Dependence on secular authorities reduced the moral level of the clergy and church discipline. Monastic regulations were not observed, monasticism degenerated, monks were looked upon as ignorant and idlers. This pushed monasticism towards a movement for the reform of monasteries, an increase in the role of the clergy and the liberation of the church from secular dependence. This movement originated in the middle of the 10th century. in the Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy and received the name Cluny .

One of the leaders of the Cluny movement was the monk Hildebrant, with whose participation in 1059 it was decided that the pope should be elected cardinals without any interference from secular authorities. Cardinals could only be appointed by the current pope, while the emperors lost the opportunity to influence their decision.

In 1073 Hildebrant became pope and took the name of Gregory VII. The new dad began to implement a peck and a certain program in practice. He forbade the white clergy to marry, and the bishops - to accept secular investiture. Gregory VII also put forward the idea that the clergy, headed by the pope, stands above kings and secular power.

It is because of this that a conflict arose between Gregory VII and the German Emperor Henry IV. In 1076 the emperor declared Gregory VII unworthy of the papal dignity. In response, Gregory VII excommunicated Henry IV from the church, releasing his subjects from the oath. This is how the struggle for investiture began. The emperor was forced to give in, because the excommunicated monarch could not rule the state. In January 1077, Henry IV arrived at the castle of Canossa, where the pope was then staying.

For three days the emperor stood barefoot under the walls of the castle, in the snow, in rags, and begged the pope to forgive him. On the fourth day, Henry was allowed to see the Pope, and he fell at his feet with a prayer: "Holy Father, have mercy on me!" Gregory VII bestowed absolution on the emperor.

But the drama of the Kanos events remained without consequences: soon Henry again appointed bishops. In the struggle for bishops' investiture, the Pope was virtually defeated. He had to leave Rome and seek refuge in Salerno, where he died in 1085. But Gregory VII achieved the main strengthening of the authority of the papacy. As a result, the warring parties came to an agreement, and in 1122 they concluded in Worms contract. He consolidated the emperor's refusal of the right to appoint bishops, they were freely chosen. However, the emperor and the pope retained the right to approve them for office. Investment was divided into secular and spiritual. In Germany, the emperor first presented the newly elected bishop with a scepter (secular investiture), and the pope with a ring and a staff (spiritual investiture). In Italy and Burgundy, it was the other way around - spiritual investiture preceded secular investment.

Emperor Henry IV at the castle of Canossa. Miniature. XII century

Pope Innocent III. Fresco. XIII-XIV centuries

The papacy reached its highest power during the pontificate Innocent III (1198-1216) ... He was one of the most influential popes of the Middle Ages. He tried to strengthen the church, regulate relations with the imperial power and establish supremacy over it. Innocent III restored all papal confluences in Italy. If his predecessors called themselves "the governors of St. Peter", then Innocent III proclaimed himself "the governor of God on earth."

In 1274, but at the time of the pontificate of Gregory X, a new procedure was adopted for the election of popes by the conclave of cardinals. The word "conclave" in translation from Latin means "closed room". The cardinals were now to meet at complete isolation from the outside world. If for three days the cardinals could not choose a dad, then they were given only one dish for lunch and dinner, and after five days only bread and water. Such conditions were supposed to speed up the process of electing a pope. Material from the site

After the death of Clement IV in 1268, cardinals gathered in the town of Viterbo to elect a new pope. But for a year and a half, the cardinals could not agree. Their disputes so bothered the city authorities that the doors of the house where the cardinals sat were closed. They were given enough food so that they would not starve to death. This worked and on September 1, 1271, the cardinals elected Gregory X as Pope. To avoid such scandalous delays. Gregory X introduced the conclave system, which, in fact, has survived to this day.

At the end of the XIII century. the papacy seemed to have won a decisive victory. But the conflict between secular and spiritual power influenced the political and moral consciousness of Europeans. Both authorities, mercilessly accusing each other, brought confusion into the minds of the people, darkening the aura of infallibility of both popes and emperors.

Investiture (from Latin.investio - I dress) - 1) the ceremony of introducing a vassal into the possession of a land feud (secular investiture); 2) appointment to church positions (spiritual investiture).

Cardinal (from Latin.cardinalis "chief") - the next rank of the Pope in the Catholic Church. The office of cardinals has existed since the 6th century, when popes began to share their responsibilities with bishops. Cardinals became the first counselors and assistants in church affairs. The sign of the cardinal's rank - the red cap - is perceived as a symbol of readiness to shed blood for the church.

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• the rise of the papacy in the era of the developed middle ages

The Middle Ages and the popes are two concepts that we will certainly remember when considering the history of Europe. Like no one else, the popes had the power to decide the fate of not only individuals, but entire states. Even kings listened to the advice of the pope.

Every believing ruler had to get the approval of the pope in any endeavors, from marriage, to the declaration of peace or war. In the Middle Ages, both popes and kings represented the ruling elite of society, but the influence of the Church was so great that sometimes the kings could not take a step without consulting the bishop from Rome or the Pope himself.

The papacy was not always so influential. In the era of antiquity, the Roman bishops did not succeed in establishing their supremacy due to sharp resistance from the East Roman clergy. The Middle Ages and the popes are closely related, for the upheavals in European countries at the beginning of the Early Middle Ages allowed the papacy to establish its superiority not only in religious, but also in secular life. The key role was played by the alliance of the papacy with the most influential kings of the state of the Franks at that time. In the middle of the 8th century, popes became monarchs in their own papal state in Central Italy, this was a gift from King Pepin the Short.

The Pope is elected and elected for life. In the early Middle Ages, both popes and other high bishops were elected. Moreover, even secular persons took part in the voting. However, after the Lateran Council (1059), the Pope could only be elected by the college of cardinals (conclave). At first, the popes were called “governors of the Apostle Peter”, during the High Middle Ages they were titled “governors of Jesus Christ”. It was at this time that the specific headdress of the popes appeared - a double tiara, which symbolized the union in the hands of the pope of two systems of power: spiritual and secular. On more than one occasion, the popes have come out with doctrines that their power is superior to the royal. In particular, similar speeches were made by Nicholas I, Gregory VII, Innocent III. The peak of the power of the papacy falls on the 13th century. The basis of the power of the popes was a bureaucratic apparatus, which included hundreds of clergy officials.

However, even up to the 13th century, the popes repeatedly proclaimed their power supreme over all other rulers and rulers. Pope Gregory VII created a document called the Pope's Dictate. This document was a kind of formulated program for the pope and was not intended for a wide range of readers. Here are some of the points from this document: "Only the pope has the power to appoint and crown the emperor", "The name" pope "refers only to the Roman bishop", "Only the pope has the right to be called the ecumenical bishop", "No one has the right to judge the pope." FROM the pope's court decision could not be appealed, only the pope could recognize the book as canonical, the clergy were obliged to fully obey the pope, only the pope could appoint and remove bishops. The Pope was considered the viceroy of God on Earth, which meant a combination in his hands of secular and spiritual power, to which all people are obliged to obey, regardless of title or other rank.

The Middle Ages and the popes left an indelible mark on the history of Europe. In addition to influencing the spiritual life of society, the Church was also the largest landowner. The hierarchy of the clergy was organized according to the feudal model, many ministers of the church could be vassals of secular feudal lords. Many wondered: for whom do the priests keep all these land holdings? This misunderstanding gave rise to one of the major problems of the Middle Ages - the struggle between the secular, in the person of kings, and the spiritual, in the person of priests, power. In 756, Pope Stephen II in Central Italy created his own state with the support of the Frankish kings. The fact that the bishop was also a secular ruler later became commonplace, especially in Germany. During the coronation of Charlemagne, Pope Leo III noted that the legitimacy of power is determined by the blessing of the pope. Pope John VIII declared that he had the right to remove emperors. However, in the 10-11 centuries, political anarchy set in in Italy, the papacy fell into decay, and the clergy fell into dependence on secular feudal lords. During the investiture ceremony, the bishop had to kneel before the secular ruler and receive from him a staff and a ring - signs of his dignity.

The Monastery of Cluny in Burgundy led the struggle to change the miserable state of the church. Since that time, the so-called "Cluny Movement" began. His supporters advocated the strengthening and improvement of church organization and discipline, sought to establish strict control over the property of the church, and sought to develop a system of education for the clergy. Their main goal was the title of the Pope as “the viceroy of God on earth,” he was recognized as the only bearer of both spiritual and secular power.

And so by the 13th century, the papacy reached its peak of influence. Pope Innocent III forced the European princes to recognize the supremacy of the popes. The pope's main weapon was the interdict - the prohibition on the territory of any state of the performance of divine services and rituals, as well as the baptism of newborns, marriage, and the funeral of the dead. After that, curses and excommunication of the obstinate ruler from the church could follow, which made the latter outlaw, and also freed his subjects from the oath of allegiance, which in turn provoked uprisings.

However, the unlimited power of the papacy did not last too long. During the reign of Pope Boniface VIII in 1308, there was a conflict between the pope and Philip the Fair, King of France. Those close to the ruler brought the pope to death, and after that the popes were forcibly resettled to french city Avignon. The struggle of the secular rulers against the popes was supported by the patriotic clergy, as well as many representatives of the intelligentsia. The poet Dante, the philosopher Ockham, the lawyer Bonagratius adhered to judgments similar to those expressed by John Wyclef (Oxford professor): "The king keeps the kingdom directly from God, and not from the pope." Royal sovereignty, the power of secular rulers, not limited to the church or feudal lords in the national state - these are the results of the development of the key political forces of the Middle Ages: the papacy, the monarchy, cities and the feudal nobility.

The Middle Ages and the popes were remembered not only for political and economic conflicts. This was the time when the Church was the most important authority in all spheres of human life. People were especially afraid of the Judgment of God, trying in every possible way to "atone" or "redeem" their sins. When it was allowed to redeem indulgences for money, the income of the Church began to grow every day, because every God-fearing citizen sought to appease the Most High and atone for his sins.

The Middle Ages and the popes are curious historical phenomena that have occupied many researchers. It is interesting to trace the strengthening of the influence of the papacy, then its weakening, especially if we consider this process in the context of the events that took place then in Europe. Oddly enough, but even in modern society, the Pope is a fairly important figure even in the field of international relations.

Klishina M.V. Ph.D., professor, Zhubekova A. student gr. MO-12

KEUK, Karaganda, Kazakhstan

The word papa comes from the Greek papas which means "father". In early Christianity, believers referred to their spiritual leaders as such. At the turn of the 2nd and 3rd centuries in Eastern Christianity, the title of Pope was assigned to the Patriarch of the Church of Alexandria. In the west, this title was held by the bishops of Carthage and Rome. In 1073, Pope Gregory VII declared that only the bishop of Rome had the right to bear the title of Pope. It should be noted, however, that to this day the official nomenclature used in Catholic ecclesiastical law does not use the word pope. It is replaced by the expression Roman pontiff, which reflects the two main functions of the pope: the Roman bishop and the head of the entire Catholic Church. The official non-use of the word "papa", perhaps, is determined by the biblical covenant of Christ "... do not call anyone father, for you have one father, God." According to the Catholic doctrine, the Pope is considered "the vicar of Jesus Christ, the successor of St. Peter (the Roman bishops consider themselves the direct heirs of the Apostle Peter), the supreme head of the ecumenical church, the Western patriarch, primate of Italy, archbishop and metropolitan of the Roman province, the sovereign state of the Pope-city of the Vatican. crowns the multistage hierarchy of the organization of Catholicism.The combination of religious and secular power is the rarest case in the history of modern times.Undoubtedly, the influence of the pope as a person on the entire Catholic Church, this is quite understandable and understandable, of particular interest are the most prominent personalities from among the popes of Rome, and their personal contribution to the history of Catholicism.

Who is the Pope and how do Catholics themselves teach about him? His official title is “Bishop of Rome, Substitute of Christ, Successor to the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme High Priest of the Ecumenical Church, Patriarch of the West, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Province of Romania, Sovereign of the Vatican City State, slaves of the servants of God”.

The Latin word “vicar” literally translates as “deputy” or “governor” - it is in this sense that Catholics understand the role of the Roman Bishop. The Prince of the Apostles means the holy Apostle Peter, who is thought of by the Catholics as a kind of absolute, monarchical head of the apostolic community. Primate means “the oldest,” “foremost” of the bishops. The word sovereign means an independent secular ruler. It is very symptomatic that to this day the Pope is resolutely insisting on remaining an independent head of a secular state, even if such a small one, whose territory covers less than a hectare.

What follows from this title in practice? In Roman Catholic law, it is written: "The supreme see cannot be judged by anyone."

From this short phrase, it follows that the Roman High Priest is not subject to the judgment of the Ecumenical Council and that in the Roman Catholic Church itself there is no such body that could tell the Pope that he is mistaken, that he is doing wrong, and that condemn him. The Pope is above the Church and above the Ecumenical Council. And also the very rules of the Ecumenical Council cannot be recognized as valid if the Council was not convened by the Pope and these rules were not approved by him. No bishop in the world can be considered a true bishop if he received his consecration without the sanction of the Pope.

From the teaching that the Pope stands above the Universal Church, that he is not subject to jurisdiction not only by human, but also by ecclesiastical judgment, Catholics made another conclusion. They have a doctrine of papal infallibility.

Catholic teaching says that the Roman High Priest, when he speaks on behalf of the whole Church (there is such a term ex cathedra, that is, "from the pulpit" - not in the sense that he necessarily utters his words, ascending to the pulpit, but in the fact that he speaks officially) about issues of doctrine or morality, cannot be mistaken and his definitions are infallible in themselves and neither confirmation nor acceptance of them by the Church's Plenitude is needed, i.e. the property of infallible teaching, which belongs to the whole Church as a whole, is assigned to one person - the Bishop of Rome.

This is a fairly new dogma. It was adopted only in 1870 at the First Vatican Council, which Catholics call the Twentieth Ecumenical Council. They continued to count the Ecumenical Councils, including some of their Councils of the Middle Ages, Renaissance and Modern times. Now they number twenty-one Ecumenical Councils.

In the Middle Ages in Western Europe, the church organization, headed by the Pope, played a huge role.

Initially, most Christians did not recognize the authority of the bishop of Rome - the pope. The bishop of Constantinople, the patriarch, had great influence, and the popes obeyed him. Rome itself after the conquests of Justinian was under the rule of Byzantium.

However, at the end of the VI century. this power has weakened. The emperors, busy repelling the onslaught of the Arabs and Slavs, could not help Rome in its struggle against the Lombards. In 590, Gregory I, a skillful and wise ruler, became pope. He stopped the onslaught of the Lombards and managed to provide Rome with everything necessary. Gregory, nicknamed the Great, has won enormous authority. In most Western European countries, the church began to obey the Pope. Later, in 754, there was Papal State. As the popes grew stronger, the divisions between the Christians of the West and the East expanded. The Western Church was called Roman Catholic (universal), and the Eastern - Greek Orthodox (true). Disputes were on many issues. For example, the Catholic Church taught that divine services can be conducted only in Latin, while the Orthodox Church - in the languages ​​of every nation. Reading the Bible, according to Catholics, was allowed only for church ministers, and preachers of Orthodoxy often created writing for different nations so that everyone could read the Holy Scriptures. Catholics were baptized with five fingers, and Orthodox Christians - with a thundering or two. In Catholicism, priests were eventually banned from names, families, and in Orthodoxy, celibacy extended only to monks.

An open clash took place in the second half of the 9th century. under Pope Nicholas and Patriarch Photius. Nicholas announced that Photius had been deprived of the patriarch's dignity. In response, Photius cursed the Pope. During the dispute, Nikolai used a collection of ancient documents that he allegedly found. It followed from them that the Emperor Constantine the Great handed over to the then pope power over the entire church and full power over the western part of his empire. Only in the XV century. Italian scholars have proven that this entire collection of documents is a forgery. The final split between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches occurred in 1054.

In its structure, the Catholic Church resembled a "feudal staircase". The lowest link was priests parishes. The parish united the inhabitants of the village or part of the city who prayed in one temple. They became priests after a special ceremony. He was accompanied by bishop - the head of the priests of the diocese (region).

Parish priests elected the bishop of the diocese. During the rite of passage, the bishop was given a ring and a staff as a sign of power over the believers. Bishops of several dioceses were often under headship archbishop. Bishops and archbishops were subordinate to the pope.

In the X century. the rulers of the East Frankish kingdom (Germany) led the struggle against the raids of the Hungarians, created a powerful knightly army. Initially, there was no clear “feudal ladder” in Germany. The king's vassals were not only dukes and earls, but also many knights. King Otto I in 955 in the battle on the Lech River finally defeated the Hungarians. Otto strengthened his power, subjugated many dukes. To enhance his authority, the king established a special relationship with the church. He gave her many privileges, but arrogated to himself the right to establish bishops - he handed them a ring and a staff. The Church in Germany passed from the Pope to the King.

The distillation was favored by the decline in the authority of the pope at that time. The nobility of Rome and the Italian kingdom put their henchmen on the papal throne. Otto made several campaigns in Italy, took the title of King of Italy, defeated the pope's enemies. In 962, the Pope crowned Otgon with the imperial crown. Thus, the re-creation of the empire, which later became known as the Holy Roman Empire, took place again. The popes fell into complete dependence on the emperors. Because of this, the papacy lost its authority even more. Some ministers of the church were eager to change the situation. It was they who initiated the Cluny reform. Initially, they were supported by the emperors, successors of Otto, because they also wanted to increase respect for the church, which was one of the pillars of their power. However, having strengthened the church, the popes began a struggle to free themselves from the power of the emperors. A law was passed according to which only a few bishops-cardinals could participate in the election of popes. The emperor was suspended from participation in the elections. Then the pope proclaimed that the bishops should obey only him, and not the emperor.

In 1073, an ardent advocate of transformation became pope Gregory VII. An open struggle for power over the bishops unfolded between him and Emperor Henry IV. It continued under their successors. In the end, the popes won an almost complete victory over the emperors. They were helped by the fact that over time the imperial power in Germany weakened, and Italy actually fell away from the empire.

In the XII century. the power of the popes increased. The word of the clergy was the law for the common man, for the feudal lord, and for the king. Attempts by some rulers to resist the popes ended in failure. In the middle of the XII century. Frederick Barbarossa became emperor. He was an intelligent and determined person. He managed to somewhat strengthen his power in Germany and wanted to subjugate Italy again, but his knightly army was defeated by the militia of Italian cities, which supported the pope. The defeat of the emperor further strengthened the importance of the popes. The most powerful of them was dad Innocent III(1198-1616). Innokenty called himself viceroy of Christ on the ground. He overthrew and appointed emperors and kings. By order of Innokenty, wars began. The Pope tried to curb feudal strife and clashes between Christian countries, and to direct all his forces to the fight against heretics and Muslims.

Termination at the beginning of the XI century. raids of the Hungarians, Arabs, Normans contributed to the successful economic development of European countries and the rapid growth of the population. However, by the end of the XI century. this led to an acute shortage of free land. Wars and their companions - famine, epidemics - have become more frequent. People saw the cause of all misfortunes in the punishment for sins. In the best way deliverance from sins was considered a visit to holy places, primarily Palestine, where the Holy Sepulcher was located. But after the seizure of Palestine by the Seljuk Turks, who were notable for their intolerance of non-Muslims, the pilgrimage there became almost impossible.

The idea of ​​a campaign against Muslims to free the Holy Sepulcher became more and more widespread in Europe. It was not only a godly deed, but also a way to provide land for both feudal lords and peasants. Everyone dreamed of rich booty, and merchants hoped for trade benefits. In 1095 the Pope Urban II called for a march to Palestine. The participants of the campaign decorated their clothes and armor with crosses - hence its name. Both feudal lords and peasants took part in the First Crusade.

In 1096-1099. the crusaders conquered Syria and Palestine from the Seljuk Turks. There the Kingdom of Jerusalem arose, the vassal possessions of which were considered the counties of Edessa and Tripolitan, the principality of Antioch. The Crusader states waged constant wars with the Muslim rulers of the surrounding countries. Gradually, the crusaders, of whom there were not very many in the East, began to lose their possessions. There were seven more major crusades. The peasants almost did not participate in them, but the knights were often led by emperors and kings. However, all these campaigns were almost unsuccessful. During the Fourth Crusade, the crusaders attacked Constantinople and in 1204 took it. They created the Latin Empire on the lands of Byzantium. Only in 1261 the rulers of the Nicene Empire, which had survived from Byzantium, managed to liberate Constantinople. But Byzantium did not restore its former power.

In Palestine, with the support of the popes, spiritual orders of chivalry were created. Those who entered the order became warrior monks. The first to arise Order of the Knights Templar. Then was created Order of the Hospitallers. Later arose Warband. The knight-monks lived off the lands that belonged to the orders in Palestine and in Europe. The detachments of the order knights differed from the usual feudal army in their discipline. However, over time, the orders grew rich, and their members ceased to show their former zeal in military affairs. Many of them surrounded themselves with luxury. It was even claimed that the Templars, who were especially rich, secretly renounced Christianity.

Meanwhile, the onslaught of the Muslims intensified. In 1187 the Sultan Salah ad-Din(Saladin), who united Syria and Egypt, conquered Jerusalem. In 1291, the last crusader fortress in Palestine fell - Akra.

Despite the failure and great sacrifices, the Crusades had a positive impact on Western Europe. They contributed to the acquaintance of Europeans with the higher culture of Byzantium and the Eastern countries at that time, borrowing many achievements. The positions of European merchants were strengthened. This led in the future to the development of commodity-money relations, the growth of cities and handicraft production. The outflow of the most belligerent part of the feudal lords and their death contributed to the strengthening of royal power in a number of European countries.

Heresies, i.e. deviations from church dogmas, arose during the formation of the Christian church. However, from the XII - XIII centuries. they especially intensified. Heretics pointed out that many priests, including the pope himself, do not observe what they preach, live in luxury, lead a dissolute life, and interfere in the affairs of states. The heretics called for a return to the foundations of the early Christian church, when its ministers were poor and persecuted, but they showed everyone an example of righteousness.

Some heretics taught that the world is ruled by two equal forces - God and the devil. They called themselves people of God, and all opponents, including the clergy led by the Pope, were servants of the devil. The heretics called for the destruction of temples and icons, for the extermination of all the ministers of the church. There were heretics who advocated the equality of all people, not only before God, but also in earthly life. They offered to divide all property equally. In the communities of such heretics, property was considered common; sometimes even wives were in common.

The heretics refused to pray in "spoiled" churches, to pay church tithes. In some places even feudal lords became heretics, including the rulers of large regions, dissatisfied with the claims of the Roman popes to secular power. At the beginning of the XIII century. in parts of northern Italy and southern France, heretics constituted the majority of the population. Here they exterminated the clergy and created their own church organization.

The ministers of the church condemned heresies in their sermons and cursed heretics. However, persecution and punishment became the main way to combat heresies. Heresy suspects were subject to arrest, interrogation with the use of torture, and then execution. Not relying on the zeal of secular rulers who pitied their subjects, the popes created an ecclesiastical court - a saint inquisition(investigation). A person who fell into the hands of the Inquisition was subjected to the most sophisticated torture. The usual punishment for heretics was their public burning alive at the stake. Sometimes they burned up to 100 or more people at once. In addition to heretics, the Inquisition also persecuted people suspected of having links with the devil - witches and sorcerers. Many hundreds of thousands of women have died at the stake in Western Europe over these ridiculous accusations. The property of the convicts was divided between the church and local authorities. Therefore, the rich townspeople especially suffered from the Inquisition.

In the area where there were a lot of heretics, crusades were organized. The largest campaigns were in the south of France against the Albigensian heretics under Pope Innocent III. During the war, the inhabitants of entire regions and cities were exterminated without exception.

After Innocent IIIpower of the papacy began to decline. Fights between popes and emperors resumed. As a result, both sides were exhausted. The authority of the popes was undermined during the struggle between Pope Boniface VIII and the French king Philip IV and then "Avignon captivity" Popes, which lasted until 1377 All this time, the popes lived in the city of Avignon in the south of France and obeyed the will of the French kings. After the return of the popes to Rome began Great schism in the catholic church. For 40 years, two and sometimes three popes were chosen simultaneously. In England and France, the church was effectively subordinated to the royal authority.

To overcome the crisis of the Catholic Church, an Ecumenical Council was established. He sat in Constanta from 1414 to 1418. In 1417 a new pope was elected. Thus, the Great Schism was overcome.

Bibliographic Index:

1. "Popes and Papacy", Ya.V. Kovalsky, M. Politizdat, 1991

2. “Maxim Kozlov. Catholic ecclesiology: papal primacy and papal

infallibility "// http://omolenko.com/publicistic/kozlov.htm/

3. "Catholicism", M. P. Mchedlov, 2nd ed., M. Politizdat, 1974

4. “History. Section III history of the Middle Ages "Artyomov V., Lubchenkov Yu

5. “The Catholic Church. Crusades"// http://www.student.ru/

UDC 316.74 (574)

VATICAN CRUSHES

Klishina M.V. Ph.D., professor, B. Elubay, gr. U-14s KEUK, Karaganda, Kazakhstan

In our difficult days, many are racking their brains: "Why is this such a fierce attack on the state of Israel?" Virtually not a single large international institution or organization remained, ranging from the White House administration to the European Parliament, Great Britain, the UN, Russia, the Arab League, and Iran.

"Bishops from the Middle East, gathered for a conference in the Vatican, adopted a resolution demanding that Israel" end its occupation of the Palestinian lands and stop using the Bible as an excuse for injustice against the Palestinians. " The conference, which lasted 2 weeks, was called by Pope Benedict XVI to discuss the situation of Christians in the Middle East. Catholics constitute a religious minority in the region, which is shrinking every year. Israel blames Muslim extremists for this, but the Catholics themselves, as it turned out, have a different opinion.
The bishops called on Israel to comply with the relevant UN resolutions and declared that "Holy Scripture cannot serve as a basis for the return of Jews to Israel, the expulsion of the Palestinians and the occupation of Palestinian lands." Rights to " The promised land"Are not a privilege of the Jewish people. Christ abolished this right. "

The situation of Christians in the Middle East is deplorable, and only on the territory of the State of Israel no one persecutes them. Moreover, the Catholic monks who remained in the Arab autonomy would very much like to live on the Israeli side, because they have already figured out where is good and where is bad.
He makes lies into dogma. The real Yeshu lived under Alexander Yanai. He was recognized as a heretic, for wild ideas, and was killed, thrown into the abyss.
After the destruction of the Second Temple, and after the death of the Apostles of Jesus, their works were completed and rewritten. The Haggadahs where Yeshu is mentioned have been removed from the Talmud. But the Jews who left for the countries of North Africa and Spain kept their books. And there it all remained. Why was the lie raised to dogma? With a single purpose, with a claim to the Jewish Almighty. For this, the first ancient detective story was written, where, as a result of the Immaculate Conception, on a warning from above, a baby is born in a manger, in a stable, which the Magi recognize by the star. Since a baby is a “son,” then his “father” and “mother” are one family. The Most High, through Jesus, belongs to Christians. And it is not the Romans who are to blame for his crucifixion, but the Jews, and eternal revenge on them for this. And then, God forbid, and there is one who will say that Christianity was the first marauder the ancient world and the Muslims are second. And, since the Holy Scriptures cannot be the basis for the return of the Jews to their land, the Vatican, in the person of its bishops, blasphemes, tearing out from the Eternal Testament not pages, but chapters, which says that the primary duty of a Jew is life in the Promised Land. Or even worse: the Vatican cancels the ETERNAL TESTAMENT, believing that today it can live without it. Just as the Roman Empire fell under the onslaught of the savage hordes, so will the "new crusaders" fall under their onslaught. And all those who are at the head of this "bloody campaign" and evil slander. Our right to the Promised Land is eternal as long as we remain Jewish. "

As Timothy Garton Ash put it: “Without the Pope, there would be no Solidarity (movement of resistance to the government of the then Poland. Auth.). Without Solidarity, there would be no Gorbachev. Without Gorbachev, there would have been no fall of communism. " The “fall of communism” in this case was expressed not in the collapse of the ideology that now “lives and wins” in the West, but in the collapse of the statehood of the Soviet Union and its allies of the countries of Eastern Europe, which, in fact, have long since departed from the communist ideology. Only a few symbols and names remained from it. It was an external facade that hid a completely different structure. It was called Soviet, socialist. But it's not about the name. In essence, it was a system focused on the construction of national statehood, objectively preventing the creation of everything global, including the Global Kaganate. The confrontation between the national and the global lies at the heart of today's political and economic confrontation. During the existence of the Soviet Union, it was he who was the core of everything national, around which the countries of Eastern Europe and the countries of the Third World united, who also chose the path of national statehood. The USSR formed this coalition of national forces, and this coalition held on to it. Thanks to this, the national could defend itself and repel the attacks of the global.

During " cold war"Attempts to undermine the bloc of national forces have been repeatedly made. In the 70s, a strategic decision was made at first, undermining the alliance from within, by disintegrating one of the members, provoke everyone to mutiny, to revolution. And then deliver a fatal blow to the core of the alliance The Soviet Union... Thus, the question arose in which state to lay that mine, which would subsequently blow up the entire system of national statehood so that small fragments remain of it. "

The implementation of this plan was not an easy one. In order to turn some state into an explosive device capable of blowing up the entire system of national forces and creating the prerequisites for the destruction of its core, it was necessary to think over a number of conditions that this state must meet.

First, this state must play a significant role in the coalition of national forces so that the situation in it really affects everyone.

Second, since the main blow was directed against the key Russian statehood as the foundation of the national system, it is necessary that this state organically carry an anti-Russian charge in its bowels. That is, historically, it has toughly opposed Russia, politically and spiritually.

Thirdly, it is necessary for this state to be organically linked with the West, which constitutes the core of the coalition of global forces. An organic connection in this case means a historical union with the West in political and spiritual (religious) terms.

Only one country, Poland, met all these three requirements. When they decided on the state, it was necessary to develop a strategy of subversive work aimed at destroying the system of national statehood led by the USSR.

This strategy was to form a force within Poland that would be capable of acting in two directions against its own national statehood and against the USSR as the vanguard of the system of national statehood in the world.

John Paul II received Active participation in the formation of such a force and acted as its spiritual leader.

The authority of the Pope made it possible to ensure the scale and openness of subversive anti-state activities in Poland. John Paul II, a Pole by nationality, gave the revolutionary movement a special pathos and nationalistic character. Polish Catholicism has historically been the center of the struggle against the Russian Empire.

And under the spiritual leadership of John Paul II, the process of disintegration of the system of national statehood of the USSR and its allies proceeded at a rapid pace.

In June 1979, the Pope undertook his historic trip to Poland and stayed there for nine days, which then turned the world around. In his sermons, lectures and addresses, he did what was later called

"Revolution in the minds of the Poles." Bronislaw Geremek, a former Polish foreign minister and member of the Solidarity movement, recalls: “In 1979, the Pope wanted to convey to us that the regime could not exist without popular support, and he said:“ Don't support it. ” "

It is no coincidence that a year later, the Solidarity movement was formed in Gdansk, which organized a strike at a local shipyard, and almost the first thing that the members of the movement did, they hung a portrait of John Paul II on the gates of the factory.

After this, the Solidarity movement begins a rapid rise, to which the Pope provides comprehensive spiritual and financial support.

Speaking in front of the two chambers of the Polish Sejm at a ceremony marking the 25th anniversary of Solidarity, its former leader and first democratic president of Poland, Lech Walesa, said that the movement was "inspired" by Pope John Paul II. "Then the Polish people and many others woke up from their sleep." According to Walesa, Poles were "awakened" by the first visit of John Paul II to Poland as a pontiff in 1979. It was after this that Solidarity was born and protests against the communist regime began.

The 1979 “revolution in the minds of the Poles” paved the way for the 1989 revolution, after which the process of the collapse of socialist statehood in the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe proceeded at an especially rapid pace.

The New York Times wrote about it this way: Historians and statesmen agree that John Paul II played a huge role in the creation of the Solidarity labor movement in 1980. After a series of largely dramatic events led by this organization, the communist regime collapsed in Poland in the summer of 1989. And this, in turn, caused political upheavals in other socialist countries from East Germany to Bulgaria. " ...

After 1979, the Pope made two more trips to Poland in 1983 and 1987. He managed to ignite the flames of the revolution, which engulfed millions of Poles.

But it all started then with his trip in 1979. As the former head of the Polish state, General Jaruzelski said: "She served as a detonator."

It is known that shortly after the election of Karol Wojtylla as head of the Roman Catholic Church on October 16, 1978, the KGB informed the Politburo that the Vatican's decision was made under pressure from Zbigniew Brzezinski, who was then the security adviser to US President Jimmy Carter. According to sources in the US government, three weeks after this meeting, Reagan signed a secret directive aimed at providing a "crusade" through Poland against the USSR with everything necessary. In secret cooperation with the Vatican and through it, from the United States, money, faxes, computers, copying and printing machines, printing equipment, communication equipment, etc. were smuggled from the United States to help Solidarity.

"The Pope launched an aggressive religious and political offensive" and became "a passionate catalyst for the revolution" ...

In 1985, it became clear that the Polish leadership was no longer able to control and contain the revolutionary movement in the country.

Reagan's Ambassador Vernon Walters visited the Vatican every six months from 1981 to 1988 to exchange highly classified economic, military and political intelligence information.

In 1986, Jaruzelski announced a general amnesty in the country, including the release of more than 200 political prisoners, and dropped the charges against Walesa.

John Paul II returned to Poland in 1987 and celebrated an open air mass in Gdansk in front of an enthusiastic crowd of 750,000. Repeating over and over that Polish workers have the right to self-government (well, just a faithful Marxist), the Pope said:

“No more effective fight than Solidarity. "

As a result, multi-party elections were held in Poland in mid-1989, in which Solidarity candidates won. After that, the process of the disintegration of Varshavsk began.

The hurricane of change, launched by the pope's trips to Poland, was rapidly approaching the main point of its destructive historical destiny to the USSR.

The Catholic Church became one of the main forces of the anti-Soviet struggle, and John Paul II was its spiritual leader and inspirer.

The capture and destruction of Jerusalem ended the first crusade of the western feudal lords to the East. The "Holy Sepulcher" was freed from the never-threatening danger from the infidels. The official goal was met with success. However, from the very beginning, for the feudal conquerors from Western Europe, the question of the coffin played a secondary role. Their actions were of an aggressive conquest. Religious banners and slogans served only as a cover for the completely mundane, everyday interests of knights and lords. The First Crusade enriched several tens of thousands of feudal lords from different countries Western Europe. And he allowed the Catholic Church to somewhat expand its possessions and increase its influence. Trading people gained a certain benefit from this. But this result was achieved at a dear price for the peoples of the West. Huge victims were suffered mainly by the masses of France, Germany, Italy and other countries. Chivalry suffered considerable losses. The first crusade was organized by the papacy for the mercenary purposes of Western feudal lords.

It was once considered that it was the Crusades that brought Europe to the Renaissance, but now this estimate seems to be overestimated to most historians. What they undoubtedly gave to the man of the Middle Ages was a broader view of the world and a better understanding of its diversity.

The crusades are widely reflected in the literature. An innumerable number of poems have been written about the exploits of the crusaders in the Middle Ages, mostly in Old French. The Crusades also stimulated the development of historiography. The conquest of Constantinople by Villardouin remains the most authoritative source for the study of the 4th Crusade. Many consider the biography of King Louis IX, created by Jean de Joinville, to be the best medieval work in the genre of biography.

One of the most significant medieval chronicles was the book by Archbishop William of Tire, written in Latin, The History of Acts in the Overseas Lands (Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum), which vividly and authentically recreates the history of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

At first, the peasant poor also participated in the crusades, suffering severely from the oppression of the feudal lords, crop failures and hunger. Dark, needy farmers, mostly serfs, listening to the sermons of the churchmen, believed that all the calamities they were experiencing were sent down on them by God for some unknown sins. The priests and monks assured that if the crusaders were able to win the "Holy Sepulcher" from the Muslims, then the almighty God would take pity on the poor and ease their lot. The church promised the crusaders the forgiveness of sins, and in case of death - the right place in paradise.

Already during the first crusade, tens of thousands of poor people perished, and only a few of them reached Jerusalem together with strong knightly militias. When in 1099 the crusaders captured this city and other coastal cities of Syria and Palestine, all the riches went only to the large feudal lords and chivalry. Having seized the fertile lands and flourishing trading cities of the "Holy Land", as the Europeans called then Palestine, "Christ's warriors" founded their states. The outside peasants received almost nothing, and therefore in the future fewer and fewer peasants participated in the crusades.

In the XII century. the knights had to equip themselves for war under the sign of the cross many times in order to keep the occupied territories.

However, all of these crusades failed. When at the beginning of the XIII century. French, Italian and German knights for the fourth time girded themselves with a sword at the call of Pope Innocent III, they did not go against the Muslims, but fell on the Christian state of Byzantium. In April 1204, the knights seized its capital Constantinople and plundered it, showing what all the pompous phrases about the salvation of the "Holy Sepulcher" were worth.

Urban II's speech in 1095: “All who go there, in the event of their death, will henceforth be forgiveness of sins. Let those people who are accustomed to fighting against their fellow Christians, who are used to fighting against their fellow Christians, come out against the infidels in a battle that should give an abundance of trophies ... That earth flows with milk and honey. May those who used to be a robber, who fought against brothers and tribesmen, now become warriors. Whoever is woeful here will become rich there. "

Bibliographic Index:

1.I. Lavretsky Vatican Religion, finance and politics. M., Gospolitizdat.

p. 14, 1957

2.I.R. Grigulevich Papacy. Century XX.M., Political Publishing House

literature. p. 96, 1978

3. "Science and Religion" No. 6, p. 3, 2000.

4. Encyclopedia for children. The World History... M., Avanta, page 35, 1996.

5. Zaborov M.A. Crusades. M. Ed. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, page 127, 1956.

6.Vasiliev A.A. Byzantium and the Crusaders: The Epoch of the Comins and Angels. M.

p. 57,1923

7.Vasiliev A.A. History of the Byzantine Empire: from the beginning of the Krestovs

campaigns before the fall of Constantinople. S-Pb. Aletheia. p. 12, 1998

8) Crusade on your way. All Lords of Camelot: Vladimir Sverzhin -

Moscow, AST, p. 752, 2003

9.Crusade back home: Vladimir Sverzhin - Moscow, AST, p. 416, 2002

UDC 378

HISTORY OF RELIGIONS

STATE AUTONOMOUS PROFESSIONAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF THE NOVOSIBIRSK REGION

"BARABINSKIY MEDICAL COLLEGE"

METHODOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

COMBINED LESSON FOR A TEACHER

ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE "HISTORY"

Topic 1.7.Medieval civilization in Europe

Specialty 34.02.01 Nursing (with basic training)

Approved at a meeting of the cyclic methodological commission of the OGSED

Minutes No. ___ dated _______________________

Chairman ___________________________

METHODOLOGICAL SHEET 4

EXTRACT FROM THE WORKING PROGRAM ON THE DISCIPLINE "HISTORY" 5

6

RAW MATERIAL 7

TASKS FOR CONTROL OF KNOWLEDGE ON THE TOPIC13 1.6. THE RISE OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION 13

ASSIGNMENTS FOR STUDYING NEW MATERIAL AND ASSESSING KNOWLEDGE 15

QUESTIONS FOR PRELIMINARY CONTROL OF NEW KNOWLEDGE 17

18

METHODOLOGICAL SHEET

Activity type - combined lesson.

Duration - 90 minutes

THE OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON

Learning objectives:

To form a complex of knowledge about the history of mankind, ideas about the general and special in the world historical process.

2. Developmental goals:

To develop an understanding of the essence and social significance of their future profession, to show a steady interest in it (GC 1).

3. Educational purposes:

To foster a respect for the historical heritage and cultural traditions of the people, to respect social, cultural and religious differences (GC 10).

Teaching methods- explanatory and illustrative, reproductive using multimedia presentation.

Location of the lesson- college auditorium.

MOTIVATION

The Middle Ages in Europe are studied even in a comprehensive school in history lessons. It is at school that students study the period of cultural decline and the fall of civilized society. However, not every school graduate has full knowledge of the history of Russia and the World. In this regard, it is necessary for everyone to replenish their knowledge in the field of history. educated person including the future medical professionals.

EXTRACT FROM THE WORKING PROGRAM ON THE DISCIPLINE "HISTORY"

Topic 1.7. Medieval civilization in Europe.
	Early feudal empires in Europe and their disintegration. Formation of a feudal system of relationships. Sovereigns and vassals. Empire of Charlemagne. Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. Orthodoxy and Catholicism. Byzantine Empire. Crusades. Christian medieval civilization in Europe, its regional features and dynamics of development.
	Laboratory works
	Practical lessons
	Test papers
	Independent work students: Reading the text of the textbook, answering questions.

APPROXIMATE CHRONOCARD OF THEORETICAL LESSON

	Stage name	Time	Stage goal	Activities		Equipment
				teacher	students
	Organizational stage		Organization of the beginning of the lesson, preparation of the workplace for students	Marks absent students in the journal	The headman calls absent students ... Students organize their own activities: align appearance preparing jobs- notebooks for drawing up notes, notebooks for checking works	Journal, Assessment and Self-Assessment
	Control of knowledge on the previous topic		Assessment of the level of knowledge formation	Instructs and controls	Perform tasks	Attachment 1, Notebook for verification work
	Motivational stage, goal setting		Developing interest in a new topic	Explains to students the goals of the lesson, the importance of studying this topic for the performance of professional duties	Listen, ask questions	Methodical development combined occupation
	Learning new material and completing study assignments		Formation of a complex of knowledge about the history of mankind, ideas about the general and special in the world historical process	Provides a summary of the lesson, focusing the attention of students on key points. Coordinates the activities of students when completing assignments, controls, makes adjustments	Perform tasks to study and consolidate new material	Notebook for synopses, supporting synopsis
	Preliminary control of new knowledge		Assessing the effectiveness of the lesson and identifying gaps in new knowledge	Instructs and conducts a frontal survey	Give written answers to security questions	Appendix 2
	Assignment for independent extracurricular work of students		Formation and consolidation of knowledge, development of the ability to use information and communication technologies in professional activities	Gives an assignment for independent extracurricular work of students, instructs on the correct implementation	Record the task	reading the text of the textbook, answering questions. Appendix 3
	Summarizing		Systematization, consolidation of material, development of emotional stability, objectivity in assessing one's actions, the ability to work in a group	Evaluates the work of the group as a whole, individually, assessment motivation	Listen, ask questions, participate in discussion	Group log

RAW MATERIAL

Medieval civilization in Europe.

The beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe is considered to be the collapse of the Roman Empire. The Romans perceived the collapse of their empire as the triumph of the "barbarians", the beginning of the "dark times". Even on the territory of the Roman Empire, large landownership was established, in which the labor of slaves and free citizens was used. For the right to use the land, they gave part of the harvest to their owners. With the fall of the Roman Empire, this economic system did not change. The main difference was that if the empire was dominated by rural tribal communities, now it has been supplanted by the rural the neighboring community. Those. if earlier the land was owned by members of one family, now the land was jointly managed by neighbors. This is probably a consequence of the Great Nations Migration, when many tribes moved to new places of the earth, where there were already sedentary inhabitants. Only meadows and forests became the property of the neighboring community, i.e. where families shared the benefits (grazing cattle, picking berries). The land was in the possession of each family, and each family cultivated only its own territory. The land was completely the property of the family: it was inherited, it could be rented and sold.

The difference between the clan community and the neighbor

In the 7-10th centuries large land tenure became widespread. The landowners rose above the families, collecting rent from the families cultivating the soil. The reason for this was the policy of the invaders. Kings and princes with the army conquered the lands of the peasants and distributed them together with the local residents to their loved ones. Also, small owners in lean years themselves turned to large landowners for help, giving up the ownership of their lands.

Large land holdings were divided into two parts:

Domain - master's land	Peasant land
Barshchina - cultivation of the master's land	Cultivation of peasant land in free time from corvee.
	Rent is a part of the production given to a large landowner for the right to use land.

Large landowners were interested in securing the land of those who cultivated it, but they did not restrict the freedom of the peasants. Peasants were free to move around western Europe. However, they themselves did not want to move from the acquired place; they were tied to the land by the ownership of the house and tools. In addition, it was impossible to leave without paying off the debt to the owner, yes, in general, there was nowhere to go.

Large landowners in Europe were called feudal lords and land ownership feuds... Feudal lords owned land on condition of military service and ensuring the collection of taxes from the feud, i.e. with land tenure. Such obligations of the feudal lord are called vassals. Above the vassal (Latin vassus-servant) stood a seigneur (from Latin senior-senior), who collected tax from vassals and had to protect his vassals in the event of an attack on him by other rulers. The vassal system spread throughout Europe. A hierarchical system of vassal relations was formed: a lord stood over the feudal lords, another lord stood over the group of lords, and so before the supreme monarchs of emperors and kings.

Lesser vassal was considered a knight. The knight was supposed to have a fighting detachment (spear) consisting of the knight himself, his squire and three or four armed horsemen - servants.

The next link is baron... The baron was supposed to have 6 knights (at least) as vassals.

Kingdom consisted of four duchies.

The armies were small: several hundred knights. Because the cost of equipping one knight was very expensive. Over the kingdoms ruled only. However, the desire of the largest landowners (kingdoms) for complete power over their possessions weakened the power of the sovereigns. Sovereigns could not always rely on the support of their vassals. In order to maintain power, the monarchs pushed the biggest kings against the heads of the methods of court intrigue in order to weaken them. The vassals unconditionally obeyed the monarchs only in the event of a common threat, an example of such obedience is the rebuff of the Muslim Arab army in the 8th century.

At this time, the concept was formed knightly code of honor, which exists in our time. A knight is physically strong, enduring, dexterous, perfectly wielding weapons, observing the norms of behavior and decency.

Religious unity of Europe

From time immemorial, on the territory of Europe, there were a variety of tribes that spoke different languages and possessed different customs and traditions. However, in the early Middle Ages, an important factor in the unity of various European states was formed - a common denomination. The highest authority of the Christian Church was considered to be the Ecumenical Councils, which were convened in Byzantium. Bishops (priest of the third degree) were called to councils near local churches. IN V-VII centuries there was a threat of the disintegration of Christianity in Western Europe into many rival religions. This arose due to the fact that the kings, imitating the emperor of Byzantium, convened local church cathedrals on which they approved their decisions, participated in the elections of the bishop and donated their lands to the churches so that the bishops would inspire the peasants with judgments that were beneficial to them.

Ecumenical council

The situation changed under Charlemagne (742-814). Under him, the Frankish kingdom reached the pinnacle of power, it included the lands of modern France, Italy, Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Germany. Charles was interested in the religious uniformity of his domain. The Pope was elected as supreme. On the initiative of Charlemagne, a church reform took place: a single text of the Bible was established, all local church institutions and the order of administration of the service were abolished. All creeds that differed from the established system of religious beliefs established by the church were called heresies. Significant support was received by monasteries designed to serve as centers for the storage and transfer of knowledge. In 800, Pope Leo III conferred the imperial crown on Charlemagne, which was seen as a revival of the Roman Empire. However, in 843 the Frankish Empire ceased to exist: it was divided between the grandchildren of Charlemagne into three parts (East Frankish, West Frankish kingdom and Lorraine).

Norman conquests

In 9-10, the Little Ice Age ended and climatic conditions became favorable for economic activity. Population growth began in Scandinavia (northern part of Europe). Due to the lack of free land, a wave of peoples' migration began. These peoples were known as Vikings or Normans (on the territory of Russia they are known as Varangians) in terms of development they lagged far behind European nations, traditional occupations were fishing and trade, they also achieved great success in navigation: they colonized (subdued, conquered) Iceland, settled in Greenland, but the rich, southern lands were of the greatest interest.

The first raid was recorded in 793, after which the shoots to the cities of Europe became permanent and continued until the 10th century until the King of France gave the duchy of Normandy to one of the leaders of the Vikings Rollon. Rollon pledged to protect the coast from other Viking raids. Gradually, feudal relations began to develop in the Scandinavian countries and the peasantry spread. The nobility of Scandinavia moved closer to the Central European feudal houses and the raids ceased.

Vikings are warriors

Attachment 1

TASKS FOR CONTROL OF KNOWLEDGE ON THE TOPIC 1.6. THE RISE OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION

1. Answer the questions:

Fill in the blanks:

3. The preaching of a new teaching, seen in a dream by the prophet Muhammad, is called Islam. land

new possession awarded for service.

4. Date of resettlement (hijra) of the Prophet Muhammad to the city of Yathrib from Mecca in 622. in Islamic countries it is considered the starting point of the new chronology. land

owner.

5. Islamic teachings after the death of the prophet were presented in verse form in a book called the Koran. an employee assigned to the feud, who was supposed to collect taxes from the peasants.

6. The war of the Islamic state with other faiths was considered sacred and was called jihad. an employee who collects taxes from his vassals, who must ensure the protection of his vassals in the event of an attack.

knight

Standards for answers

1. Answer the questions:

1. Describe the climate of the Arabian Peninsula. How did the climate affect the economic activities of the Arab tribes? Most of the Arabian Peninsula was desert. Separate centers of agriculture and animal husbandry could exist only near a few oases. Here lived the tribes of nomad Bedouins, who by the 7th century preserved the features of the tribal system. The tribes often fought with each other. The struggle was for control over water sources. The purpose of the wars was the capture of slaves, livestock, while camels were considered the greatest value.

2. Why did many inhabitants of the conquered lands change their religion to Islam, although the Arab conquerors did not impose their religion?

Because Muslims in the conquered lands paid only land tax (kharaj) and a small tax to help the poor, and adherents of other religions had to pay a poll tax (jizya). This indirectly contributed to the spread of Islam.

Fill in the blanks:

3. The preaching of a new teaching, seen in a dream by the prophet Muhammad, is called Islam.

4. Date of resettlement (hijra) of the Prophet Muhammad to the city of Yathrib from Mecca in 622. in Islamic countries is considered a point countdown of the new chronology.

5. Islamic teaching after the death of the prophet was presented in verse form in a book called Koran.

6. The war of the Islamic state with other faiths was considered sacred and was called jihad.

Appendix 2

ASSIGNMENTS FOR STUDYING NEW MATERIAL AND ASSIGNING KNOWLEDGE

Drawing on the material in the reference outline, draw a diagram of the "Feudal Staircase" and describe each step.

2. Using the material of the supporting outline, decide test tasks.

1. Feature medieval society:

a) domination of free enterprise

b) the senior-vassal structure of society

c) the merger of state power and property

d) the use of slave labor in industry 2. After what event

2. Hereditary land ownership associated with compulsory military service in the Middle Ages:

a) feud b) colonate c) policy d) interdict

3. The huge role of the papacy in the mature Middle Ages was explained by:

a) the weakness of secular rulers b) the unity of the Christian church

c) the refusal of the church from property d) the power of the Byzantine

4. A creed that differs from the system of religious beliefs recognized by the church:

a) heresy b) scholasticism c) schism d) union.

3. Based on the synopsis and textbook material, answer the question:

What duties did the peasants perform for the use of the land?

A standard of answers to tasks for learning new material and consolidating knowledge

Knight was supposed to have a fighting detachment (spear) consisting of the knight himself, his squire and three, four armed horsemen - servants.

Baron should have had 6 knights (at least) as vassals.

Earl, Viscount, Marquis included from 3 to 6 barons, i.e. the duke had power over four counties.

King had at least 4 duchies under his command.

Kingdoms were ruled only by sovereign monarchs - emperors.

3. The obligations of the peasants of the Middle Ages for the right to use the land were corvee - free work of peasants on the land of the feudal lord and quitrent - the surrender of part of their products and products by the peasants to the feudal lord.

Appendix 3

QUESTIONS FOR PRELIMINARY CONTROL OF NEW KNOWLEDGE

1. Indicate the features of the socio-economic relations developing in Europe during the early Middle Ages. Formulate the differences between the neighboring community and the clan?

2. Specify the features of feudal land tenure. What did the vassal relationship mean?

3. Why in the Middle Ages there was a special military class - knighthood? What was the specificity of military service?

4. Describe the role of the Viking conquests in historical development. Indicate the directions of the Norman conquests.

LIST OF USED SOURCES

Tutorial on history [Text] / N.V. Zagladin, N.A. Simonia - M: State Enterprise "Russian Word - Textbook", 2011.-400 p.

Photo materials and illustrations - Internet resources

Test tasks - Internet resources

As a result of the transformation of Christianity into the dominant religion in both the Eastern and Western Roman empires, a strong and centralized church organization was formed, headed by bishops who ruled individual church districts (dioceses). By the middle of the 5th century. formed five centers of the Christian Church, or five patriarchies, whose bishops received the titles of patriarchs - in Constantinople, Rome, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. The further history of the Christian Church in Byzantium and in the West developed in different ways, in accordance with the peculiarities of the development of feudalism in them.

The basis of its organization is east Christian church laid the administrative division of the Eastern Roman Empire. At the same time, of the four patriarchies that were part of the Eastern Christian Church (Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem), at the church council in 381, the metropolitan Patriarchate of Constantinople received a dominant position. The strong imperial power that remained in Byzantium strove to ensure that the church was an obedient instrument of the state and was completely dependent on it. Byzantine emperors already at the cathedrals of the middle of the 5th century. were recognized as persons having supreme rights in the church with the title of "emperor-bishop". Although ecclesiastical councils were considered the supreme body of the Eastern Christian church, the right to convene these councils belonged to the emperor, who determined the composition of their participants and approved their decisions.

The position of the church was different in the countries of Western Europe, where very significant changes took place after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the disappearance of the imperial power. The adoption of Christianity by "barbaric" kings and the nobility contributed to the fact that the church, penetrated into a "barbarian" society, which was going through the process of feudalization and enslavement of the peasants, was able to take a special position in this society.

Taking advantage of the weakness of the early feudal "barbarian" states and their mutual struggle, the bishops of the "eternal" city of Rome, from the IV century. who were called popes, very early assumed administrative and political functions and began to make claims to the highest authority in the affairs of the Christian church as a whole. The real basis of the political power of the Roman bishops - popes was the richest land holdings concentrated in their own hands and in the monasteries subordinate to them. In the second half of the VI century. nominally dependent on Byzantium, whose power in Italy by this time had greatly diminished, the popes became in fact completely independent. To justify their claims, the popes spread the legend that the Roman episcopal see was allegedly founded by the Apostle Peter (who was considered a disciple of the mythical founder of the Christian religion, Jesus Christ). Therefore, the pope called their huge land holdings “the patrimony of St. Peter ". This legend was supposed to create an aura of "holiness" around the popes. Pope Leo I (440-461), to confirm the rights of the Roman bishop to primacy among other bishops, resorted to forgery. In the Latin translation of the decrees of the first "ecumenical" council, he inserted the phrase: "The Roman Church has always had primacy." The same ideas were developed by subsequent popes, despite the fact that the claims of the Roman bishops-popes for a dominant role in the entire Christian church provoked the most decisive opposition from other bishops, especially Eastern ones.

The medieval Christian church in its structure reproduced the feudal hierarchy. So, in the West, the Pope became the head of the church. Below the pope were large spiritual feudal lords - archbishops, bishops and abbots (abbots of monasteries). Even below were the priests and monks. The heavenly world of medieval Christianity was an exact reproduction of the earthly world. At the very top of the heavenly hierarchy, according to the teachings of the church, was the almighty "god-father" - a copy of the earthly rulers - surrounded by angels and "saints." The feudal organization of the heavenly world and the church itself was supposed to sanctify the feudal order on earth in the eyes of believers.

Monasticism, which became widespread both in the East and in the West, played a huge role in the medieval Christian church. Monasticism emerged during the early Christian period as a form of hermitage or flight from society for those people who lost faith in the possibility of getting rid of social oppression. However, already by the VI century. hostels (monasteries) created by monks turned into the richest organizations. Labor has ceased to be obligatory for monks, and the asceticism of monasticism in the period of its inception has long been forgotten. In the East, monasticism became a major political force that tried to influence the affairs of the state. In the West, starting with Benedict of Nursia (480-543), who founded the Monte Cassino monastery in Italy and thus laid the foundation for the Benedictine order, monasticism became a faithful support for the popes and, in turn, took an active part in the political affairs of Western European states.

By helping the ruling class in every way to formalize and strengthen the feudal dependence of the peasantry, the church, both in the East and in the West, was itself the largest landowner. She received huge land holdings in the form of donations from kings and large feudal lords, who sought to strengthen the position of the church organization, which sanctified their rule. With gifts for the benefit of the church, they hoped at the same time to secure for themselves the "kingdom of heaven." In both Byzantium and the West, churches and monasteries owned about one third of all land. Thousands of serfs worked on the monastic farms, who were subjected to even more cruel exploitation than on the lands of secular feudal lords. The land holdings of the church in Italy were especially large. In the V century. three Roman churches - Peter, Paul and John Lateran - received, in addition to income in kind, another 22 thousand solidi (about 128 thousand rubles in gold) of annual income.

The selfishness and greed of the clergy knew no limits. Huge land riches were obtained by the church through deception, forgery, forgery of documents, etc. Clerics and monks used threats of heavenly punishment and extorted wills in favor of the church. Church estates enjoyed the right of immunity in the West and a similar right of excursion in Byzantium. Church ministers were subject only to ecclesiastical judgment.

Bishops were also vested with administrative functions. All this elevated them in society and contributed to the strengthening of their power. The way of life of the higher clergy differed little from the way of life of the largest secular feudal lords.