Among special theoretical methods of scientific knowledgeallocate abstraction and idealization procedures. In the abstraction and idealization processes, concepts and terms used in all theories are formed. Concepts reflect the essential side of the phenomena appearing during the generalization of the study. In this case, only some of its side is allocated from the object or phenomenon. Thus, the concept of "temperature" can be given an operating definition (indicator of the degree of heated body in a specific scale of the thermometer), and from the standpoint of the molecular-kinetic theory, the temperature is the value proportional to the average kinetic energy of the movement of particles constituting the body. Abstraction -mooked distraction from all properties, links and relationships of the object being studied, which are considered insignificant. Such are the models of the point, straight line, circle, plane. The result of the abstraction process is called abstraction. Real objects in some tasks can be replaced by these abstractions (the land when driving around the Sun can be considered a material point, but it is impossible when moving along its surface).

Idealizationrepresents the operation of the mental allocation of some one important property or relationship, mental design, endowed with this property (ratio) for this theory. As a result, the ideal object has only this property (attitude). Science allocates general laws in real reality, which are essential and repeated in various subjects, so you have to go to distract from real objects. So there are such concepts as "atom", "many", "absolutely black body", "perfect gas", "solid medium". The ideal objects obtained in this way do not really exist, since in nature there can be no objects and phenomena with only one property or quality. When applying the theory, it is necessary to compare the obtained and used ideal and abstract models with reality. Therefore, the choice of abstractions is important in accordance with their adequacy of this theory and the subsequent exclusion of them.

Among special universal research methodsallocate analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, analogy, modeling. The process of natural science knowledge is made in such a way that we first observe the overall picture of the object being studied, at which particular remains in the shade. With this observation, it is impossible to know the internal structure of the object. To study it, we must divide the objects studied.

Analysis- One of the initial stages of the study, when from a solid description of the object turns to its structure, composition, features and properties. Analysis - the method of scientific cognition, which is based on the procedure for a mental or real separation of an object into the components of its parts and their separate study. It is impossible to know the essence of the object, only highlighting the items from which it consists. When, by analyzing a particular object under study, it is complemented by synthesis.

Synthesis -the method of scientific knowledge is based on the association of elements allocated analysis. Synthesis acts as a method for designing a whole, but as a method for presenting a whole in the form of single knowledge obtained by analysis. It shows the place and role of each element in the system, their connection with other components. The analysis records mainly the specific, which distinguishes parts from each other, synthesis - generalizes analytically dedicated and studied features of the object. Analysis and synthesis take their beginning in human practical activity. The person learned to mentally analyze and synthesize only on the basis of practical separation, gradually understanding what was happening with the object when performing practical actions with it. Analysis and synthesis are the components of the analytical synthetic method of knowledge.

With a quantitative comparison of the studied properties, object parameters or phenomena talk about the comparison method. Comparison- The method of scientific knowledge, allowing to establish similarities and differences of the objects under study. Comparison underlies many natural science measurements that make up an integral part of any experiments. Comparing objects among themselves, a person gets the opportunity to properly know them and thereby correctly navigate in the surrounding world, purposefully affect it. Comparison matters when there are really homogeneous and similar objects in their essence. The comparison method allocates the differences in the objects under study and is the basis of any measurements, that is, the basis of experimental studies.

Classification- The method of scientific knowledge, which combines objects in one class, the most similar to each other in essential signs. The classification allows you to reduce the accumulated diverse material to a relatively small number of classes, types and forms and identify the original analysis units, detect stable signs and relationships. As a rule, classifications are expressed as texts in natural languages, schemes and tables.

Analogy -the method of knowledge, in which the knowledge of the knowledge obtained when considering any object, to another, less studied, but similar to the first for some significant properties. The method of an analogy is based on the similarity of objects for a number of any signs, and similarity is established as a result of comparing items among themselves. Thus, the method of an analogy is the comparison method.

The analogy method is closely related to the method modelingwhich is the study of any objects using models with further transfer of the data obtained to the original. This method is based on the substantial similarity of the original object and its model. In modern studies, various types of modeling are used: the subject, mental, symbolic, computer. Subjectmodeling is the use of models that reproduce certain object characteristics. Mysterioussimulation is the use of various mental ideas In the form of imaginary models. Symbolicmodeling uses drawings, schemes, formulas as models. In them, the symbolizing form reflects certain properties of the original. The type of symbolic modeling is mathematical modeling produced by means of mathematics and logic. It involves the formation of systems of equations, which describe the natural phenomenon under study, and their solution under different conditions. Computermodeling has become widespread lately (Sadokhin A. P., 2007).

A variety of scientific knowledge methods creates difficulties in their application and understanding their role. These problems are solved by a special area of \u200b\u200bknowledge - methodology. The main task of the methodology is the study of origin, essence, efficiency, development of methods of knowledge.

Methods of natural scientific knowledge 1 page

Of great importance for understanding scientific knowledge has the analysis of means of obtaining and storing knowledge. Products for knowledge and there are methods of scientific knowledge. What is the method?

The concept of the method (from Greek. "Methodos" is the path to anything) means a set of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical development of reality.

In the literature there are equal definitions of the method. We will use what, in our opinion, is suitable for analyzing natural science. The method is a method of action of a subject, aimed at theoretical and practical mastering as an object.

Under the subject in the broad sense of the word means all humanity in its development. In the narrow sense of the word, the subject is a separate person, armed with knowledge and means of knowing his era.

The method is arming a person with the system of principles, requirements, rules, guided by which it can achieve the target target. The possession of the method means for a person knowledge of how, in what sequence to make certain actions to solve certain tasks, and the ability to apply this knowledge in practice.

The doctrine of the method began to develop in the science of the new time. Its representatives considered the correct method of targeting to reliable, true knowledge. So, the prominent philosopher of the XVII century F. Bacon compared the method of knowledge with the lantern, illuminating the road to the traveler, going in the dark. And another famous scientist and philosopher of the same period R. Descarte outlined his understanding of the method as follows: "Under the method I understand the exact and simple rules, strictly compliance with ... without any extra spending of mental strength, but gradually and continuously increasing knowledge contributes to that the mind reaches true knowledge of everything that is available to him. "

There is a whole area of \u200b\u200bknowledge, which is specially engaged in the study of methods and is customary to refer to the methodology. The methodology literally means "the doctrine of methods" (for this term occurs from two Greek words: "Method" method and "Logos" - doctrine). Studying the patterns of human cognitive activity, the methodology produces on this basis the methods of its implementation. The most important task of the methodology is to study origin, entity, efficiency and other characteristics of cognition methods.

The methods of scientific knowledge are made to divide by the degree of their community, that is, by latitude of applicability in the process of scientific research.

Universal methods in the history of knowledge are known two: dialectical and metaphysical. This is general philosophical methods. The metaphysical method from the middle of the XIX century began to be more and more outstanding from natural science dialectic method.

The second group of cognition methods is general scientific methods that are used in various fields of science, i.e., have a very wide interdisciplinary spectrum. The classification of general scientific methods is closely related to the concept of levels of scientific knowledge.

There are two levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. However, general scientific methods are applied only on the empirical level (observation - targeted perception of phenomena of objective reality; Description - Fixation by means of natural or artificial language information about objects; measurement - Comparison of objects for any similar properties or Parties; experiment-observation in specially created and controlled conditions, which allows you to restore the course of the phenomenon when the conditions are repetition), others - only on theoretical (idealization, formalization), and some (for example, modeling) - both on empirical and theoretical levels .

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the immediate study of the actual existing, sensually perceived objects. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects studied, phenomena by conducting observations, performing various measurements, experimental formulations. It also produces primary systematization of the resulting actual data in the form of tables, schemes, graphs, etc. In addition, already at the second level of scientific knowledge as a consequence of the generalization of scientific facts - it is possible to formulate some empirical patterns.

The theoretical level of scientific research is carried out on a rational (logical) level of knowledge. At this level, there is a disclosure of the deepest, essential parties, connections, patterns inherent in objects studied, phenomena. Theoretical level is a higher stage in scientific knowledge. The results of theoretical knowledge are hypotheses, theories, laws.

Having the specified two different levels in the scientific study, it should not, however, tear them from each other and oppose. After all, the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected. The empirical level acts as the basis, the foundation for theoretical understanding of scientific facts, the statistical data obtained on the empirical level. In addition, theoretical thinking is inevitably relied on sensually visual images (including schemes, graphs, etc.), with which the empirical level of the study has business.

In turn, the empirical level of scientific knowledge cannot exist without the achievement of theoretical level. The empirical study usually relies on a certain theoretical structure, which determines the direction of this study, determines and justifies the methods used.

Universal methods used not only in science, but also in other industries include:

analysis - dismemberment of a holistic subject to component parts (parties, signs, properties or relationships) for the purpose of their comprehensive study;

synthesis - the connection of previously selected parts of the object into a single integer;

abstraction - distraction from a number of properties irrelevant to this study and the relationship of the phenomenon with the simultaneous allocation of properties and relationships of interest to us and relationships;

generalization - receiving thinking, as a result of which general properties and features of objects are established;

induction - research method and reasoning method, in which the general conclusion is based on private parcels;

deduction is a reasoning method by which the conclusion of a private nature should be made of the general parcels;

an analogy - the reception of knowledge, in which on the basis of the similarity of objects in some signs, their similarity and in other signs are concluded;

modeling is the study of an object (original) by creating and studying its copies (models) that replaces the original from certain parties of interest to the researcher;

classification - separation of all studied items into individual groups in accordance with any important sign for the researcher (especially often used in descriptive sciences, many sections of biology, geology, geography, crystallography, etc.).

The third group of methods of scientific knowledge includes methods used only in the framework of some particular science research or some particular phenomenon. Such methods are called privately scientific. Each private science (biology, chemistry, geology, etc.) has its own specific research methods.

At the same time, private scientific methods tend to contain in various combinations of certain general scientific methods of knowledge. In private methods, observations, measurements, inductive or deductive conclusions may be present, and so on. The nature of their combination and use is depending on the conditions of the study, the nature of the objects studied. Thus, private methods are not divorced from general scientific. They are closely related to them, include the specific use of general scientific cognitive techniques to explore the specific area of \u200b\u200bthe objective world.

Private scientific methods are connected with a universal dialectic method, which, as it may be refracted through them. For example, the universal dialectical principle of development was manifested in biology in the form of open C. Darwin of the natural historical law of the evolution of animals and plant species.

Of great importance in modern science, statistical methods were acquired to determine the average values \u200b\u200bcharacterizing the entire set of studied objects. "Applying the statistical method, we cannot predict the behavior of a separate individual of the aggregation. We can only predict the likelihood that it will behave some in some way.

Statistical laws can be applied only to systems with a large number of items, but not to individual individuals, or objects.

Characteristic feature Modern natural science is also the fact that research methods increasingly affect its result (the so-called "the problem of the device" in quantum mechanics).

It is necessary to add that any method in itself does not yet predetermine success in the knowledge of certain parties to material reality. It is also important to the ability to correctly apply the scientific method in the process of cognition.

1.3 Structure of Natural Scientific Cognition

The structure of scientific research is in a broad sense, a way of scientific knowledge or scientific method as such.

So, we started a scientific research, we recorded the first empirical fact, which, and became a scientific fact.

These facts are accompanied by observation, and in some areas of natural science, this method remains the only and main empirical method of research. For example, in astronomy.

We can accelerate the study, i.e. Conduct an experiment, experience the object of research. The peculiarity of the scientific experiment is that it can reproduce each researcher at any time.

During the experiment, it is worth thinking, is there anything common in the behavior of objects, which at first glance behave completely different? Look at the differences - the necessary stage of scientific research.

An experiment can be carried out on all bodies. For example, heavenly luminaries can only be observed. But we can explain their behavior of the same strength directed not only towards the Earth, but also from it. The difference in behavior, thus, can be explained by the amount of force determining the interaction of two or more bodies.

If we still consider the experiment necessary, we can spend it on models, i.e. On bodies, the size and weight of which are proportionally reduced compared to real bodies. The results of model experiments can be considered proportional results of the interaction of real bodies.

In addition to the model experiment, it is possible mind experiment. To do this, you will need to imagine the bodies that do not exist in reality at all, and conduct an experiment in mind over them.

In modern science, you have to be prepared for idealized experiments, i.e. Mind experiments with the use of idealization from which (namely, Galilean experiments) and the physics of the new time began. The presentation and imagination (creation and use of images) has great importance in science, but in contrast to art it is not the ultimate, but the intermediate purpose of the study. The main goal of science is the nomination of hypotheses and theory as an empirically confirmed hypothesis.

Concepts play a special role in science. Another Aristotle believed that, describing the essence of which the term indicates, we explain its meaning. And his name is a sign of things. Thus, the explanation of the term (and this represents the definition of the concept) makes it possible to understand this thing in its deepest essence ("concept" and "understand" - single words). Scientific terms and signs are nothing but conditional reductions in records that would otherwise wake much more space.

The formation of concepts relates to the next level of studies, which is not an empirical, but theoretical. But before we need to record the results of empirical research, so that anyone can check them and make sure of their correctness.

On the basis of empirical research, empirical generalizations can be made, which matter themselves. In the sciences that are called empirical, or descriptive, as, say, geology, empirical generalizations are completed; In experimental, theoretical sciences is only the beginning. To move on, you need to come up with a satisfactory hypothesis explaining the phenomenon. Empirical facts themselves are not enough for this. All preceding knowledge is necessary.

At the theoretical level, in addition to empirical facts, the concepts that are re-created or taken from other (mostly closest) sections of science are required. These concepts must be defined and presented in a brief form in the form of words (called in the science of terms) or signs (including mathematical), which have each strictly fixed value.

With the nomination of any hypothesis, not only its compliance with empirical data is taken into account, but also some methodological principles that called the criteria for simplicity, beauty, to save thinking, etc.

After nominating a certain hypothesis (scientific assumption that explains the causes of this set of phenomena), the study is again returned to the empirical level for its inspection. When checking the scientific hypothesis, new experiments should be conducted, which specifies the nature of new issues based on the formulated hypothesis. The goal is to check the consequences of this hypothesis, which nothing was known before it is nominated.

If the hypothesis is withstanding empirical check, it acquires the status of the law (or, in a weaker form, patterns) of nature. If not, it is considered disproved, and the search for another, more acceptable, continues. The scientific assumption remains thus the hypothesis until it is not yet clear, it is confirmed empirically or not. The hypothesis stage cannot be in science final, since all scientific provisions in principle are empirically refuted, and the hypothesis sooner or later or becomes law or rejected.

Check experiments are set in such a way as not so much to confirm how much to refute this hypothesis. The experiment, which is aimed at refuting this hypothesis, is called a decisive experiment. It is he who is most important for the adoption or deviation of the hypothesis, since it is enough to recognize the hypothesis of false.

Natural laws describe unchanged regularities that either have or not. Their properties are the frequency and universality of any class of phenomena, i.e. The need for their occurrence under certain precisely formulated conditions.

So, natural science is studying the world with the goal of creating the laws of its functioning, as the products of human activity, reflecting periodically repeated facts of reality.

The combination of several laws relating to one area of \u200b\u200bknowledge is called the theory. In case the theory as a whole does not receive convincing empirical confirmation, it can be supplemented with new hypotheses, which, however, should not be too much, as it undermines confidence in theory.

The theory confirmed in practice is considered true until the moment when a new theory is proposed, which is better explaining the well-known empirical facts, as well as new empirical facts that have become known after the adoption of this theory and turned out to be contradictory.

So, science is built from observations, experiments, hypotheses, theories and arguments. Science in a meaningful plan is a combination of empirical generalizations and theories confirmed by observation and experiment. Moreover, the creative process of creating theories and arguments in their support plays a non-smaller role in science than observation and experiment.

Schematically, the structure of scientific knowledge can be represented as follows:

Empirical fact → scientific fact → Observation → Real experiment → Model experiment → Mysterious experiment → Fixation of the results of the empirical level of research → Empirical generalization → Using the existing theoretical knowledge → Image → Formulation of the hypothesis → Checking it on experience → Formulation of new concepts → The introduction of terms and signs → Definition of their value → Delegation Law → The creation of the theory → Checking it on experience → Adoption in case of the need for additional hypotheses.

What interests natural science? Problems that arise in this very extensive area of \u200b\u200bknowledge are the most diverse - from the device and origin of the universe to the knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of the existence of a unique earthly phenomenon.

And what are the scientists working in the field of natural science? In the distant times Aristotle (384-322 BC) called them with physicists or physiologists, because the ancient Greek word of physicians, very close to the Russian word nature, originally meant the origin, creating.

Currently, the spectrum of scientific research in natural science is unusually wide. In the system of natural sciences, in addition to the Basic Sciences: Physicists, Chemistry and Biology also includes many other geography, geology, astronomy, and even the sciences standing on the border between natural and humanitarian sciences - for example, psychology. The purpose of psychologists is to study human and animal behavior. On the one hand, psychology relies on scientific achievements of biologists working in the field of physiology of higher nervous activity and observe the activity of the brain. On the other hand, this science is also engaged in social, i.e. public phenomena, attracting knowledge from the field of sociology. Social psychology, for example, explores the relationship between groups of people in society. Psychology, accumulating the knowledge of all natural sciences, as it were, a bridge, peroxide from the highest step of natural knowledge to the sciences, the purpose of the knowledge of which is a person and society.

Studying humanitarian sciences, students must represent their relationship with the sciences learning nature. Economists can not do without knowledge of geography and mathematics, philosophers - without the basics of natural philosophy; Sociologists interact with psychologists, and the restorers of old paintings are resorting to help modern chemistry And so on. There are countless examples of such examples.

There are two widespread definitions of the concept of natural science.

one). Natural science is the science of nature as a single integrity. 2). Natural science is a combination of sciences about nature considered as a whole.

The difference of natural science as science from special natural sciences is that it explores the same natural phenomena immediately from the standpoint of several sciences, "looking for" the most common patterns and trends, considers nature as if from top. Natural science, recognizing the specifics of the sciences in it, at the same time has its main goal of the study of nature as a whole.

Why should I study natural science? In order to clearly imagine the true unity of nature, then the unified foundation on which all the diversity of the objects and phenomena of nature is built and from which the basic laws connecting micro- and macromirov are flowing: land and space, physical and chemical phenomena, life, reasonable . Studying individual natural sciences, it is impossible to know the nature as a whole. Therefore, the study of items separately - physics, chemistry and biology - is only the first step to the knowledge of nature in all its integrity, i.e. knowledge of its laws with a common natural science position. From here there are objectives of natural science, which are a double task.

Native objectives:

1. Detection of hidden connections creating organic unity of all physical, chemical and biological phenomena.

2. The deeper and accurate knowledge of these phenomena themselves.

The unity of object objects leads to the fact that new, so-called interdisciplinary sciences, which are at the junction of several traditional natural sciences appear. Among them are biophysics, physical chemistry, physico-chemical biology, psychophysics, etc.

The trends of such unity or integration of natural scientific knowledge began to appear for a long time. Back in 1747-1752, M. V. Lomonosov (1711-1765) substantiated the need to attract physics to explain the chemical phenomena. He came up with a name for new science, calling her physical chemistry.

In addition to physics, chemistry and biology, the natural sciences include other, for example, geology and geography, which are complex. Geology studies the composition and structure of our planet in their evolution over billions of years. Its main sections - mineralogy, petrography, volcanology, tectonics, etc. - These are derived from crystallography, crystallophysics, geophysics, geochemistry and biogeochemistry. Also, the geography is "impregnated" by physical, chemical and biological knowledge, which in different degrees are manifested in such basic sections, as: physical geography, soil geography, etc. Thus, all nature studies today can be represented as a huge network connecting numerous branches of physical, chemical and biological sciences.

2.2 Trends in the development of modern natural science

The integration of science, the emergence of new adjacent disciplines in natural science - all this marks the current stage of development of science. In total (from the point of view of the history of science), humanity in his knowledge of nature passed three stages and enters into the fourth.

On the first of them, general ideas about the world around the world as a whole, one, were formed. There was a so-called natural philosophy, which was a container ideas and guesses. So it lasted until the XV century.

Since the XV-XVI centuries, analytical stage began, i.e. Dismemberment and allocation of particulars that led to the emergence and development of physics, chemistry and biology, as well as a number of other, more private sciences.

Finally, attempted to substantiate the fundamental integrity of all natural science and answer the question: why precisely physics, chemistry, biology and psychology became major and as if independent sections of nature science?

The differentiation of science also occurs, i.e. The creation of narrow regions of any science, however, the general trend goes precisely to the integration of science. Therefore, the last stage (fourth) beginner is carried out, called the integral-differential.

Currently, there is not a single area of \u200b\u200bnaturally scientific research that would relate solely to physics, chemistry or biology in its pure form. All these sciences are "permeated" by common laws of nature for them.

1.3. Mathematics - Universal Language of Accurate Natural Science

An outstanding Italian physicist and astronomer, one of the creators of the exact natural science of Galileo Galilee (1564-1642) said: "The one who wants to solve the issues of natural sciences without the help of mathematics, puts an unsolvable task. It should be measured what is measurable and do the measurable what Such is not. "

Mathematics necessary for accurate natural science begins with the simplest account and with all sorts of simple measurements. As its development, the exact natural science uses an increasingly perfect mathematical arsenal of the so-called higher mathematics.

Mathematics, as a logical conclusion and means of knowledge of nature, - the creation of the ancient Greeks, which they began to seriously engage in the sixth centuries to our era. Starting with the VI century. BC. The Greeks had an understanding that nature was arranged rationally, and all phenomena proceed to the exact plan - "mathematical".

German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) argued in his "metaphysical principles of natural science" that: "In any particular doctrine of nature, you can find sciences in your own sense (ie, clean, fundamental) only as much as mathematics in it ". Here you should also bring the statement of Karl Marx (1818-1883) that: "Science only then reaches perfection when she managed to use mathematics."

When working on the overall theory of relativity, and in the future, A. Einstein (1879-1955) was continuously improved in the study and application of mathematics, with the most newest and complex sections.

Of all the statements of great people, it follows that mathematics is "cement", which binds together the sciences included in natural science and allows you to look at it as a holistic science.

3 stages of development of natural science

3.1 Attempt to scientific systematization of painting in the world. Natural scientific revolution Aristotle

Issimate natural science is easier, exploring its development in time. The fact is that the system of modern natural science, along with new nature sciences, includes such historical areas of knowledge as an ancient Greek natural philosophy, natural science of the Middle Ages, the science of new time and classical natural science until the beginning of the 20th century. This is a truly bottomless treasury of all the knowledge acquired by mankind for many years of its existence on our planet.

An attempt to understand and explain the world without attracting the mysterious forces was first undertaken by the ancient Greeks. In VII-VI V.V. BC. In ancient Greece, the first scientific institutions appeared: Plato Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum, Alexandria Museum. It was in Greece for the first time the idea of \u200b\u200ba single material basis of peace and its development was nominated. The very brilliant idea was the idea of \u200b\u200bthe atomistic structure of the matter for the first time expressed by Levkipp (500-400 BC) and his student-developed democritus (460-370 BC).

The essence of the teachings of the democritus comes down to the following:

1. There is nothing but atoms and pure space (i.e. emptiness, non-existence).

2. Atoms are infinite in terms of numbers and infinitely diverse in shape.

3. From "nothing" does not happen.

4. Nothing is incurred by chance, but only on any reason and due to the need.

5. The difference between things is derived from the difference in their atoms among, the amount, form and order.

Developing the teachings of democritus, epicuris (341-270 BC) tried to explain on the basis of atomic representations all natural, mental and social phenomena. If you summarize all the views of the democritus and epicuris, then, having a good imagination, it can be seen in their works of the attitude of atomic and molecular-kinetic theory. The teaching of the ancient Greek atomists has reached us through the famous poem "On the nature of things" Lucretia (99-56 BC).

As knowledge of the world is accumulated about the world, the task of their systematization was becoming increasingly relevant. This task was performed by one of the greatest thinkers of antiquity, a student of Plato - Aristotle (384-322 BC). Aristotle was a mentor Alexander Macedonsky, up to his death. Aristotle was written a lot of work. In one of them, "physics", he considers questions about matter and movement, space and time, about finite and infinite, about existing reasons.

In his other work, "On Heaven" he led two weighty arguments in favor of the fact that the Earth is not a flat plate (as they thought), but a round ball.

First, Aristotle guessed that the lunar eclipses occur when the Earth turns out between the Moon and the Sun. The Earth always discards a round shadow to the moon, and this can only be if the earth has a shape of a ball.

Secondly, from the experience of his travels, the Greeks knew that, in the southern regions, the polar star in the sky is located below than in the northern. The polar star on the North Pole is right above the observer head. The person at the equator seems to be located on the horizon line. Knowing the difference in the apparent location of the polar star in Egypt and Greece, Aristotle managed to calculate the length of the equator! True, this length was somewhat more (about two times), but still at that time it was a major scientific discovery.

Aristotle believed that the earth was stationary, and the sun, the moon, the planets and stars turn around her in circular orbits.

Interestingly, the first global scientific discoveries were made by scientists not in the Earth region, but in the field of universal, cosmic. It was from these astronomical knowledge that a new picture of the structure of the Universe was born, destroying all the old habitual ideas about the world around people. This knowledge also changed the world's worldview itself and the people who lived at the time that the power of their impact on the minds can be compared unless with the revolution - a sharp change of views on the device of the world. Such "coups" in the basics of knowledge in the scientific world is called - naturally scientific revolutions.

Each global natural science revolution begins precisely from astronomy (the greatest example is the creation of the theory of relativity). Solving purely astronomical problems, scientists begin to clearly understand that modern science does not have enough grounds for its explanation. Then the radical revision of all available cosmological ideas about the world and the universe as a whole begins. The natural science revolution is completed (if it comes to this) the construction of a new physical foundation for new, radically revised cosmological ideas about all the universe.

For scientific knowledge, the method is of great importance, i.e. The method of organizing the study of the object. The method is a set of principles, rules and techniques of practical and theoretical activities. The method is arming a person with the system of principles, requirements, rules, guided by which a person can achieve the target target.

The correct method is of great importance for the knowledge of nature. The doctrine of the method (methodology) begins to develop in the science of the new time. The famous English philosopher Francis Bacon compared the method with a lantern, which illuminates the travelers. A scientist who is not armed with the right method is a traveler, wagging in the dark and feel the search for himself. Rene Decarten, the Great French philosopher of the XVII century, also attached great importance to the development of the scientific method: "Under the method I understand the exact and simple rules, strictly observing that without any expense of mental strength, but gradually and continuously increasing knowledge contributes to the fact that the mind reaches true Knowledge of everything is available to him. " It was during this period that the rapid development of natural science is two opposite methodological concepts: empiricism and rationalism.

Empirism is a direction in the methodology that recognizes the experience as a source of reliable knowledge, which reduces the content of knowledge to the description of this experience.

Rationalism - direction in the methodology, according to which reliable knowledge gives only a mind, logical thinking.

The methods of scientific knowledge can be classified according to the degree of community on universal (philosophical) and scientific, which, in turn, are divided into general scientific and private.

Private scientific methods are used within one science or science research, for example: the method of spectral analysis, the method of color reactions in chemistry, methods of electromagnetism in physics, etc.

General scientific methods have a wide interdisciplinary spectrum of application and can be used in any science, for example: modeling, experiment, logical methods, etc.

One of the most important features of scientific knowledge is the presence of two levels: empirical and theoretical, which differ in the methods used. At an empirical (experienced) stage, mainly methods associated with sensually visual techniques of knowledge, which include observation, measurement, experiment.

Observation is an initial source of information and is associated with a description of the object of knowledge. Focusing, compositeness, activity - characteristic requirements for scientific observation. According to the method of surveillance, there are direct and mediated. With direct observations, the object properties are perceived by human senses. Such observations have always played a big role in the study of science. So, for example, observing the position of the planets and stars in the sky, which carried out more than twenty years in quietly, with an accuracy unusual for the naked eye, contributed to the opening of his famous laws by Kepler. However, most often scientific observation is mediated, i.e. It is carried out using technical means. The invention of Galileem In 1608, the optical telescope has expanded the possibilities of astronomical observations, and the creation of X-ray telescopes in the twentieth century and the conclusion of them into space on board the orbital station made it possible to monitor such space objects as quasars, pulsars that could not be observed in any other way.

The development of modern natural science is associated with increasing the role of so-called indirect observations. For example, objects studied by nuclear physics cannot be observed directly, with the help of human senses organs, neither indirectly, with the help of the most advanced devices. The fact that scientists are observed in the process of empirical studies in atomic physics are not the micro-objects themselves, but only the results of their impact on certain technical means. For example, the registration of interactions of elementary particles is fixed only indirectly with the help of meters (gas and semiconductor, etc.) or track devices (Vilson chamber, bubble chamber, etc.) decrypt "pictures" of interactions, researchers receive information about particles and their properties.

The experiment is a more complex method of empirical knowledge, it implies an active, purposeful and strictly controlled impact of the researcher to the studied object to identify its specific parties and properties. The advantages of the experiment: first, allows you to study the object in "pure form", i.e. Eliminate any side factors that make it difficult to study. Secondly, it allows to study the object in some artificial, for example, extreme, conditions, when it is possible to detect the amazing properties of objects, thereby further comprehend their essence. Very interesting and promising in this regard are space experiments, allowing to study objects in such special conditionslike weightlessness, deep vacuum, which are unattainable in earthly laboratories. Thirdly, studying any process, the experimenter may interfere with it, actively influence its flow. Fourth, multipleness, repeatability of the experiment, which can be repeated as many times as needed to obtain reliable results.

Depending on the nature of the tasks, the experiments are divided into research and verification. Research experiments allow you to discover, detect new, previously unknown properties from the object. So, for example, experiments in the laboratory E. Rutinford showed the strange behavior of alpha particles in the bombardment of them with gold foil: most of the particles passed through foil, a small number of particles deviated and dissipated, and some particles were not simply deviated, but bounced back like a ball from the mesh . Such a picture, according to the calculated calculations, was obtained due to the fact that the entire mass of the atom focuses in the kernel, which occupies an insignificant part of the volume of the atom, and bounced back alpha particles, constructed with the core. So the Research Experiment of Rutherford led to the detection of the nucleus of the atom, and thereby to the birth of nuclear physics.

Check experiments serve as confirmation of some theoretical constructions. For example, the existence of a number of elementary particles (positron, neutrino, etc.) was first predicted theoretically.

Measurement is a process consisting in determining the quantitative values \u200b\u200bof the properties or sides of the object being studied using special technical devices. The measurement result is obtained as a number of units of measurement. Unit of measurement is a benchmark with which the measured object is compared. Units of measurement are divided into basic used as basic when constructing a system of units, and derivatives derived from basic using some mathematical relations. The method of building a system of units was first proposed in 1832 by Karl Gauss. In the proposed system, three arbitrary units are based on the basis: length (millimeter), mass (milligrams), time (second). All other units could be obtained from these three. In the future, other systems of units of physical quantities, built according to the Gauss principle, appeared with the development of science and technology. In addition, the so-called physics appeared in physics natural systems Units in which the main units were determined from the laws of nature. An example is the system of units proposed by Max Plak, which was based on "world permanent": the speed of light in vacuo, constant, permanent Boltzmann and a constant plank. Based on them (and equating them to "1"), the plank received a number of derivatives of units: lengths, mass, time, temperature. Currently, in natural science, there is a mainly international system of units (SI), adopted in 1960 by the General Conference on Meters and Weighs. This system is the most advanced and universal of all existing so far and covers the physical quantities of mechanics, thermodynamics, electrodynamics and optics, which are interconnected by physical laws.

The theoretical stage is resorted to the abstractions and the formation of concepts, hypotheses and theories are built, they open the laws of science. The general scientific theoretical methods include comparison, abstraction, idealization, analysis, synthesis, deduction, induction, analogy, generalization, climbing from abstract to a specific one. Their main feature is that these are logical techniques, i.e. Operations with thoughts, knowledge.

Comparison is a mental operation to identify similarities and differences in the subjects studied. A special comparison case is an analogy: the conclusion about the presence of a sign of a test object is made on the basis of the detection of a number of similar signs with a different object.

Abstraction is the mental allocation of signs of the subject and consideration of them separately from the item itself and its other signs. Idealization - mental constructing of the situation (object, phenomena), which are attributed to properties or relationships in the "limit" case. The result of such design is idealized objects, such as: point, material point, absolutely black body, absolutely solid, perfect gas, incompressible fluid, etc. Thanks to idealization, the processes are considered in "pure form", which allows you to identify the laws for which these processes allows proceed. For example: let's say that someone goes along the path with a luggage trolley and suddenly ceases to push it. The trolley will move for a while, passing a small distance, and then stop. You can come up with many ways to eliminate the path passing by a cart after pushing. However, eliminate all external effects on the path length is impossible. But, considering the movement of the body in the "limit" case, we can conclude that if you completely eliminate the external influence on the moving body, it will move infinitely and at the same time evenly and straight. Such a conclusion was made by Galileem and received the name "Inertia principle", and Newton was most clearly formulated as the law of inertia.

With idealization, such a specific method is associated as a mental experiment, which involves the operating of an idealized object that replaces the real object in the abstraction.

Analysis - a study method consisting in the division of the whole part in order to independently study them.

Synthesis - a connection of previously isolated parts into an integer in order to identify their relationship and interaction. The connection of the analysis and synthesis follows from the very nature of objects representing the unity of the whole and its parts. Analysis and synthesis cause each other.

Induction is a logical method based on the motion of thought from a single or private to a common one. In inductive conclusion, the truth of the parcels (facts) does not guarantee the truth of the detention, it will only be probabilistic. The scientific induction method is based on the clarification of the causal (causal) connection of the studied phenomena. The causality is such an internal relationship between two phenomena, when one of them creates something else. This ratio contains: a phenomenon that claims to be a cause; The phenomenon to which we attribute the nature of the action (consequence), and the circumstances in which the reasons and actions are interacted.

For a causal connection, it is characteristic:

• the reason is constantly preceded by its time in time; This means that the cause of this phenomenon should be seen among the circumstances preceding him in time, given the fact of some coexistence in the time of the cause and effect.

· The reason generates an action, determines its appearance; This means that one preceding in time is not enough for causal communication, the reason is the condition preceding the occurrence of a phenomenon, but without generating it.

· Communication cause and effect needed; This means that it is possible to prove the absence of a causal connection in the case when the action comes, and the alleged reason was not observed.

· Communication of the cause and action of universal; This means that each phenomenon has cause, therefore, as a rule, the presence of a causal connection cannot be established on the basis of a single phenomenon, it is necessary to study a certain set of phenomena, within which the desired causal relationship is systematically manifested.

· With the change in the intensity of the cause, the intensity of action changes. This is observed when the reason and the consequence of a certain time coexist.

These properties are based on the opening methods of causing connections developed by F. Bacon (1561-626), and then improved by the English philosopher, logic, economist John Stewart Millem (1806-1873). These methods received the name of scientific induction methods. There are five of them five:

1. Method of the only similarity: if some circumstance is constantly preceded by the onset of the investigated phenomenon while other circumstances change, then this condition is likely to be the cause of this phenomenon.

2. Method of the only difference: if some condition occurs when the phenomenon occurs, and there is no, when this phenomenon is not, and all other conditions remain unchanged, then this condition is probably the cause of the phenomenon under study.

3. The connected method of similarity and differences: if two and greater number of cases occur when this phenomenon occurs, only in one condition occurs, while two or more cases, when this phenomenon is missing, differ from the first only by the fact that there is no this condition This condition is probably the cause of the observed phenomenon.

4. The method of concomitant changes: if a certain phenomenon varies to the same extent change, and the remaining circumstances remain unchanged, then it is likely that this condition is the cause of the observed phenomenon.

5. Residue method: If complex conditions produce a complex effect and it is known that part of the conditions causes a certain part of this action, then the remaining part of the conditions causes the remaining part of the action.

Deduction is the movement of thought from the general provisions to a private or unit. Deduction is a general scientific method, but the deductive method is especially important in mathematics. In the science of the new time, I developed and promoted the deductive axiomatic method of knowledge of the outstanding philosopher and mathematician R. Descartes. Its methodology was the direct opposite of the empirical indcisive backone.

From the overall position that all metals have electrical conductivity, it can be concluded about the electrical conductivity of a particular copper wire, knowing that copper is metal. If the initial general provisions are true, the deduction will always give true conclusion.

The most common type of deduction is a simple categorical syllogism, which establishes the relationship between two extreme terms S and P based on their relationship to the average term M., for example:

All metals (m) are conducted by electric current (P).

An important place in the theory of deductive arguments also occupies a conventional categorical conclusion.

Approving Modeus (Modus Ponens):

If a person has increased temperatures (a), it is sick (b). This person has elevated temperature (a). So he is sick (b).

As you can see, the thought here moves from the approval of the basis for the assertion of the investigation: (a -\u003e b, a) -\u003e b.

Decutive modus (modus tollens):

If a person has increased temperatures (a), it is sick (b). This person is not sick (non-b). It means that he has no high temperature (non-a).

As can be seen, here the thought is moving from the denial of the investigation to the denial of the base: (A -\u003e B, non-b) -\u003e non-a.

Deductive logic plays a crucial role in the substantiation of scientific knowledge, proof of theoretical provisions.

Analogy and modeling. Both of these methods are based on identifying similarities in subjects or relationships between objects. A model - a man-created device, which, in a certain respect, reproduces actually existing items that are an object of scientific research. Modeling is based on abstraction of similar signs from different items and establishing a certain relationship between them. With the help of modeling, you can learn the properties and relationships of the studied phenomena that may not be available to direct learning.

In the well-known planetary model of the atom, its structure is likened to the structure of the solar system. Around the massive nucleus at different distance from it moves along closed trajectories light electrons, just as the planets turn around the sun. In this analogy, it is established, as usual, the similarity, but not the items themselves, but the relationship between them. The atomic core does not look like the sun, and the electrons are on the planets. But the attitude between the core and electrons is largely similar to the attitude between the sun and the planets.

Analogy between alive organisms and technical devices is based on bionics. This direction of cybernetics is studied by the structure and life of organisms; Open patterns and detected properties are then used to solve engineering problems and constructing technical systems approaching their characteristics to live systems.

Thus, the analogy not only allows you to explain many phenomena and make unexpected and important discoveries, it even leads to the creation of new scientific directions or a root transformation of old.

Types of modeling.

Mental (perfect) modeling - building various mental ideas in the form of imaginary models. For example, in an ideal model of an electromagnetic field created by Maxwell, power lines Presented in the form of tubes of various sections, according to which an imaginary liquid flowing fluid that does not have inertia and compressibility.

Physical modeling - reproduction in the model of processes inherent in the original, based on their physical similarity. It is widely used to develop and experimental study of various structures (power plant dams, etc.), machines (aerodynamic qualities of aircraft, for example, are investigated on their models refurbished by air flow in the aerodynamic pipe), to study the efficient and safe ways of maintenance of mining work. etc.

Symbolic (iconic) modeling is associated with the presentation as models of various schemes, graphs, drawings, formulas. A special kind of symbolic modeling is mathematical modeling. The symbolic language of mathematics allows you to express properties, the parties, the relationship of objects of various nature. The relationship between different values \u200b\u200bdescribing the functioning of the object being studied is expressed by the corresponding equations.

Numerical modeling on the computer is based on the mathematical model of the object being studied and is used in cases of large amounts of calculations required for studying this model, which is created by a special program. In this case, the algorithm (computer program) of the object being studied is performed as a model.

Method There is a combination of rules, techniques for cognitive and practical activities caused by the nature and patterns of the object under study.

Modern system of methods of knowledge is characterized by high complexity and differentiation. The most simple classification of cognition methods involves their division into universal, general scientific, specific scientific.

Universal Methods Characterize techniques and methods of research at all levels of scientific knowledge.

These include methods of analysis, synthesis, in-bodies, deduction, comparisons, idealization, etc. These methods are so universal that they work even at the level of everyday consciousness.

Analysis It is a procedure for mental (or real) dismemberment, decomposition of an object into component elements in order to identify their SIS-Dark properties and relations.

Synthesis - Operation of the connection allocated in the analysis of the elements of the object being studied into a one.

Induction - The reasoning method or method of obtaining knowledge in which the general conclusion is made on the basis of generalization of private parcels.

Induction can be complete and incomplete. Paul-nai induction is possible when the parcels cover all the evidence of a particular class. However, such cases are rare. The inability to take into account all the phenomena of this class is forced to use incomplete induction, the final conclusions of which are not strictly unambiguous.

Deduction - Method of reasoning or method of moving knowledge from total to particular, i.e.

the process of logical transition from common parcels to conclusions on special cases.

The natural science method of knowledge and its compound ..

The deductive method can give strict, worthless knowledge, subject to the truth of the general parcels and the observance of the rules of logical output.

Analogy - Reception of knowledge, in which the availability of signs of identical objects, suggests their similarity and in other signs. Thus, discovered when studying the light of the interference phenomenon and diffraction allowed to conclude about its wave nature, since earlier the same properties were recorded at the sound, the wave character of which was already accurately installed.

Analogy is an indispensable means of visibility, image thinking. But still Aristotle warned that "the analogy is not proof"! It can only give alleged knowledge.

Abstraction - Reception of thinking, consisting of an inclusion from insignificant, insignificant to the subject of knowledge of the properties and relations of the object under study with the simultaneous deposition of those properties that are important and existent in the context of the study.

Idealization - The process of mental creating concepts about idealized objects, which in the real world do not exist, but have a prototype.

Examples: perfect gas, absolutely black body.

2. General scientific methods - modeling, observation, experiment.

The initial method of scientific knowledge is considered observation. The deliberate and purposeful study of objects, opi-wound on human sensual abilities - sensations and perceptions. During the observation, it is possible to obtain information only about external, surfaces, qualities and signs of objects under study.

The result of scientific observations is always a description of the student object, fixed in the form of texts, drawings, schemes, graphs, charts, etc.

With the development of science, observation becomes more and mediated by using various technical devices, instruments, measuring instruments.

Another major method of natural science sign is experiment.

Experiment is a way of active, targeted research of objects in continuous and managed conditions. The experiment includes pro-procedures of observation and measurement, but does not boil down to them. After all, the experimenter has the ability to select the necessary conditions for observation, combine and vary them, seeking "purity" of the manifestation of studied properties, as well as to interfere in the "natural" course of the processes under study and even artistic to reproduce them.

The main task of the experiment, as a rule, is the prediction of the theory.

Such experiments are called research. Another type of experiment - check - Designed for confirmation of certain theoretical assumptions.

Modeling- The method of replacing the object being studied by a similar to him for a number of interesting properties of properties and ha-cancer.

The data obtained in the study of the model is then transferred to a real object with some amendments. The mode-lying is used mainly when directly studying the object is either impossible (it is obvious that the "nuclear zi-we" phenomenon as a result of the massive use of nuclear weapons except on the model is better not to experience), or is associated with non-documenial efforts and costs.

The consequences of large interventions into natural processes (River rotation, for example) it is advisable to first study on hydrodynamic models, and then experiment with real natural objects.

Modeling - the method is actually universal.

It can be used in systems of various levels. Typically distinguish such modeling types as the subject, mathematical, logical, physical, chemical, and so on. The widest distribution in modern conditions is obtained by computer simulation.

3. K. great and Scientific Methods represent systems of the formulated principles of specific scientific theories.

N: psychoanalytic method in psychology, the method of morphophysiological indicators in biology, etc.

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Forms and methods of natural science knowledge. - section Philosophy, questions for the exam or credit on philosophy Historically, the path of natural scientific knowledge of the surrounding world began with ...

Historically, the path of naturally scientific knowledge of the surrounding world began with living contemplation - sensual perception of facts based on practice.

^ Sensual forms of knowledge.The knowledge of reality is carried out in different forms, of which the first and simplest feeling is.

Feelings are the simplest sensual images, reflections, copies, or a kind of snapshots of individual properties of objects. For example, in orange we feel the yellowish color, a certain hardness, a specific smell, etc.

p. The holistic image reflecting the objects directly affecting the senses, their properties and relationships, is called perception. Presentations are images of those objects that once affect the human senses organs, and then restored by the preserved trails in the brain and in the absence of these objects.

Feelings and perceptions - the beginning of the emergence of conscious reflection.

^ Scientific fact.The necessary condition of natural scientific research is to establish facts. Empirical knowledge supplies the facts science, fixing sustainable ties, the patterns of the world around us.

Concepting one or another fact, we fix the existence of a certain object. At the same time, the truth is usually still unknown that it represents essentially.

A simple fact statement keeps our knowledge at the level of being.

Observation and experiment.The most important methods of naturally scientific research are observation and experiment. Observation is a deliberate, planned perception carried out in order to identify the essential properties of the object of knowledge. Experiment - method, or reception, research, with which an object or is reproduced artificially, or is placed in predetermined conditions.

The method of changing the conditions in which the object under study is the main method of the experiment.

Thinking.Thinking is the highest stage of knowledge. Thinking is a targeted, indirect and generalized reflection in the human brain of essential properties, causal relationships and natural links of things. The main forms of thinking are concepts, judgments and conclusion. The concept is a thought that reflects the general and essential properties of objects and phenomena.

All the themes of this section:

The subject of philosophy, its main functions.
The subject of philosophy and its functions in society.

Philosophy - the general theory of peace and man in it. Philosophy originated about 2500 years ago in the countries of the East: India, Greece, Rome. Most developed

The place of philosophy in the culture system.
A characteristic feature of cultural phenomena is their "involvement" to a person. Culture generally means the measure of human in natural and social objects and phenomena, that is, how much, in what steppe

Antique philosophy, its specific features.
The philosophy of ancient Rome is combined with ancient Greek under the general name "Antique philosophy".

Antique philosophy in its development passed four main stages (this is one of the most races

Socrates philosophy.
Socrates (, approx. 469 BC er, Athens - 399 BC. E., Ibid) - Ancient Greek philosopher, the teaching of which marks the turn in philosophy - from the consideration of nature and the world to consider people

The main ideas of Plato's philosophy, his teaching about the ideal state.
The main part of Plato's philosophy, which gave the name to a whole direction of philosophy is the doctrine of ideas (Eidosa), the existence of two worlds: the world of ideas (Eidos) and the world of things, or forms.

Idea - Center

Philosophy of Aristotle.
Pupil Plato Aristotle made a criticism of his teacher. Plato's mistake, from his point of view, was that he touched the "world of ideas" from real Mira. The essence of the subject in the very subject, and

Theocentrism of the philosophy of the Middle Ages. Teaching A. Augustine. Philosophy F. Akvinsky.
Medieval philosophy was inextricably linked with Christianity, so the general philosophical and Christian ideas are intertwined in it.

The main idea of \u200b\u200bmedieval philosophy is theocentrism.

The formation of the scientific method of knowledge in Philosophy F.Bekon and R. Dekard (Emporism and Rationalism).
English philosopher F.

Bacon (1561-1626) was a hexicator of English empiricism - exercise on experience. Under empirism refers to the direction in the theory of knowledge, recognizing the sensual experience of the source

B.Pinose about nature and man.
The basis of the teachings of Spinozes about nature is the doctrine of the substance, which he identifies with God, that is, with nature. Under the substance of the spinosa understands that. ".. What exists in itself and

T.GBBS about the problems of human and society relationship.
If spiritual substances existed, they would be unknown.

He does not allow the existence of disembodied spirits, but adheres to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe existence of God. He looked at God as a source

The theory of knowledge of I.Kanta.
Kant believed that the solution of such problems of philosophy, as the problems of human being, soul, morality and religion, should precede the study of the possibilities of human knowledge and the establishment of his Grand Prix

Ethics I.Kanta.
For ethics of Kant, the doctrine of independence or "autonomy" of morality is characteristic.

Cant's predecessors and modern idealist philosophers believed that the basis of ethics in religion: the moral law is given and

The main ideas of Gegel philosophy. Contradictions between the system and method.
The doctrine of the identity of the subject and the object is also at the heart of the philosophical system of Gegel. The first step towards overcoming the opposite of the subject and the object, according to Hegel, is the movement

Philosophy of History Gegel.
The basis of the philosophical views of Hegel can be represented as follows.

The whole world is the grand historical process of deploying and implementing the possibilities of a certain world mind, the Spirit. Mi.

Man, society and nature in the philosophy of French enjoyment.
French philosophy XVIII century.

it is customary to call the philosophy of enlightenment. This name is French philosophy XVIII century. received due to the fact that her representatives destroyed established presentation

Marxist understanding understanding of society of society and history.
Marxist philosophy is a cumulative concept denoting the philosophical views of Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), as well as the views of their followers.

Top

Marxist philosophy in Russia (Plekhanov, V.Lenin).
G. V. Plekhanov justified and popularized the doctrine of Marxism, developed and concretized its individual questions, especially in the field of social philosophy: on the role of the masses and personality in Easter

Russian material investment philosophy in the 19th century.
The ideas of materialism and socialism searches for Russian philosophical thought paths historical Development Russia in the XIX century.

passed in the atmosphere of confrontation of two trends. Representatives of the first accene

Russian religious philosophy 19-20VV.
Russian religious philosophy occupied special place Almost in the entire history of the national public thought, starting from the era of Kievan Rus.

The flourishing of this philosophy came to the end of 19

Russian Cosmism as philosophy.
Russian Cosmism is a special worldview that has been developed in the XIX - XX centuries ..

His signs are considered: 1) consideration of peace, space as a whole, a person - in an inseparable connection with space

The problem of being in the history of philosophy.
Being is a philosophical concept that the aspect of the existence of existence is unlike its essence. What really exists. This concept records the most common in things - their simple presence. If with

The essence of consciousness. Consciousness and unconscious.
Consciousness is the highest form of reflection of a valid world, peculiar only to people and is associated with the speech of the brain function, which consists in a generalized and targeted reflection of reality, in

Movement and its essence.

Movement and development.
Movement - phenomenon reflecting a change; The attribute of matter associated with any change in the moments of objective reality; Philosophical category reflecting any changes in the world.

In european trad

Philosophical concept of space and time.
The space is the form of the existence of material objects and processes (characterizes the structurality and length of material systems); time - form of consistent change of states of objects and pro

Unity and manifold of the world.
The unity of the world lies in his materiality, in the fact that all objects and phenomena in the world are different states and properties of moving matter.

There is nothing in the world that there would be no conk

Dialectics as a development theory and as a method of knowledge. Forms of dialectics.
The concept of dialectics. The constantly developing struggle of the old and new, opposite and contradictory, arising and disappearing leads the world to new structures. This struggle itself objectively

They do not have a specific functional form

The concept of painting in the world. Scientific and religious paintings of the world.
The philosophical picture of the world comprehends the universe in terms of the relationship between the person and the world in all the angles of ontological, cognitive, value and activity.

The system-forming principle of Phil

Cognition as the interaction of the subject and the object.
The subject is a creature with consciousness and will, the ability to appropriate activities aimed at one or another subject; A person who knows and changing the world around.

Subject

Object knowledge. Real and idealized objects.
Real objects are presented in empirical knowledge in the image of ideal objects with a fixed and limited set of features. Idealized objects, in contrast to empirical, on

Sensual knowledge and its specificity.

Natural scientific way knowledge

Shaped and iconic knowledge.
Sensual knowledge is the simplest and most important form of knowledge. Sensual knowledge begins with sensations arising from certain influences of reality to the senses. In count

Rational in knowledge and its form. Role rational knowledge In mastering a person reality.
Rational knowledge is a cognitive process that is carried out through the forms of mental activity.

Forms of rational knowledge have several common characteristics: first,

The problem of truth in knowledge. The main concept of truth. The concept of objective, absolute and relative truth. Criterion of truth.
Truth is the correct reflection of reality in thought. In the process of knowledge, the person subjectively reflects the objective world. Participating in the knowledge of the reflection form give a subjective image of an objective

Intuition and its role in knowledge.
Intuition - the ability to feel the already available logical chains of related information relating to the right question, and thus, instantly find an answer to any question.

In the history of philosopher

Consciousness and language. The problem of origin. Language as a sign system. The main features of the language.
Consciousness is one of the forms of manifestation of our soul, while very significant, full of deep detention. Consciousness is the highest peculiar to people and related to the speech of the brain function,

Society as society.

Concept, main features.
Society is a certain whole, consisting of people associated with various degree of community, which allows them to be called compatible, and this is possible only high level Develop

Activities as a specific way of human existence.
Social qualities of personality are manifested in its actions, actions, in its attitude to other people.

According to these acts, actions, as well as through questionnaires, tests and introspection (self-tapping

Social relations and their importance in society.
Social relations are a system of normalized interactions between partners about something connecting them (subject, interest, etc.).

Unlike social interaction, social from

Alienation of the individual. Freedom and personality responsibility.
The alienation is the process of separating from the process of the process and the results of their activities (the activity is understood as widely as any social activity) that are becoming non-licking person and

One of the principles of ethics of scientific research is.

1. Selfness of truth

2. Lack of criticism of ideas already accepted by the scientific community

3. Preference in eminent scientists in research evidence

complete coincidence of the interests of science and society

The principle of falsification in scientific knowledge means that scientific can only be

1. fundamentally refuted knowledge

2. Scientific knowledge can not be refuted

3. The scientist must prove its hypothesis with a large number of experiments, and not try to disprove the truth

hypotheses must be confirmed by experience

Pseudonauka, which is engaged in the search for extraterrestrial civilizations, is

1. Astronomy

2. Ufology

3. Astrology

4. Parapsychology

Pseudoscience, which is studying the dependence of the fate of a person from the situation is

deviant Science

2. Astronomy

3. Parapsychology

4. Astrology

Pseudoscience, within which fake archaeological finds occur - this is ...

1. Lelinant science

2. Geology

3. Parapsychology

4. Alchemy

1. Fragmentality, lack of system

full compliance with the observed facts

3. Systemic nature

Physics - Science of Nature. Natural scientific method of knowledge, its possibilities and borders of applicability

susceptibility to criticism

A distinctive feature of pseudoscience is:

1. Full compliance with the observed facts

full compliance with ethical norms

3. Uncritical approach to the initial data

4. systemic

Choose a true judgment:

1. Scientific knowledge from unscientific can not be distinguished by the principle of falsification

2. Only a fundamentally disproven knowledge may apply to the status of "pseudo-scientific"

3. The structure of pseudoscience is a system

On the status of "scientific" can apply only a fundamentally disprovenable knowledge

Scientific method

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself

1. Determining the quantitative values \u200b\u200bof the properties, aspects of the object being studied or phenomenon using special technical devices;

receiving thinking, which results in general properties and signs of objects;

3. The reasoning method in which the general conclusion is based on private springs;

A) generalization -2

B) induction -3

C) measurement -1

Install the correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself

1. Construction of abstract-mathematical models that reveal the essence of the reality processes studied;

operation of the allocated part of the subject of study in a single integer;

3. Studying the object by creating and studying its copies replacing the object of study from certain parties;

A) formalization, -1

B) modeling -3

C) synthesis -2

Install the correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself:

2) distraction from a number of irrelevant properties of the studied phenomenon with the simultaneous selection of properties of interest and relationships

A) modeling-3

B) classification -1

C) abstraction -2

1) Receive thinking, as a result of which general properties and features of objects are established

2) similarity, similarities of some properties, signs or relationships in various objects in general

3) the connection of the previously isolated parts of the subject in a single integer

A) Synthesis - 3

B) analogy -2

C) generalization -1

Set the correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) reasoning method in which the general conclusion is based on private parcels

2) Reception of knowledge, in which, on the basis of the similarity of objects in some signs, they conclude their similarity and in other signs

A) modeling -3

B) analogy -2

C) induction -1

Set the correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) reasoning method in which the general conclusion is based on partial parcels

2) Sensual reflection of objects and phenomena of the outside world

3) Studying an object by creating and studying its copy, replacing the object of study from certain parties

A) observation - 2

B) simulation- 3

C) induction -1

Set the correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

2) Active, targeted study of objects in controlled and managed conditions

3) The method of replacing the object being studied like a number of interests of the properties and characteristics

A) Experiment - 2

B) observation -1

C) modeling -3

Set the correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) deliberate and purposeful study of objects based on human sensual abilities

2) Reception of knowledge, in which the availability of similarities, the coincidence of signs of non-verbal objects suggests their similarity and in other signs

A) observation -1

B) generalization -3

C) analogy -2

Set the correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) deliberate and purposeful study of objects based on human sensual abilities

3) Reception of knowledge, in which the presence of similarities, the coincidence of signs of non-liberate objects suggests their similarity and in other signs

A) analogy -3

B) observation -1

C) synthesis -2

Set the correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) Building abstract-mathematical models that reveal the essence of studied reality processes

2) Operation of the connection of the selected parts of the subject of study into a single whole

3) Studying an object by creating and studying its copy, replacing the object of study from certain parties

A) modeling -3

B) formalization -1

C) synthesis -2

Set the correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) the separation of all studied items into separate groups in accordance with any sign

2) distraction from a number of irrelevant properties of the studied phenomenon with simultaneous selection of properties of interest and relationships

3) Building abstract-mathematical models that reveal the essence of studied reality processes

A) formalization -3

B) classification -1

C) abstraction-2

Set the correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) the separation of all studied items into separate groups in accordance with any sign

2) active, focused, strictly controlled impact of the researcher on the studied object

3) Receiving thinking, as a result of which general properties and features of objects are established

A) experiment -2

B) generalization -3

C) classification -1

Experiment.

represents the study of natural processes in vivo

2. Does not involve the study of the object in artificial conditions

does not allow to exclude foreign factors that impede the research process

4. Allows you to study the object, removing from foreign factors that impede the research process

Empirical study.

1. His main task is the explanation and interpretation of facts

2. It is dealt with exclusively with idealized objects (for example, material point, perfect gas)

3. As methods of knowledge uses mainly mathematical modeling, abstraction

based on the direct practical interaction of the researcher with the object being studied

The process of scientific knowledge begins with ...

hypothesis nominations;

2. Construction of the model;

3. observations and collection facts;

4. Experimental formulations.

The process of scientific knowledge according to the hypothetical and deductive method begins with ... ..

1. Building model

2. Putting experiment

3. Observations and collection of facts

4. Advance hypothesis

TO empirical methods knowledge does not apply ...

1. Experiment 2. abstraction 3. Observation 4.

measure

The theoretical methods of knowledge does not apply ...

1. Abstraction 2. Formalization 3. observation4.Idealization

The method of knowledge, which comes down to the dismemberment of the whole subject to the components of the parts in order to comprehensively study, is called:

analysis2. Deduction 3. Formalization 4. Synthesis

The method of knowledge based on the conclusion, which leads to a general conclusion on the basis of private parcels, is called:

analysis 2. Idealization 3. Synthesis 4. induction

The method of knowledge that comes down to obtaining private conclusions on the basis of knowledge of some general provisions is called:

1. Induction 2. deduction3. Analysis 4. Idealization

The method of knowledge that is to use a special symbolism that allows you to distract from the study of real objects, from the content of the describing theoretical provisions, and allows you to operate instead with some set characters, called

1.Idealization

3. Formalization