20th century Nobel laureates in medicine. Physiology or Medicine Prize. Self-adjusting clockwork

According to the website of the Nobel Committee, having studied the behavior of fruit flies in different phases of the day, researchers from the United States were able to look inside the biological clock of living organisms and explain the mechanism of their work.

72-year-old geneticist Jeffrey Hall from the University of Maine, his 73-year-old colleague Michael Rosbash from private Brandeis University, and 69-year-old Michael Young, who works at Rockefeller University, have figured out how plants, animals and people adapt to the change of day and night. Scientists have found that circadian rhythms (from Latin circa - "about", "around" and Latin dies - "day") are regulated by the so-called period genes, which encode a protein that accumulates in the cells of living organisms at night and is consumed during the day.

2017 Nobel laureates Jeffrey Hall, Michael Rosbash and Michael Young began investigating the molecular biological nature of living organisms' internal clocks in 1984.

“The body clock regulates behavior, hormone levels, sleep, body temperature and metabolism. Our well-being is impaired if there is a mismatch between the external environment and our internal biological clock - for example, when we travel through several time zones. Nobel laureates have found signs that a chronic inconsistency between a person's lifestyle and his biological rhythm, dictated by the internal clock, increases the risk of various diseases, ”- says the website of the Nobel Committee.

Top 10 Nobel Laureates in Physiology and Medicine

There, on the website of the Nobel Committee, there is a list of the ten most popular laureates of the prize in the field of physiology and medicine for the entire time that it has been awarded, that is, since 1901. This rating of Nobel Prize winners was compiled by the number of views on the pages of the site dedicated to their discoveries.

On the tenth line- Francis Crick, British molecular biologist who won the Nobel Prize in 1962 with James Watson and Maurice Wilkins “for discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and their importance for the transmission of information in living systems,” in other words, for the study of DNA.

On the eighth line the ranking of the most popular Nobel laureates in the field of physiology and medicine is the immunologist Karl Landsteiner, who received the prize in 1930 for the discovery of blood groups in humans, which made blood transfusion a common medical practice.

In seventh place- Chinese pharmacologist Tu Yuyu. Together with William Campbell and Satoshi Omura, in 2015 she received the Nobel Prize "for discoveries in the field of new ways of treating malaria," or rather, for the discovery of artemisinin, a drug from wormwood that helps fight this infectious disease. Note that Tu Yuyu became the first Chinese woman to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

In fifth place Japan's Yoshinori Osumi, winner of the 2016 Physiology and Medicine Prize, is on the list of the most popular Nobel laureates. He discovered the mechanisms of autophagy.

On the fourth line- Robert Koch, the German microbiologist who discovered the anthrax bacillus, Vibrio cholerae and tubercle bacillus. Koch received the Nobel Prize for his research on tuberculosis in 1905.

On the third place the ranking of Nobel Prize winners in the field of physiology and medicine is the American biologist James Dewey Watson, who received the award along with Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins in 1952 for the discovery of the structure of DNA.

Well and the most popular Nobel laureate In the field of physiology and medicine, Sir Alexander Fleming, a British bacteriologist, who, along with colleagues Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Cheyne, received the award in 1945 for the discovery of penicillin, which truly changed the course of history.

Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. A group of scientists from the United States became its owners. Michael Young, Jeffrey Hall and Michael Rosbash received an award for their discovery of the molecular mechanisms that control circadian rhythm.

According to the testament of Alfred Nobel, the prize is awarded to the one "who makes an important discovery" in this area. The editorial staff of TASS-DOSSIER prepared material on the procedure for awarding this prize and its laureates.

Awarding the Prize and Nominating Candidates

The Nobel Assembly of the Karolinska Institute, located in Stockholm, is responsible for awarding the prize. The assembly consists of 50 professors of the institute. Its working body is the Nobel Committee. It consists of five people, elected by the assembly from among its members for a three-year term. The Assembly meets several times a year to discuss the candidates selected by the committee, and on the first Monday in October, by a majority vote, elects the laureate.

Scientists are eligible to nominate for the award different countries, including members of the Nobel Assembly of the Karolinska Institute and the winners of the Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine and Chemistry, who received special invitations from the Nobel Committee. You can propose candidates from September to January 31 of the next year. 361 people are nominated for the award in 2017.

Laureates

The prize has been awarded since 1901. The first laureate was the German physician, microbiologist and immunologist Emil Adolph von Bering, who developed a method of immunization against diphtheria. In 1902, Ronald Ross (Great Britain), who studied malaria, received the award; in 1905 - researcher of tuberculosis pathogens Robert Koch (Germany); in 1923, Frederick Bunting (Canada) and John McLeod (Great Britain) discovered insulin; in 1924 - the founder of electrocardiography Willem Einthoven (Holland); in 2003 - Paul Lauterbur (USA) and Peter Mansfield (UK) who developed the method of magnetic resonance imaging.

According to the Nobel Committee of the Karolinska Institute, the 1945 prize, awarded to Alexander Fleming, Ernest Cheyne and Howard Flory (Great Britain), who discovered penicillin, remains the most famous. Some discoveries have lost their significance over time. Among them is the lobotomy method used in the treatment of mental illness. For its development in 1949 the prize was received by the Portuguese Antonio Egas-Moniz.

In 2016, the prize was awarded to the Japanese biologist Yoshinori Osumi "for the discovery of the mechanism of autophagy" (the process of the cell processing unnecessary content in it).

According to the Nobel website, there are 211 people on the list of laureates, including 12 women. Among the laureates are two of our compatriots: physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1904; for work in the field of physiology of digestion) and biologist and pathologist Ilya Mechnikov (1908; for research on immunity).

Statistics

In 1901-2016, the Prize in Physiology and Medicine was awarded 107 times (in 1915-1918, 1921, 1925, 1940-1942, the Nobel Assembly of the Karolinska Institute could not choose a laureate). The prize was divided 32 times between two laureates and 36 times between three. The average age of the laureates is 58 years. The youngest is Canadian Frederick Bunting, who won the prize in 1923 at the age of 32, the oldest is 87-year-old American Francis Peyton Rose (1966).

Alvar GULSTRAND. Nobel Prize on physiology or medicine, 1911

Alvar Gulstrand was awarded a prize for his work on the diopter of the eye. Gulstrand proposed using two new instruments in the clinical study of the eye - a slit lamp and an ophthalmoscope, developed jointly with the Zeiss optical enterprise in Vienna. The instruments allow you to examine the cornea and lens to detect foreign objects, as well as the condition of the fundus.

Henrik DAM

Henrik Dam was awarded the Vitamin K Discovery Prize. Dam isolated a previously unknown food factor from the chlorophyll of green leaves and described it as a fat-soluble vitamin, naming it vitamin K after the first letter of the Scandinavian and German words "coagulation", thus highlighting its ability to increase blood clotting and prevent bleeding.

Christian De DUV

Christian De Duve was awarded a prize for discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell. De Duve discovered new organelles - lysosomes, which contain many enzymes involved in the intracellular digestion of nutrients. He continues to work on obtaining substances that increase the effectiveness and reduce the side effects of drugs used for chemotherapy of leukemia.

Henry H. DALE

Henry Dale received an award for his research on the chemical transmission of nerve impulses. Based on research, it was found effective treatment myasthenia gravis, a disease characterized by muscle weakness. Dale also discovered the pituitary hormone, oxytocin, which promotes uterine contraction and stimulates lactation.

Max DELBRUK

Max Delbrück for discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and genetic structure of viruses. Delbrück identified the possibility of the exchange of genetic information between the two different lines bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacterial cells), if the same bacterial cell is infected by several bacteriophages. This phenomenon, called genetic recombination, was the first experimental evidence of DNA recombination in viruses.

Edward DOISY. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1943

For the discovery of the chemical structure of vitamin K, Edouard Doisy was awarded a prize. Vitamin K is essential for the synthesis of prothrombin, a blood clotting factor. The introduction of the vitamin saved the lives of many people, including patients with blockages in the bile ducts, who, prior to the use of vitamin K, often died from bleeding during surgery.

Gerhard DOMAGK. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1939

Gerhard Domagk received an award for the discovery of the antibacterial effect of prontosil. Prontosil, the first of the so-called sulfa drugs, was one of the greatest therapeutic advances in the history of medicine. Within a year, more than a thousand sulfa drugs were created. Two of them, sulfapyridine and sulfathiazole, reduced pneumonia deaths to near zero.

Jean DOSSET

Jean Dusset received an award for his discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological responses. As a result of the research, a harmonious biological system was created, which is important for understanding the mechanisms of cellular "recognition", immune responses and transplant rejection.

Renato DULBECCO

Renato Dulbecco was awarded an award for research concerning the interaction between tumor viruses and the genetic material of a cell. The discovery provided scientists with a means of identifying human malignant tumors caused by tumor viruses. Dulbecco discovered that tumor cells are transformed by tumor viruses in such a way that they begin to divide indefinitely; he called this process cell transformation.

Niels K. ERNE

Niels Erne was awarded a prize in recognition of the influence that his pioneering theories had on immunological research. Erne's main contribution to immunology was the theory of "networks" - this is the most detailed and logical concept that explains the processes of mobilizing the body to fight the disease, and then, when the disease is defeated, its return to an inactive state.

Francois JACOB

François Jacob was awarded a prize for discoveries concerning the genetic control of the synthesis of enzymes and viruses. The work showed how structural information recorded in genes governs chemical processes. Jacob laid the foundation for molecular biology, the Department of Cell Genetics was created for him at the Collège de France.

Alexis CARREL. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1912

For recognition of his work on vascular suture and transplantation of blood vessels and organs, Alexis Carrel was awarded the prize. Such vascular autotransplantation is the basis of numerous important operations performed at present; for example, during coronary artery bypass surgery.

Bernard KATZ

Bernard Katz received an award for his discoveries in the study of nerve fiber mediators and the mechanisms of their preservation, excretion and inactivation. Investigating neuromuscular junctions, Katz found that the interaction between acetylcholine and muscle fiber leads to electrical arousal and muscle contraction.

Georg KÖHLER. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1984

Georg Köhler received an award jointly with Cesar Milstein for the discovery and development of principles for the production of monoclonal antibodies using hybridomas. Monoclonal antibodies have been used to treat leukemia, hepatitis B, and streptococcal infections. They also played an important role in identifying AIDS cases.

Edward KENDALL

Edward Kendall received an award for his discoveries concerning adrenal cortex hormones, their structure and biological effects. The hormone cortisone secreted by Kendall has a unique effect in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatism, bronchial asthma and hay fever, as well as in the treatment of allergic diseases.

Albert Claude. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1974

Albert Claude was awarded the prize for discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell. Claude discovered “ new world»Microscopic cell anatomy, described the basic principles of cell fractionation and cell structure, examined using electron microscopy.

Xap Gobind QORAN

For deciphering the genetic code and its role in the synthesis of proteins, Har Gobind of the Quran was awarded the prize. The synthesis of nucleic acids, carried out by K., is a necessary condition for the final solution of the problem of the genetic code. The Korana studied the mechanism of transfer of genetic information, due to which amino acids are included in the protein chain in the required sequence.

Gertie T. COREY

Gertie Teresa Corey received an award with her husband Carl Corey for the discovery of the catalytic conversion of glycogen. The Corey couple synthesized glycogen in a test tube using a set of enzymes isolated in pure form, revealing their mechanism of action. The discovery of the enzymatic mechanism of reversible transformations of glucose is one of the brilliant achievements of biochemistry.

Karl F. CORI. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1947

Carl Corey received an award for the discovery of the catalytic conversion of glycogen. Corey's work revealed an extremely complex enzymatic mechanism involved in the reversible reactions between glucose and glycogen. This discovery became the basis for a new concept of hormones and enzymes.

Allan KORMAK

For the development of computed tomography, Allan Cormack was awarded an award. The tomograph clearly distinguishes soft tissues from the surrounding tissues, even if the difference in the absorption of rays is very small. Therefore, the device allows you to identify healthy areas of the body and the affected. This is a big improvement over other X-ray imaging techniques.

Arthur KORNBERG

Arthur Kornberg was awarded the prize for the discovery of the mechanisms of biological synthesis of ribonucleic and deoxyribonucleic acids. Kornberg's work opened up new directions not only in biochemistry and genetics, but also in the treatment of hereditary diseases and cancer. They became the basis for the development of methods and directions for the replication of the genetic material of the cell.

Albrecht KOSSEL. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1910

Albrecht Kossel was awarded the prize for his contribution to the study of cell chemistry, made by research on proteins, including nucleic acids. At this time, the role of nucleic acids in the encoding and transmission of genetic information was still unknown, and Kossel could not imagine what significance his work would have for genetics.

Robert KOCH. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1905

Robert Koch has received an award for research and discovery in the treatment of tuberculosis. Koch achieved his greatest triumph when he managed to isolate the bacterium that causes tuberculosis. At the time, this disease was one of the leading causes of death. Koch's postulates on the problems of tuberculosis still remain the theoretical foundations of medical microbiology.

Theodor KOCHER. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1909

Theodor Kocher received an award for his work in the field of physiology, pathology and thyroid surgery. The main merit of Kocher is the study of the function of the thyroid gland and the development of methods for the surgical treatment of its diseases, including different types goiter. Kocher not only showed the function of the thyroid gland, but also identified the causes of cretinism and myxedema.

Stanley Cohen

Stanley Cohen was awarded the prize in recognition of the discoveries that are essential for the disclosure of the mechanisms of regulation of cell and organ growth. Cohen discovered epidermal growth factor (EGF), which stimulates the growth of many types of cells and enhances a number of biological processes. EGF can be used in skin grafting and tumor treatment.

Hans KREBS

Hans Krebs received an award for the discovery of the citric acid cycle. The cyclic principle of intermediate metabolic reactions became a milestone in the development of biochemistry, as it gave the key to understanding the pathways of metabolism. In addition, he stimulated other experimental work and expanded the understanding of the sequences of cellular reactions.

Francis CRICK

Francis Crick is awarded for his discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and their importance for the transmission of information in living systems. Crick developed the spatial structure of the DNA molecule to help decipher the genetic code. Crick conducted research in the field of neuroscience, in particular, studied the mechanisms of vision and dreams.

August KROG. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1920

August Krogh received an award for the discovery of the mechanism of regulation of the lumen of capillaries. Krogh's proof that this mechanism works in all organs and tissues has great importance for modern science... Studies of gas exchange in the lungs and the regulation of capillary blood flow formed the basis for the use of intubation breathing and the use of hypothermia in open heart surgery.

André COURNAND

André Cournand received a prize for discoveries concerning cardiac catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system. The method of cardiac catheterization, developed by Kurnan, allowed him to triumphantly enter the world of clinical medicine. Kurnan was the first scientist to insert a catheter through the right atrium and ventricle into the pulmonary artery, which carries blood from the heart to the lungs.

Charles LAVEREN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1907

Karl LANDSTEINER. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1930

Karl Landsteiner was awarded the Human Blood Group Discovery Prize. With a group of scientists L. described another factor in human blood - the so-called rhesus. Landsteiner substantiated the serological identification hypothesis, not yet knowing that blood groups are inherited. Landsteiner's genetic methods are used to this day in paternity tests.

Otto Loewy. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1936

Otto Loewi received an award for discoveries related to the chemical transmission of nerve impulses. Loewy's experiments showed that a nervous stimulus can release substances that have an effect characteristic of nervous excitement. Subsequent studies have shown that the main mediator of sympathetic nervous system is norepinephrine.

Rita LEVI-MONTALCHINI. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1986

In recognition of her discoveries fundamental to understanding the mechanisms of growth regulation of cells and organs, Rita Levi-Montalcini was awarded the prize. Levi-Montalcini discovered nerve growth factor (NGRF), which is used to repair damaged nerves. Studies have shown that it is the dysregulation of growth factors that causes cancer.

Joshua LEDERBERG

Joshua Lederberg received an award for his discoveries concerning genetic recombination and the organization of genetic material in bacteria. Lederberg discovered the process of transduction in bacteria - the transfer of fragments of chromosomes from one cell to another. Since the determination of the sequence of genes in chromosomes is based on transduction, Lederberg's work contributed to the development of bacterial genetics.

Theodore LINEN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1964

Theodor Linen was awarded a prize for discoveries related to the mechanism and regulation of cholesterol metabolism and fatty acids... Thanks to research, it became known that violations in these complex processes lead to the development of a number of serious diseases, especially in the field of cardiovascular pathology.

Fritz LIPMAN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1953

For the discovery of coenzyme A and its importance for the intermediate stages of metabolism, Fritz Lipmann was awarded the prize. This discovery made an important addition to the deciphering of the Krebs cycle, during which food is transformed into the physical energy of the cell. Lipman demonstrated the mechanism of a widespread reaction and simultaneously discovered new way energy transfer in the cell.

Konrad Lorentz

Konrad Lorenz received a prize for discoveries related to the creation and establishment of models of individual and group behavior of animals. Lorenz observed patterns of behavior that could not be acquired through training and had to be interpreted as genetically programmed. The concept of instinct that Lorenz developed formed the basis of modern ethology.

Salvador LURIA. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1969

Salvador Luria was awarded the prize for the discovery of the mechanisms of replication and the genetic structure of viruses. The study of bacteriophages made it possible to penetrate deeper into the nature of viruses, which is necessary for understanding the origin of viral diseases of higher animals and the fight against them. Luria's works explained the mechanisms of genetic regulation of vital processes.

Andre LVOV. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1965

Andre Lvov was awarded a prize for discoveries related to the genetic regulation of the synthesis of enzymes and viruses. L. found that ultraviolet radiation and other stimulants neutralize the action of the regulator gene, causing phage reproduction and lysis, or destruction bacterial cell... The results of this study allowed L. to formulate hypotheses about the nature of cancer and poliomyelitis.

George R. MINOT

George Minot is the recipient of the Liver Discovery Prize for the Treatment of Anemia. Minot found that in case of anemia, the use of the liver has the best therapeutic effect. Later it was found that the cause of pernicious anemia is a lack of vitamin B 12 contained in the liver. Having discovered liver function previously unknown to science, Minot developed a new method for treating anemia.

Barbara Mack-CLINTOCK. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1983

For the discovery of transposing genetic systems, Barabara McClintock was awarded a prize 30 years after the work. McClintock's discovery anticipated advances in bacterial genetics and had far-reaching implications: for example, migratory genes could explain how antibiotic resistance is passed from one bacterial species to another.

John J. R. MACLEOD. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1923

For the discovery of insulin, John McLeod received an award jointly with Frederick Bunting. McLeod used all the capabilities of his department to obtain and purify large quantities of insulin. Thanks to McLeod, commercial production was soon established. The result of his research was the book Insulin and Its Use in Diabetes.

Peter Brian MEDAVAR. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1960

Peter Brian Medawar received the award for the discovery of acquired immunological tolerance. Medawar defined this concept as a state of indifference, or non-response to a substance that usually excites an immunological reaction. Experimental biology has gained the opportunity to study disorders of the immune process that lead to the development of serious diseases.

Otto MEYERHOF

Otto Meyerhof received the award for his discovery of the close relationship between oxygen uptake and lactic acid metabolism in muscle. Meyerhof and his colleagues have extracted enzymes for the basic biochemical reactions that take place in the conversion of glucose to lactic acid. This main cellular pathway of carbohydrate metabolism is also called the Embden-Meyerhof pathway.

Herman J. MÖLLER. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1946

Hermann Möller was awarded a prize for the discovery of the appearance of mutations under the influence of X-ray radiation. The discovery that heredity and evolution can be deliberately altered in the laboratory took on new and terrifying significance with the advent of atomic weapons. Möller convinced of the need to ban nuclear tests.

William P. MURPHY. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1934

For discoveries related to the development of a method for treating pernicious anemia using the liver, William Murphy was awarded the prize. Liver therapy cured anemia, but even more revealing was the reduction in musculoskeletal disorders associated with damage to the nervous system. This meant that hepatic factor stimulates bone marrow activity.

Ilya MECHNIKOV

The Russian scientist Ilya Mechnikov was awarded a prize for his work on immunity. M.'s most important contribution to science was of a methodological nature: the scientist's goal was to study "immunity in infectious diseases from the standpoint of cellular physiology." Mechnikov's name is associated with the popular commercial method of making kefir.

Cesar Milstein. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1984

Cesar Milstein was awarded a prize for the discovery and development of principles for the production of monoclonal antibodies using hybridomas. The result was the production of monoclonal antibodies for diagnostic purposes, and the development of hybridoma-based controlled vaccines and anticancer therapeutics began.

Egash MONISH

Almost at the end of his life, Egash Moniz was awarded a prize for the discovery of the therapeutic effects of leukotomy in some mental illness... Moniz proposed a "lobotomy" - an operation to separate the prefrontal lobes from the rest of the brain. This procedure was especially indicated for patients in severe pain, or those whose aggressiveness made them socially dangerous.

Jacques MONO. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1965

Jacques Monod received an award for discoveries related to the genetic control of the synthesis of enzymes and viruses. The work showed that DNA is organized into sets of genes called operons. Monod explained the system of biochemical genetics that allows the cell to adapt to new conditions environment, and showed that similar systems are present in bacteriophages - viruses that infect bacterial cells.

Thomas Hunt MORGAN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1933

Thomas Hunt Morgan was awarded the prize for discoveries related to the role of chromosomes in heredity. The idea that genes are localized in a chromosome in a specific linear sequence and, further, that the linkage is based on the proximity of two genes on a chromosome, can be attributed to the main achievements of genetic theory.

Paul MÜLLER. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1948

Paul Müller received an award for the discovery of the high effectiveness of DDT as a contact poison. For two decades, DDT's unmatched insecticide value has been proven time and time again. Only later were the adverse effects of DDT discovered: without gradually breaking down into harmless components, it accumulates in soil, water and the body of animals.

Daniel NATANCE

Daniel Nathans received an award for the discovery of restriction enzymes and methods of their use in research in molecular genetics. Methods for analyzing Nathanson's genetic structure were used to develop DNA recombination methods in order to create bacterial "factories" that synthesize drugs necessary for medicine, such as insulin and growth hormones.

Charles NICOLE. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1928

Charles Nicole was awarded the prize for establishing the body lice transmitter for typhus. The discovery did not contain new principles, but it had a great practical significance... During World War I, servicemen were sanitized to remove lice from everyone entering or returning from the trenches. As a result, losses from typhus have been significantly reduced.

Marshall W. NIRENBERG. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1968

Marshall Nirenberg received an award for deciphering the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis. The genetic code controls not only the formation of all proteins, but also the transmission of hereditary traits. Having deciphered the code, Nirenberg provided information that enables scientists to control heredity and eliminate diseases caused by genetic defects.

North OCHOA. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1959

Severo Ochoa was awarded a prize for the discovery of the mechanisms of biological synthesis of ribonucleic and deoxyribonucleic acids. For the first time in biology, RNA and protein molecules with a known sequence of nitrogenous bases and amino acid composition were synthesized. This achievement allowed scientists to further decipher the genetic code.

Ivan PAVLOV. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1904

Ivan Pavlov was awarded a prize for his work on the physiology of digestion. Experiments concerning the digestive system led to the discovery of conditioned reflexes. Pavlov's skill in surgery was unsurpassed. He was so good with both hands that it was never known which hand he would use next.

George E. PALADE. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1974

George Palade was awarded a prize for discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell. Palade developed experimental methods for studying protein synthesis in a living cell. After conducting a functional analysis of the exocrine cells of the pancreas, Palade described the sequential steps of the secretory process, which is protein synthesis.

Rodney R. PORTER

Rodney Porter received an award for the discovery of the chemical structure of antibodies. Porter proposed the first satisfactory structure model IgG(immunoglobulin). Although she did not give an answer to the question of what determines the presence of antibodies of such a wide spectrum of activity, however, she created the basis for more detailed biochemical studies.

Santiago RAMON-I-CAJAL. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1906

The Spanish neuroanatomist and histologist Santiago Ramón y Cajal was awarded the prize for his work on the structure of the nervous system. The scientist described the structure and organization of cells in various areas of the brain. This cytoarchitectonics is still the basis for studying cerebral localization - determining the specialized functions of various areas of the brain.

Tadeusz REICHSTEIN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1950

Tadeusz Reichstein was awarded a prize for his discoveries related to adrenal cortex hormones, their chemical structure and biological effects. He managed to isolate and identify a number of steroid substances - precursors of adrenal hormones. Reichstein synthesized vitamin C, his method is still used for industrial production today.

Dickinson W. RICHARDS. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1956

Dickinson Richards was awarded the prize for discoveries concerning cardiac catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system. Using the cardiac catheterization method, Richards and his colleagues studied the activity of the cardiovascular system in shock and found that it should not be treated with plasma, but with whole blood.

Charles Richet. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1913

Charles Richet was awarded a prize in recognition of his work on anaphylaxis. This phenomenon is the opposite of the preventive effect of conventional immunization. Richet developed specific diagnostic tests to detect hypersensitivity reactions. During World War I, Richet studied complications from blood transfusions.

Frederick C. ROBBINS

Frederick Robbins received an award for his discovery of the ability of the polio virus to grow in cultures of various tissues. The research was a significant step in the development of a polio vaccine. The discovery turned out to be very important to study different types polio virus in human populations.

Ronald ROSS. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1902

Ronald Ross received the Malaria Prize, in which he showed how the pathogen enters the body, and thereby laid the foundation for further successful research in this area and the development of methods to combat malaria .. Ross's conclusion that plasmodia mature in the body mosquitoes of a certain type, solved the problem of malaria.

Peyton ROSE

Peyton Rose was awarded a prize for the discovery of oncogenic viruses. The suggestion that the experimental sarcoma in chickens is caused by a virus has been unresponsive for two decades. Only many years later, this tumor began to be called Rous's sarcoma. Later, Rose proposed 3 hypotheses regarding the mechanisms of tumor formation.

Earl SUTHERLAND. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1971

Earl Sutherland received a prize for discoveries concerning the mechanisms of action of hormones. Sutherland discovered c-AMP - a substance that promotes the conversion of inactive phosphorylase into active and is responsible for the release of glucose in the cell. This has led to the emergence of new areas in endocrinology, oncology and even psychiatry, as c-AMP "affects everything from memory to fingertips."

Bengt SAMUELSON. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1982

Bengt Samuelson received a prize for discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances. Prostaglandins of groups E and F used in clinical medicine to regulate blood pressure... Samuelson suggested using aspirin to prevent blood clotting in patients at high risk of myocardial infarction due to coronary thrombosis.

Albert SAINT-GYORDY. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1937

Albert Szent-Gyorgyi was awarded a prize for discoveries in the field of biological oxidation processes, related in particular to the study of vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid. Szent-Gyorgyi proved that hexuronic acid, which he renamed ascorbic acid, is identical to vitamin C, the lack of which in the diet causes many diseases in humans.

Hamilton SMITH. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1978

Hamilton Smith received the award for his discovery of restriction enzymes and their use in solving problems of molecular genetics. Research has made it possible to carry out a similar analysis of the chemical structure of genes. This opened up great prospects in the study of higher organisms. Thanks to these works, scientists now have the opportunity to tackle the most important problem of cell differentiation.

George D. SNELL. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1980

George Snell received the award for his discoveries concerning genetically defined structures located on the surface of cells and regulating immune responses. Snell concluded that there is a separate gene, or locus, that plays a particularly important role in engraftment or transplant rejection. It was later found to be a group of genes on the same chromosome.

Roger Sperry

Roger Sperry was awarded a prize for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres. Research has shown that the right and left hemispheres have different cognitive functions. Sperry's experiments have largely changed approaches to the study of cognitive processes and have found important applications in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the nervous system.

Max TEYLER. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1951

For discoveries related to yellow fever and the fight against it, Teyler was awarded the prize. Teyler obtained convincing evidence that yellow fever is caused not by a bacterium, but by a filterable virus, and developed a vaccine for mass production. Interested in poliomyelitis, he discovered an identical infection in mice known as mouse encephalomyelitis, or Teyler's disease.

Edward L. TEITEM. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1958

Edward Teitem was awarded the prize for the discovery of the mechanism of regulation of genes of the main chemical processes... Tatem concluded that in order to be able to discover how genes function, some of them must be made defective. Studying the effects of mutations induced by X-ray irradiation, he created an effective methodology for studying the mechanism of genes controlling biochemical processes in a living cell.

Howard M. THEMIN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1975

Howard Temin received a prize for discoveries concerning the interaction between tumor viruses and the genetic material of a cell. Temin discovered viruses with reverse transcriptase activity and existing as proviruses in the DNA of animal cells. These retroviruses cause various diseases including AIDS, some forms of cancer, and hepatitis.

Hugo THEORELLE. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1955

Hugo Theorell was awarded a prize for discoveries concerning the nature and mechanism of action of oxidative enzymes. Teorell researched cytochrome FROM, an enzyme that catalyzes oxidative reactions on the surface of mitochondria, the "power plants" of the cell. Developed economical experimental methods for studying hemoproteins.

Nicholas TINBERGEN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1973

Nicholas Tinbergen received an award for discoveries concerning the establishment of individual and social behavior and its organization. He formulated the position that instinct arises due to impulses or impulses emanating from the animal itself. Instinctive behavior includes a stereotyped set of movements - the so-called fixed nature of the action (FHD).

Maurice WILKINS. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1962

Maurice Wilkins received a prize for discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and their importance for the transmission of information in living matter. In search of methods that would reveal the complex chemical structure of the DNA molecule, Wilkins subjected the DNA samples to X-ray diffraction analysis. The results showed that the DNA molecule has a double helix shape, reminiscent of a spiral staircase.

George H. Whipple. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1934

George Whipple was awarded an award for his research in the treatment of anemic liver disease. With pernicious anemia, unlike other forms of it, the formation of new erythrocytes is impaired. Whipple suggested that this factor is likely to be found in the stroma, the protein base of red blood cells. 14 years later, other researchers identified it as vitamin B 12.

George WOLD

George Wold received an award for discoveries related to primary physiological and chemical visual processes. Wald explained that the role of light in the visual process is to straighten the vitamin A molecule into its natural form. He was able to determine the absorption spectra of various types of cones that serve for color vision.

James D. WATSON. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1962

James Watson was awarded the prize for discoveries in the field of the molecular structure of nucleic acids and for determining their role in the transmission of information in living matter. The creation, together with Francis Crick, of a three-dimensional model of DNA has been regarded as one of the most outstanding biological discoveries of the century for unraveling the mechanism of control and transfer of genetic information.

Bernardo USAI. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1947

Bernardo Usay was awarded the prize for his discovery of the role of the anterior pituitary hormones in glucose metabolism. As the first scientist to show the leading role of the pituitary gland, Usai identified its regulatory relationships with other endocrine glands. Usay determined that maintaining normal glucose levels and glucose metabolism occurs as a result of the interaction of pituitary hormones and insulin.

Thomas H. WELLER. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1954

Thomas Weller was awarded the prize for his discovery of the ability of the polio virus to grow in cultures of various types of tissue. The new technique allowed scientists to grow the virus for generations to produce a variant that could multiply without risking the body (a basic requirement for a live attenuated vaccine). Weller isolated the virus that causes rubella.

Johannes FIBIGER. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1926

Johannes Fiebiger received an award for the discovery of Spiroptera carcinoma. By feeding cockroaches containing Spiroptera larvae to healthy mice, Fiebiger was able to stimulate the growth of gastric cancers in a large number animals. Fiebiger concluded that cancer is caused by the interaction of various external influences with a hereditary predisposition.

Nils FINSEN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1903

Niels Finsen received the award in recognition of his achievements in the treatment of diseases - especially lupus - with concentrated light radiation, which opened up new horizons for medical science. Finsen developed arc bath treatments as well as therapeutic methods to increase the therapeutic dose of ultraviolet radiation with minimal tissue damage.

Alexander FLEMING

Howard W. FLORY. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1945

Howard Flory received an award for the discovery of penicillin and its healing effects in various infectious diseases. Penicillin discovered by Fleming was chemically unstable and could only be obtained in small quantities. Flory led research on the drug. Established the production of penicillin in the United States, thanks to the huge appropriations allocated for the project.

Werner FORSMAN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1956

Werner Forsmann was awarded a prize for discoveries related to cardiac catheterization and the study of pathological changes in the circulatory system. Forsman performed cardiac catheterization on his own. He described the technique of catheterization and considered its potential for studying the cardiovascular system in normal conditions and with its diseases.

Karl von FRISCH. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1973

Zoologist Karl von Frisch received an award for discoveries related to the creation and establishment of individual and group behaviors. While studying the behavior of bees, Frisch learned that bees transmit information to each other through a series of elaborate dances, individual steps of which contain the relevant information.

Charles B. HUGGINS. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1966

Charles Huggins is the recipient of the Discovery Award for Hormonal Treatment for Prostate Cancer. Huggins' estrogen therapy has opened up a promising treatment for prostate cancer, which is common in men over 50. Estrogen therapy was the first clinical evidence that the growth of some tumors depends on the hormones of the endocrine glands.

Andru HUXLEY

For his discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms of excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central regions of the membrane of nerve cells, Andru Huxley was awarded the prize. Huxley and Alan Hodgkin, studying the transmission of nerve impulses, constructed a mathematical model of the action potential, explaining biochemical methods for studying membrane components (channels and pump).

Harald HAUSEN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 2008

German scientist Harald Hausen was awarded the prize for the discovery of the papilloma virus, cancer causing cervix. Hausen found that the virus interacts with a DNA molecule, so HPV-DNA complexes can exist in the neoplasm. A discovery made in 1983 led to the development of a vaccine with an efficacy of up to 95%.

H. Keffer HARTLINE. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1967

Keffer Hartline received the award for his discovery of basic physiological and chemical visual processes. Experiments have shown that visual information is processed in the retina before reaching the brain. Hartline established principles for obtaining information in neural networks that provide sensory functions. In terms of vision, these principles are important for understanding the mechanisms of perception of brightness, shape and movement.

Godfrey HOUNSFIELD. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1979

Godfrey Hounsfield is honored with the Computed Tomography Award. Based on the method of Alan Cormack, Hounsfield developed a different mathematical model and introduced the tomographic research method into practice. Hounsfield's subsequent work was based on the further improvement of computed axial tomography (CAT) technology and related diagnostic methods, such as nuclear magnetic resonance, which does not use X-rays.

Roots HEYMANS. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1938

Heimans was awarded a prize for the discovery of the role of the sinus and aortic mechanisms in the regulation of respiration of Roots. Heimans demonstrated that respiration rate is regulated by nervous system reflexes transmitted through the vagus and depressive nerves. Subsequent research by Haymans showed that the partial pressure of oxygen - rather than the oxygen content in hemoglobin - is a reasonably effective stimulus for vascular chemoreceptors.

Philip S. HENCH. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1950

Philip Hench received an award for his discoveries concerning adrenal cortex hormones, their structure and biological effects. By using cortisone to treat patients with rheumatoid arthritis, Hench was the first to obtain clinical evidence of the therapeutic efficacy of corticosteroids in rheumatoid arthritis.

Alfred HERSHY. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1969

Alfred Hershey was awarded a prize for discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and genetic structure of viruses. Investigating various strains of bacteriophage, Hershey obtained indisputable evidence of the exchange of genetic information, which he called gene recombination. This is one of the first pieces of evidence in experiments on recombination of genetic material between viruses.

Walter R. HESS. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1949

Walter Hess received an award for the discovery of the functional organization of the diencephalon as a coordinator of the activity of internal organs. Hess concluded that the hypothalamus controls emotional responses and that stimulation of certain areas of the hypothalamus induces anger, fear, sexual arousal, relaxation, or sleep.

Archibald W. HILL. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1922

Archibald Hill received an award for his discoveries in the field of heat generation in muscle. Hill linked the formation of initial heat during muscle contraction with the formation of lactic acid from its derivatives, and the formation of heat during recovery with its oxidation and decomposition. H.'s concept explained the processes occurring in the body of an athlete during a period of heavy load.

Alan HODGKIN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1963

Alan Hodgkin received an award for his discoveries concerning ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central regions of the nerve cell membrane. The Ionic Theory of Nerve Impulse by Hodgkin and Andru Huxley contains principles that also apply to impulses in muscles, including electrocardiography, which have clinical implications.

Robert W. HOLLY. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1968

Robert Holley has received an award for deciphering the genetic code and its role in protein synthesis. Holly's research represents the first definition of the complete chemical structure of biologically active nucleic acid (RNA), which has the ability to read the genetic code and translate it into a protein alphabet.

Frederick Gowland HOPKINS

Frederick Hopkins received an award for the discovery of vitamins that stimulate growth. He concluded that the properties of proteins depend on the types of amino acids present in them. Hopkins isolated and identified tryptophan, which affects body growth, and a tripeptide formed by three amino acids, which he named glutathione, which is necessary as an oxygen carrier in plant and animal cells.

David H. HUBEL. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1981

David Hubel is the recipient of an award for discoveries related to information processing in a visual analyzer. Hubel and Thorsten Wiesel showed how various components of the image on the retina are read and interpreted by the cells of the cerebral cortex. The analysis takes place in a strict sequence from one cell to another, and each nerve cell is responsible for a certain detail in the whole picture.

Ernst CHAIN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1945

Ernst Chain was awarded a prize for the discovery of penicillin and its therapeutic effect in many infectious diseases. Penicillin discovered by Fleming was difficult to produce in quantities sufficient for scientific research. The merit of Cheyne is that he developed a method of lyophilization, with the help of which it was possible to obtain penicillin in a concentrated form for use in clinical purposes.

Andrew W. SHULLY

Andrew Schally has received an award for his discoveries concerning the production of peptide hormones in the brain. Schally established the chemical structure of a factor that inhibits the release of growth hormone and called it somatostatin. Some of its analogues are used to treat diabetes mellitus, peptic ulcer disease and acromegaly, a disease characterized by an excess of growth hormone.

Charles S. Sherrington

Charles Sherrington received an award for discoveries concerning the function of neurons. Sherrington formulated the basic principles of neurophysiology in the book “The Integrative Activity of the Nervous System,” which neuroscientists are still studying today. The study of the functional relationships between various nerves made it possible to identify the basic laws of the activity of the nervous system.

Hans SPEEMAN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1935

Hans Spemann received a prize for his discovery of organizing effects in embryonic development. Spemann was able to show that in a number of cases further development depends on the interaction between embryonic leaves. special groups cells into those tissues and organs, into which they should turn in a mature embryo. The totality of his work laid the foundation for the modern theory of the development of the embryo.

Gerald M. EDELMAN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1972

Gerald Edelman was awarded a prize for discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies. In an effort to figure out how the individual parts of the antibody are connected to each other, Edelman and Rodney Porter established the complete amino acid sequence of the molecule IgG myeloma. Scientists have figured out the sequence of all 1,300 amino acids that make up the protein chain.

Edgar ADRIAN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1932

Edgar Adrian received a prize for discoveries concerning the functions of nerve cells. Work on the adaptation and coding of nerve impulses has allowed researchers to conduct a complete and objective study of sensations. Adrian's research on electrical signals from the brain was an important contribution to the development of electroencephalography as a method of studying the brain.

Christian EIKMAN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1929

Christian Eikman was awarded a prize for his contribution to the discovery of vitamins. Studying beriberi disease, Eikman found that it is not caused by bacteria, but by a lack of a specific nutrient in certain foods. The study pioneered the discovery of treatments for many diseases associated with a lack of additive food factors, now known as vitamins.

Ulf von EYLER. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1970

Ulf von Euler was awarded a prize for his discoveries concerning humoral neurotransmitters of nerve endings and the mechanisms of their storage, excretion and inactivation. Work is essential to understanding and treating Parkinson's disease and hypertension... The prostaglandins discovered by Euler are used today in obstetrics and gynecology.

Billem EINTHOVEN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1924

Billm Einthoven was awarded the Discovery of the Electrocardiogram Mechanism Prize. Einthoven invented the string galvanometer, which revolutionized the study of heart disease. With the help of this device, doctors were able to accurately record the electrical activity of the heart and, with the help of registration, establish characteristic deviations in the ECG curves.

John Eckles. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1963

John Eccles received an award for his discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms of excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central regions of nerve cells. Research has established a single nature of the electrical processes occurring in the peripheral and central nervous systems. Studying the activity of the cerebellum, which controls the coordination of muscle movements, Eccles came to the conclusion that inhibition plays a particularly important role in the cerebellum.

John ENDERS. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1954

John Enders received an award for his discovery of the ability of the polio virus to grow in cultures of various tissue types. Anders' methods were used to produce a polio vaccine. Enders was able to isolate the measles virus, grow it in tissue culture and create a strain that induces immunity. This strain has served as the basis for the development of modern measles vaccines.

Joseph ERLANGER. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1944

Joseph Erlanger was awarded a prize for discoveries concerning a number of functional differences between different nerve fibers. The most important discovery that Erlanger and Herbert Gasser made with the oscilloscope was to confirm the hypothesis that thick fibers conduct nerve impulses faster than thin ones.

Joseph Ehrlich. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1908

Joseph Ehrlich, together with Ilya Mechnikov, was awarded the prize for his work on the theory of immunity. Side chain theory in immunology has shown the interactions between cells, antibodies and antigens as chemical reactions. Ehrlich is widely recognized for developing the highly effective drug neosalvarsan, a cure for syphilis.

Rosalyn S. YALOU. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1977

Rosalyn Yalow received an award for the development of radioimmunoassay methods for the determination of peptide hormones. Since that time, the method has been used in laboratories around the world to measure the low concentration of hormones and other substances in the body that were not previously determined. The method can be used to detect the hepatitis virus in donated blood, for early diagnosis of cancer.

In 2016, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to the Japanese scientist Yoshinori Osumi for the discovery of autophagy and deciphering its molecular mechanism. Autophagy is the process of recycling spent organelles and protein complexes; it is important not only for the economical management of the cell economy, but also for the renewal of the cellular structure. Deciphering the biochemistry of this process and its genetic basis presupposes the ability to control and manage the entire process and its individual stages. And this gives researchers clear fundamental and applied perspectives.

Science rushes forward at such an incredible pace that the layman does not have time to realize the importance of the discovery, and the Nobel Prize is already awarded for it. In the 80s of the last century, in biology textbooks, in the section on the structure of the cell, it was possible, among other organelles, to learn about lysosomes - membrane vesicles filled with enzymes inside. These enzymes are aimed at breaking down various large biological molecules into smaller blocks (it should be noted that then our biology teacher did not yet know why lysosomes were needed). They were discovered by Christian de Duve, for which in 1974 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

Christian de Duve and colleagues separated lysosomes and peroxisomes from other cellular organelles using a then new method - centrifugation, which allows the particles to be sorted by mass. Lysosomes are now widely used in medicine. For example, the targeted delivery of drugs to damaged cells and tissues is based on their properties: a molecular drug is placed inside the lysosome due to the difference in acidity inside and outside it, and then the lysosome, equipped with specific labels, is sent to the affected tissues.

Lysosomes are indiscriminate by the nature of their activity - they break up any molecules and molecular complexes into their component parts. Narrower "specialists" - proteasomes, which are aimed only at the cleavage of proteins (see:, "Elements", 05.11.2010). Their role in the cellular economy can hardly be overestimated: they monitor the enzymes that have served their life and destroy them as needed. This period, as we know, is determined very accurately - exactly as long as the cell performs a specific task. If the enzymes were not destroyed upon its completion, then the ongoing synthesis would be difficult to stop in time.

Proteasomes are present in all cells without exception, even in those without lysosomes. The role of proteasomes and the biochemical mechanism of their work were investigated by Aaron Chekhanover, Avram Gershko, and Irwin Rose in the late 1970s and early 1980s. They discovered that proteasomes recognize and destroy those proteins that are labeled with the ubiquitin protein. The binding reaction with ubiquitin comes with the expense of ATP. In 2004, the three scientists received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their research on ubiquitin-dependent protein degradation. In 2010, while looking through the school curriculum for gifted English children, I saw a series of black dots in the picture of the cell structure, which were marked as proteasomes. However, the schoolteacher at that school was unable to explain to the students what it is and what these mysterious proteasomes are for. There were no questions about the lysosomes in that picture.

Even at the beginning of the study of lysosomes, it was noticed that some of them contained parts of cellular organelles. This means that in lysosomes, not only large molecules are disassembled into parts, but also parts of the cell itself. The process of digesting one's own cellular structures is called autophagy - that is, "eating oneself." How do parts of cell organelles get into the lysosome containing hydrolases? Back in the 80s, he began to study this issue, studying the structure and function of lysosomes and autophagosomes in mammalian cells. He and his colleagues showed that autophagosomes appear in the mass of cells if they are grown on a nutrient-poor medium. In this regard, a hypothesis appeared that autophagosomes are formed when a reserve source of nutrition is needed - proteins and fats that are part of excess organelles. How are these autophagosomes formed, are they needed as a source of additional nutrition or for other cellular purposes, how are lysosomes found for digestion? All these questions in the early 90s had no answers.

Taking on independent research, Osumi focused his efforts on the study of yeast autophagosomes. He reasoned that autophagy should be a conservative cellular mechanism, therefore, it is more convenient to study it on simple (relatively) and convenient laboratory objects.

In yeast, autophagosomes reside inside vacuoles and then disintegrate there. Various proteinase enzymes are involved in their utilization. If the proteinases in the cell are defective, then the autophagosomes accumulate inside the vacuoles and do not dissolve. Osumi took advantage of this property to produce a yeast culture with an increased number of autophagosomes. He grew yeast cultures on poor media - in this case, autophagosomes appear in abundance, delivering food reserves to the starving cell. But his cultures used mutant cells with non-working proteinases. So, as a result, cells quickly accumulated a lot of autophagosomes in vacuoles.

Autophagosomes, as follows from his observations, are surrounded by single-layer membranes, inside of which a wide variety of contents can be located: ribosomes, mitochondria, lipid and glycogen granules. By adding or removing protease inhibitors in cultures of non-mutant cells, an increase or decrease in the number of autophagosomes can be achieved. So in these experiments it was demonstrated that these cell bodies are digested by proteinase enzymes.

Very quickly, in just a year, using the random mutation method, Osumi identified 13-15 genes (APG1-15) and the corresponding protein products involved in the formation of autophagosomes (M. Tsukada, Y. Ohsumi, 1993. Isolation and characterization of autophagy-defective mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Among the colonies of cells with defective proteinase activity, he selected under a microscope those in which there were no autophagosomes. Then, by cultivating them separately, he figured out which genes they had corrupted. It took his group five more years to decipher, in a first approximation, the molecular mechanism of these genes.

We managed to find out how this cascade works, in what order and how these proteins bind to each other, so that the result is an autophagosome. By 2000, the picture of the formation of a membrane around the damaged organelles to be recycled became clear. The single lipid membrane begins to stretch around these organelles, gradually surrounding them, until the ends of the membrane come close to each other and merge, forming a double membrane of the autophagosome. This vesicle is then transported to the lysosome and fused with it.

In the process of membrane formation, APG proteins are involved, analogs of which were found by Yoshinori Osumi and colleagues in mammals.

Thanks to Osumi's work, we saw the whole process of autophagy in dynamics. The starting point of Osumi's research was the simple fact of the presence of mysterious small bodies in the cells. Now researchers have the opportunity, albeit hypothetical, to control the entire process of autophagy.

Autophagy is necessary for the normal functioning of the cell, since the cell must be able not only to renew its biochemical and architectural economy, but also to utilize unnecessary ones. In the cell there are thousands of worn out ribosomes and mitochondria, membrane proteins, waste molecular complexes - all of them need to be economically processed and put back into circulation. This is a kind of cellular recycling. This process not only provides certain savings, but also prevents rapid cell aging. Violation of cellular autophagy in humans leads to the development of Parkinson's disease, type II diabetes, cancer, and some disorders characteristic of old age. Controlling the process of cellular autophagy, obviously, has great prospects, both in fundamental and applied terms.

The history of the Nobel Prize is very great. I will try to tell it briefly.

Alfred Nobel left a will, with which he officially confirmed his desire to invest all his savings (about 33 233 792 SEK) in the development and support of science. In fact, this was the main catalyst of the 20th century, which contributed to the advancement of modern scientific hypotheses.

Alfred Nobel had a plan, an incredible plan that only became known after his will was opened in January 1897. The first part contained the usual orders for such a case. But after these paragraphs came others, which said:

"All my movable and immovable property should be converted by my executors into liquid values, and the capital collected in this way should be placed in a reliable bank. These funds will belong to the fund, which will annually award the income from them in the form of a bonus to those who over the past year has made the most significant contribution to science, literature or peace and whose activities have brought the greatest benefit to humanity. Prizes for achievements in the field of chemistry and physics are to be awarded by the Swedish Academy of Sciences, Physiology and Medicine Achievement Award - Karolinska Institutet, the Literature Prize by the Stockholm Academy, the Peace Prize by a five-member commission appointed by the Storting of Norway. It is also my final will that prizes should be awarded to the most worthy candidates, whether they are Scandinavians or not. Paris, November 27, 1895 "

Institutional administrators are elected by some organizations. Each member of the administration is kept secret until discussion. He can be of any nationality. There are fifteen Nobel Prize administrators in total, three for each prize. They appoint an administrative board. The president and vice president of this council are appointed by the king of Sweden respectively.

Anyone who proposes their candidacy will be disqualified. A candidate in his field may be nominated by a previous award winner, the organization responsible for awarding the award, as well as by the person who nominates for the award impartially. Presidents of academies, literary and scientific communities, some international parliamentary organizations, scientists working in large universities, and even members of governments also have the right to propose their candidate. Here, however, it is necessary to clarify: only famous people and large organizations. It is important that the candidate has nothing to do with them.

These organizations, which may seem too harsh, are a great testament to Nobel's distrust of human weakness.

Nobel's fortune, which includes assets worth more than thirty million crowns, was divided into two parts. The first - 28 million kroons - became the main fund of the award. With the remaining money for the Nobel Foundation, a building was purchased, in which it is still located, in addition, from this money, funds were allocated to the organizational funds of each prize and amounts for expenses for organizations that are part of the Nobel

whom committee.

Since 1958, the Nobel Fund has invested in bonds, real estate and stocks. There are certain restrictions on investments abroad. These reforms were prompted by the need to protect capital from inflation. It is clear that in our time this means a lot.

Let's take a look at some interesting examples of awarding the award in its entire history.

Alexander FLEMING.

Alexander Fleming was awarded the prize for the discovery of penicillin and its healing effects in various infectious diseases. A happy coincidence - Fleming's discovery of penicillin - was the result of a combination of circumstances so incredible that they are almost impossible to believe, and the press received a sensational story that can capture the imagination of any person. In my opinion, he made an invaluable contribution (yes, I think everyone will agree with me that such scientists as Fleming will never be forgotten, and their discoveries will always invisibly protect us). We all know that the role of penicillin in medicine can hardly be overestimated. This drug saved the lives of many people (including in the war, where thousands of people died from infectious diseases).

Howard W. FLORY. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1945

Ilya MECHNIKOV. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1908

The Russian scientist Ilya Mechnikov was awarded a prize for his work on immunity. The most important contribution of Mechnikov to science was of a methodological nature: the scientist's goal was to study "immunity in infectious diseases from the standpoint of cellular physiology." Mechnikov's name is associated with the popular commercial method of making kefir. Of course, M.'s discovery is great and very useful, he laid the foundations of many subsequent discoveries with his labors.

Ivan PAVLOV. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1904

Camillo GOLGI. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1906

In recognition of his work on the structure of the nervous system, Camillo Golgi was awarded the prize. Golgi classified the types of neurons and made many discoveries about the structure of individual cells and the nervous system as a whole. The Golgi apparatus, a thin network of intertwined filaments within nerve cells, is recognized and believed to be involved in the modification and secretion of proteins. This unique scientist is known to everyone who studied the structure of the cell. Including me and our whole class.

Georg BEKESHI... Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1961

Physicist Georg Bekeshi studied telephone devices that distorted sound vibrations, in contrast to the eardrum of the ear. In this regard, he began to investigate the physical properties of the hearing organs. Recreated the complete picture of the biomechanics of the cochlea, modern otosurgeons were able to implant artificial eardrums and auditory ossicles. This work by Bekesy is an award-winning discovery that is especially relevant in our time, when computer technology has developed to an incredible scale and the problem of implantation is moving to a qualitatively different level. His discoveries have made it possible for many people to hear again.

Emil von BERING... Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1901

For his work on serum therapy, mainly for its use in the treatment of diphtheria, which opened new paths in medical science and gave doctors a victorious weapon against illness and death, Emil von Behring was awarded the prize. During World War I, Bering's tetanus vaccine saved the lives of many German soldiers - of course, it was just the basics of medicine. But no one, probably, doubts that this discovery gave a lot for the development of medicine and for all mankind as a whole. His name will forever remain etched in the history of mankind.

George W. BIDL. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1958

George Beadle received an award for discoveries concerning the role of genes in specific biochemical processes. Experiments have shown that certain genes are responsible for the synthesis of specific cellular substances. Laboratory techniques developed by George Beadle and Edward Tatem have proven useful in increasing the pharmacological production of penicillin, an important substance produced by special fungi. Everyone probably knows about the existence of the aforementioned penicillin, about its significance, therefore the role of the discovery of these scientists is invaluable in modern society.