Years of birth I am the death of Avula Cornellia Celsius, Roman scientist - an encyclopedist and a doctor, not defined. Matching however, mentioning him of many Roman writers, conclude that Celsius lived at the end of the I century BC. e. And in the first half of the first century n. e. It is generally accepted that the lifetime of Celsius should be attributed to the rule of the emperors of August (27 BC) and Tiberia (14-37 years. N. E.). Called (also presumably) and more exact dates: 25-30 GG. BC e. - 45-50 GG. n. Es perhaps that Celsis lived before the reign of Nero (54-68. N. E.). The birthplace of Celsius allegedly consider the cities of Verona or Rome.
Versatile educated person, Celsius wrote about agriculture, rhetoric, philosophy, right, military business and medicine. His capital labor "De Medicina" ("On Medicine") in eight books, the only one of his works that came to us, constitutes the VI-XIII Books of the Huge Encyclopedia "Artes" - "art" written by Celsius.
The written "On Medicine" was created, probably about 25-30. n. e.
Russian doctor Alexander Bernard, who dedicated his thesis on the degree of doctor of medicine, suggested that Cell teachers were his senior contemporaries, outstanding Greek doctors practicing in Rome, Megeet, Trifon and Eustpist. It is permissible that Celsius replenished its medical knowledge in the Schola Medicorum founded by Augustus (medical school).
Mention of Roman writers about Celsius is very numerous. Lutions, Yuni Moderat Columella (end of the first century BC. E, - 65. N. E.) Writes: "In" Asha, Cornelli Celsis in five books outlined the entire arch of knowledge. "He also calls Clee" a very famous writer of our time ".
The famous speaker and theoretics of oratory art Mark Fabi Quintilian (about 30-96 n. E.) Also repeatedly mentions Celsius in his essay "Speaker's training" and, by the way, characterizes his writer manner, notes that Celsis wrote "not Without grace and brilliance. "
Mention of Cleisters and Pliny Senius (23/24-79. E.). The written "On Medicine" is written clear, and simple language. The same Quintilian, appreciating the oratorical abilities of Celsius, noted: "As for the speaker, then, of course, there are no disagreements to the attitude of Celsius, which" undoubtedly followed by Cicero. "
Celsius is close to the language of the classic period, to the so-called "Golden Latin".
Celsius was called "Medicorum Cicero" (medical cicero) and "Latinus Hippocrates" (Latin Hippocratic), and this is high (recognition of a variety of advantages of its extensive labor.
Celsius wrote a kind ( practical guide According to medicine, which he was able to create, engaged in the treatment of patients in his "Valtudinarium" for slaves.
Following the poet and philosopher - materialist Lucretzie (99-55 BC. E.) Celsis continues to develop scientific Latin terminology. In some cases, he introduces new medical terms in Latin, replacing the traditional Greek names, which often lead to them in parallel.
The fact that Celsis was a hot champion of the Latin language, on his personal example, which hesized his fruitfulness as a language of science, also testifies to the epigram, which came to us under the name of Cheris's Cornellia. It sounds a certain pride in the Latin language, which has not yet been written not many works, but also "Per Pauca Volumina" ("Thanks to the few creations"), the Romans became famous for no less than the Greeks (a hint of Greeks can be seen in the last verse of epigram). Here she is:
"Dictantes Medici Quandoque et apollinis artes
Musas Romano Issimus Ora Loqui.
Nec Minus Est Nobis Per Pauca Volumina Famae
Quam Quos Nulla Satis Bibliotheca Capit. "
"Our rally muses - always speak Latin,
Since the apollo-doctor will become express.
And with few creatures we have tied the fame no less
Those who make the scan even endless works. "
(Translated Y. Schulz)
Since in the era of Celsius, Latin medical terminology was still in the period of becoming, then he often the same word expresses various concepts. So the word Vuinus means both wound and ulcers, a Cancer - and cancer and death. Ienis Sacer in understanding Celsius is interconnected, then as a listened, as a acute inflammatory disease of the type of gangrene (in folk medicine - "Antonov fire"). When describing some skin diseases, for example, in the VI book, is given too general description Signs.
In his treatise, Celsis will summarize the achievements of the ancient Roman medicine on diettics. pathology, therapy, surgery. In this work, Celsius made data from his own rich experience.
The dissertation of A. Bernard, for example, there are numerous and interesting statements by scientists and doctors of the XIX century, which unanimously noted the greatest value (and not only the historical) seventh, the Surgery book of Celsius: the technique of some operations since Celsius before their time did not undergo, or Almost never undergone any significant changes. Sections of the treatise dedicated to operational surgery are particularly consonant with the modern materialistic understanding of our science.
The composition of Celsius "On Medicine" was found in the middle of the 15th century (about 1443 g) Foma Perettone de Sarzan, and his first edition (Editio Princeps) was published in Florence in 1478. It was followed by the Milane Edition of 1481 and three Venetian (1493, 1496, 1497). Thus, only five Cleisters published in Italy to the end of the χv century.
In the XVI century, the work of Celsius was published about 25 times (in Leiden, Venice, Paris, Antwerp, Basel and other major university cities).
The XVII century added to them for another ten publications, XVIII - about fifteen, and in total since 1478, the work of Celsis was published more than seventy times.
It should be noted that in a number of old editions, starting from the Venetian (1518) printed in the printing house of Alde Manuction, the medical didactic poem Quinta Serena Samonanka was placed behind Celsius (NC. III century. N. E.) "Liber Medicinalis" attachment). Together with Celsis, Serena Samonic is in addition of publications 1528 and 1566, as well as in the Paduan edition of 1722
Among the publications of the last century, there should be several editions of Targa: 1801 (Celebryukken), 1806 (Strasbourg), 1810 (Verona) and 1828 (Moscow), the publication of Ritter and Albers 1835 (Cologne), edition Bedder 1876 (Paris), and especially the publication of Damarburg 1859 (Leipzig), from which the real translation of Celsius.
The newest Commissal Edition was published in 1915.
In the German Democratic Republic in 1955, for medical students were published in the original Fragments of Cessary, along with an oath of gigapocrat and an excerpt from the agronomic treatise "On agriculture" Brand Terenation of Warre (30s 1 V. BC. .).
The work of Celsius from the XVI century was repeatedly translated into Western European languages. The first German translation was published in Mainz back in 1531. The best German translation is Schellor, published by the second edition in 1906 (Braunschweig). The first French translation was released in 1753 (Paris), the first English - in 1756 (London), and Italian - in 1828 (Milan).
On Russian language (in 1907) only the seventh book of his work was transferred devoted to the issues of surgery. This translation is the first complete. translating the work of Celsius into Russian.
Was it or not Celsis doctor? There are two opposite opinions on this. Some scientists Girshberg, Heger, Dammemberg, Meyer Steingheg and others, giving a famous tribute to the most common hypercriticalism, do not consider him a doctor. They are adjacent to them, albeit with some reservations, S. Korner. The same point of view on Celsius is accepted and in many teaching aids on the history of medicine.
I. L. Gaberyg, not counting Celsis by a specialist, and noting in particular his merits in the presentation of high achievements of Alexandrian surgery. The period, as follows, characterizes the entire work of Celsius: "Medicine gave in the I century. N. E. It is gratifying the work of Ceeza Cornellius, the best that Romans contributed to all scientific literature."
Other scientists, including A. Bernard in their dissertation, follow the opposite opinion, believing that Celsius was undoubtedly a doctor. A. Bernard pretty thoroughly disassemble this question and. It comes to the conclusion that in the work of Celsis "everywhere a practical doctor is visible." We also join its export.
Indeed, Celsius used all the numerous scientific literature on medicine from the hippocracy and to Askletpiad. Justows the opinion that Celsius in his essay used even the works of Old Indian medicine, and in particular Ayur-lead Sushrutes, one of the first Indian doctors. However, A. Bernard proves the opposite, namely, the fact that not Celsius borrowed from Indian medicine, but the Celsius himself had a number of provisions and descriptions. These borrowings then got into the book of Sushrutes, which, as you know, was replenished with a century after the death of her original author. According to A. Bernard, this could happen since the era of August, when the Romans first tied relations with India. However, this interesting question is still open and needs a special study.
In the publication of Celsius, published in Celiebrukken in 1786, the Latin epigram is dedicated to Celsis of one of the new time scientists, I. Duza:
"You are city affairs described the farm of the village,
And your medicine is also worthy of praise.
After, as Ritor, touched the merits of military affairs;
It is this, about Celsius, Mars comes closer and music. "
(Translated Y. Schulz)
Medicine is just one of the parties to the diverse activities of the Roman scientist - an encyclopedist, but also in itself this side has a great informative value for us. Essay of Avula Cornellia Celsius "On Medicine $ 1 - extensive and interesting work, which sets out the basic principles and theory of medical science of the Du-Galenovsky Rome.
Methodical School
Asclepads is considered the founder of a methodical medical school that promotes the "simple way" in treatment. His disciples and followers also left a significant mark in history. Tempecon, heading the school of methods, continued the case of the teacher and described in detail the leprosy, rabies, rheumatism. Anthony Musey Roman Senate in gratitude for healing from the deadly disease of the emperor Octavian Augustus with the help of baths and a monument was established. The doctor and philosopher Avl Cornelius Celsis amounted to Encyclopedia, which relied in many ways to the views of Askletpiad. Soro-Efesse in practice first applied a differential diagnosis, made a special contribution to dermatology and gynecology. Representatives methodical school Closely approached the understanding of the vital tone, as an indicator of the condition of the body. They believed that the root cause of disease is the change in the proportion of liquid and solid corpuscles, of which the human body consists.
If solid corpuscles dominate - there is a pathological stress, leading to a certain type of diseases, if the balance is shifted towards liquid corpuscles - relaxation occurs - the cause of different kinds of disease occurs.
Without bothering long theorization, he prefers practicing and medical intuitionOutstanding achievements of doctors naturally changed the position of the doctors in Roman society. In 46 BC e. Julius Caesar published Edict, according to which the visiting doctors, and the inhabitants of the eternal city, who studied medicine, regardless of the estates received the honorable right of Roman citizenship - the highest social and legal status.
A simple and gentle approach of Asclepiad to treatment is likely to seem to be naive in our time, and its contemporaries, inclined to radical methods, sometimes openly called the famous charlatan doctor. However, the fact: there are reliable evidence that Asklepads himself followed the system developed by him and lived to a deep old age, while keeping the body's vigor and the clarity of the mind. And not any fatal ailment, but only the tragic accident caused the life of the great healer.
Pedains Diospurid
about 40 g. e. - About 90 g. e.
Mountain trails, steppes and rope, sands and forests - the Roman Empire has grown. When is the whole world at the foot of the emperor, does it matter that the Trestov is under the sandals of the legionnaire? The soldier should not know fatigue and hands, for in his hand it is a sword, from which whole nations tremble. Well, isn't an eccentric to the one who in the long campaigns of the glorious legion instead of ammunition or a barrel of the re-wine drags with him strange books with dried leaves, and in privals do not draw blacks of alien virgins, but a terrible roadside flowers? The name of such an eccentric Dioscaride Ohm, and all - from Varvarov's mercenaries to Centurions - they assumed the glory to the gods for his golden hands.
Contribution to medical science:
The first classification of medicinal plants and means, founder of pharmacognosia
One of the founders of medical botany and ethnobotants
Description of the technologies of drug production
The author of the term "anesthesia"
Contribution to the development of medicine:
General medicine
Pharmacology, pharmacognosy, pharmaceuticals
Dietology
Anesthesiology
The path of the soldier
In October 54, N. e. The place of the untimely killed Roman emperor Claudia took his stepper - blood plebeans and the nephew of the insane caligules of the louches of the domains, entered the story under the name of Neron. The late clawdies, poisoned, according to the official version, mushrooms, heard the patron of science. His name is mentioned among the authors of several, alas, now lost scientists. Claudius was nevertheless to focus in his hands the power over the empire and in a short time significantly expand its borders at the expense of successful military operations. His 16-year-old successor, whose name forever became synonymous with the bloodthirsty and unscrupulous tyrant, on the contrary, practically did not led the revival wars and limited himself to the five-year-old campaign against the Parthian kingdom and the strengthening of the boundaries established by the predecessors. Unlike Greeks, Romans by that time actively attracted doctors to the public service, and the Institute of Military Doctors Institute was developed in the Roman army, which accompanied troops in all campaigns. One of the first such doctors in the chronicles is mentioned by the pedenters of Dioscaride - Greek, a native of the city of Anasarba in Kilicia (now it's the south of Turkey). Apparently, the formation of Dioscarid received in Tars, the capital of Kilicia, at the homeland of the Apostle Paul, - in the city built by the Assyrians. The famous medical school was located in Tars, which was considered to be a graduate of Luca. Perhaps Dioscarid then improved his knowledge in Alexandria, where in the famous library had access to the illustrated herbaries stored there, collected by the ancient naturalists.
Since the ancient times, therapeutic drugs around the world were made of local vegetation, and the study of the flora went experimentally and happened that beneficial features plants were detected at all by chanceIn 69 N. er, after the death of Nero and the demolition of the supreme power between applicants for her, with the support of several legions, the Roman emperor was proclaimed Flavius \u200b\u200bVespasian. Having inherited a ruined treasury and a state-torn country, the state, the commander introduced the regime of tough economy, replenishing the budget by any means. What is his famous phrase "Money does not smell"! When the enemy turned out to be defeated and the long-awaited victory in the Jewish War came, Vespasian changed his aggressive foreign Policy And reformed the army. Now the legions were called upon to provide order and protect the power of Rome in a huge territory. Dioscaride also served as a military doctor all this time: as Medic himself said, he lived the life of a soldier. The route of the unit, which accompanied Dioscarides, to restore according to historical documents, unfortunately, is no longer possible, however scientific works The famous doctor indirectly indicate that the path of the doctor ran through Malaya Asia, Greece, Italy, Provence and other parts of the Roman Empire spreading out on Polimir.
From herbalia to pharmacognosia
Since the ancient times, therapeutic drugs around the world were made of local vegetation, and the study of the flora was experimed and happened that the beneficial properties of plants were completely accidentally detected. As the ancient civilizations develop: Sumer, Egypt, India, China - herbalists exchanged knowledge with alien and discovered new medicinal products. Greek healers, adopted experience gained by centuries, included it in the basics of scientific medicine originally originated in Eldead. In the "Hipporate Corps" there are about 230 medicinal plants. Shortly after the hippocracy, at the turn of the IV-III centuries BC. E., Greek philosopher and naturalist, a student of Aristotle Theofrast in his books described about 500 species of plants and determined the foundations of their physiology, because of which he was subsequently called Botany's father. He first expressed the idea that the plants received useful properties not to help a person, but according to the laws of expediency established by nature itself.
Life of a military doctor, like a soldier, was not easy. Roman legionnaires, leaving the thrill on the enemies, often defeated the ailments. What to say about hostilities when dozens, and then the hundreds of wounded needed urgent medical care. In the time of Dioscarid, the idea itself was the idea that Rome was able to trust Ababa to take care of the health of the soldier - the source of the power of the empire. To doctors, from Sanitar to a staff surgeon, the highest requirements were presented. But Dioscaride went down in history, not for achieving professional heights, which he also achieved, and thanks to his hobby not quite characteristic of military medical. Wherever the will of the Emperor Legion sent, the doctor devoted all his free time to the study and collecting of medicinal plants growing in the place of stay of the troops. Dioscride has always been interested in what means are vegetable, animals, minerals - use local residents to treat diseases and injuries. A talented healer was undoubtedly familiar with the works of the theophress and other scientists of the past, who studied and describing therapeutic herbs and drugs. But, as a true researcher, Dioscaride, inclined to question the experience of predecessors, personally checked the action of almost every medication that interests him or on patients and wounded soldiers.
Dioscurid Groups plants by their therapeutic effects - The principle underlying the basis created only in a half thousand years of pharmacopoeiaSo, in the period from the 60th to the 70th year. e. Dioscarid wrote his glorious scientific work De Materia Medica ("On Medicinal Substances"). Acquisited in hiking experiences and observations of the scientist are reflected in five volumes containing a description of about 600 medicinal plants, and medical drugs and 4,700 ways to use. Labor was devoted to the Dioscaride teacher - a doctor from Tars. Each chapter is assigned to the description of a separate drug, it is presented in it, properties, a method of preparation and indication for use. Most of the book occupies information on medicinal plants, including the places of their growing. De Materia Medica is the first work on pharmacognosia (from Greek. Pharmakon - "Medicine" and GNosis - "Study"), science that studies medicinal plants and vegetable and animal raw materials used in medicine.
Dioscarid also owns the first separation of plants into four groups to use their person: fragrant, food, medical and winemaking
Matter Medica
In De Materia Medica, Dioscaride leads to the names of plants and their synonyms that humanity uses so far. Researchers discovered words among these names not only with Greek and Latin, but also with Dkyky, Slavic and Armenian roots. This means that Dioscaride was well focused on therapeutic practice adopted by the peoples who inhabited the Empire and their neighboring states. The gravity of the growing plants described by scientists extend to many areas of Europe and Asia. Thus, Dioscaride indirectly became the progenitor arising at the turn of the XX century of new science - ethnobotans, which studies the role of flora in the life and culture of individual peoples.
Dioscorida also owns the first separation of plants into four groups to use their person: fragrant, food, medical and winemaking. Medical plants in turn are divided into subgroups: warming, binders, mitigating, drying, cooling, concentrating, relaxing, nutritious. Dioscorid Groups plants according to their therapeutic effects - the principle underlying the basis created only after a half thousand years of pharmacopoeia.
In the work of Dioscarid, the place and plants constituting the usual food diet: vegetables and fruits. The book describes examples of their action on the body under a number of diseases. De Materia Medica contains detailed information about the processes of sublimation, distillation and other methods of preparation of drugs. In addition, Dioscaride is the author of the term "anesthesia" - it uses it when describing the drug-like action of the mandragore root.
It is known that the author provided the book with his own drawings from nature, which, being repeatedly copied, in several centuries became, unfortunately, quite far from reality. Original De Materia Medica has not survived. The earliest found from his copies found is a small fragment of the text of the V-VI centuries, stored in the Neapolitan Library. The most famous so-called "Vienna Diospurid" of the VI century is the manuscript created in Constantinople for the daughter of Caesar Flavia oncius and decorated with more than 400 magnificent miniatures, because of which he is included in the UNESCO heritage registry. Unlike the works of other ancient authors, De Materia Medica did not comprehend temporary oblivion: over the past centuries, the book was copied, complemented, translated into other languages. Medieval Europe For the first time, familiarized with the work of Dioscarid in Arabic translation. Until the XVI century, De Materia Medica book was the only source of knowledge on botanic and pharmacology for scientists of the West and the East.
Dioscorid is the author of the term "anesthesia" - it uses it when describing the drug-like action of the mandragora rootIN modern world Pharmacists synthesize the most complicated substances, create drugs operating at a genetic and molecular level, but we must not forget that everything began with a manuscript created by the Millennium backwards in the campaigns of one Roman legion, which is now only the fact that a wonderful surgeon has served in Dioscaride Pedices.
Avl Cornelius Cels
oK. 25 BC e. - OK. 50 g. e.
Neither Emperor Tiberius, nor his contemporary Roman philosopher and scientist Avl Cornelius Celsis did not assume that they live at the junction of a change of epochs. And if the first was glorified thanks to his title, then the second is only one hundred years and hundreds of years, when the name of the scientist many generations of doctors will be pronounced with a special diet.
Contribution to medical science:
Systematization of antique medicine knowledge
A description of a number of surgical operations and manipulations
Creating the basics of medical terminology
Determination of signs of inflammation
Description of the structure of the eye
Classification of mental disorders
Contribution to the development of medicine:
General medicine
Surgery
Pathological physiology
Psychiatry
Ophthalmology
Portrait of an unknown
Of all the recognized founders of medicine about Celsius, reliable information has been preserved. His biography and in our time causes fierce disputes of historians. According to the assumptions of some of them, Celsius took place from the kind of rich patrician: he was born or in Rome, or in Verona. It is no doubt that it was a non-real-minded man, a brilliantly educated, who owns the language, is easily focused on the issues of history, literature and many religious flows. Interestingly, at the end of the 15th century about Celsius, as a really existing scientist, it was known mainly on the book CONTRA CELSUM ("against Celsius"), written by Yarym Opponent of the Doctor and Philosopher Theologian Origen Alexandrian, who lived for two centuries later Celsius. The scientist himself, in his treatise, the "truthful word" showed himself to an irreconcilable and consistent criticism of the emerging Christianity, who had formed his philosophical views under the influence of ancient thinkers: Plato, Herclic, Pythagora. In general, the superstition and an area of \u200b\u200bsorcerence in general: there are indirect evidence that he traveled through Egypt, Syria and Palestine and exposed Charlatans, who outstand themselves for the magicians and healers.
Fame and honor in scientific circles, Celsius is obliged, however, not only the anti-Christian treatise and criticism of him Origen. For many centuries, scientific immortality of a scientist provided its volume work - a book entitled by the author as Artes ("Arts"). Only a part of this unique encyclopedia has been preserved, which included all modern knowledge and rhetoric, agriculture and philosophy, jurisprudence and medicine at that time. In 1443, eight out of 2 of the treatises of the "Arts" from the section "On Medical Business" were found in the monastery by the future dad Roman and the founder of the Vatican Library Tommaso Parentechelli. In those days, Europe has already dreamly dreaming the great prospects for typography. In 1478, the found works of Celsis were published in Florence as a guide for studying medicine, thanks to which the books were preserved to our time.
129 or 131 - approx. 200, or OK. 210
The collection of works of Galen, thanks to the coverage of almost all existing sections of medicine, has been a basic knowledge system for healers throughout the 15th centuries. In Rome, during the life of the scientist, coins were minted with his profile, and medieval authors called Galen not otherwise as a divine. Without adhering to the dogma of any one of the existing medical schools, Galen walked his dear, checking the theory of predecessors, - and became the first one who managed to bring into a single science scattered in the field of healer's knowledge of the ancient world.
Contribution to medical science:
Creating a medical knowledge system
Description of the anatomy and physiology of the musculoskeletal system, cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory and other systems
Creating the first in the history of the theory of blood circulation
Contribution to the development of medicine:
General medicine
Anatomy
Physiology
Pharmacology and pharmaceuticals
Surgery
Neurology
Hygiene
Archriter Emperor.
In two and a half century BC, the Tsarist dynasty of Attalides founded in the city of Pergami, located on the coast of Malaya Asia (now it is the territory of Turkey), one of the richest storage of books in the number of manuscripts only by the Alexandria library. According to the legend, the kings of Egypt were so afraid of the rivalry of Pergamum and Alexandria, which, under the fear of severe punishment, was banned from the export of the Nile Papyrus produced in the Nile Valley - an analogue of paper in antiquity. But the wise men of Pergami found their solution to the problem: they have improved the old Persian method of processing raw materials of livestock and created a parchment - more durable and durable material for a letter called by the city of origin and served mankind until the development of a typography.
The passion for the study of the structure of the human body is finally mastered by Galen. He scrupulously studies the works of the doctors of the past, whose names are sometimes known now only due to the quotes in the works of GalenThree centuries later, in 130 N. er, a great scientist, known as Galen appeared in Pergamam to the world. In the era of Renaissance, he was called Claudia Galen, but then, apparently, there was an incorrect decoding of the Abbreviation Cl., Meaning "Clarissum" ("Sornye") is one of the titles in the Roman senatorial class or the rank equal to it. Galen's father was an outstanding Pergami architect and mathematician Nikon, the considerable state of which allowed his son to get a great education. Young Galen studied at the most prominent Pergaman scientists, in perfectly owned in addition to Greek Latin, Ethiopian and Persian languages \u200b\u200band was preparing to devote his lives of philosophy. However, his fate predicted a prophetic dream, who inspired the young man on the study of medical art. At the age of 21, he, having received a rich inheritance after the death of his father, decides to go on a long journey to know all the secrets of medical science. In Smyrna Galen studies anatomy, in Corinth - a pharmacy case. Further, his path lies in Alexandria, where his teacher becomes a famous doctor and Anata Heraklion. In Egyptian Alexandria, which preserved the ancient traditions of handling bodies after death, there was a strict ban on the opening of the corpses, therefore from the III century BC. e. There has accumulated a huge reservoir of anatomical research. Galen checks in the practice of book truths, it means anatomical research itself, in general, honing surgical skills. After the six years, the doctor's wise experience returns to his native Pergam and becomes a surgeon at the school of gladiators. There Galen deals with severe injuries, wounds, bleeding, which is invariably accompanied by cruel craft. It is opposed to his light hand and exceptional knowledge in anatomy, the ignorance of which the surgeons of them from now being regarded as a shame.
A document that scientists consider the ancient treatise on medicine - the Egyptian papyrus, which keeps the ideas of wise men who lived almost 4,000 years ago, was hidden in the repository of rare books of the New York Medical Academy. This is an outstanding heritage of culture, which was already ancient when Rome was born, and Athens was a small town. The stone monuments of Egypt survived, but most cane manuscripts are lost. Expert James Brest, who translated this papyrus in the 1920s, called him "the world in the world manifestation of truly scientific knowledge." Soon papyrus will be exposed to the Metropolitan Museum at the exhibition "Medicine of Ancient Egypt". Here you can see a tomogram of mummy, surgical needles and other medical artifacts. "Their knowledge of the body was amazing, although they did not always understand him," says James Allen, the curator of the exposition of Egyptian art in the Metropolitan.
From papyrus it is clear that the ancient doctors knew perfectly well that the blood was flowing with the heart flowing through the body. This concept was not fully established until the XVII century. They also knew how to put the seams. The manuscript also contains the oldest known descriptions of symptoms of cerebral injuries.
In Manuscript there are advice on the use of honey - a natural antiseptic - on open wounds, tinnitus of a lime bark containing natural painkillers, chemically similar to aspirin. James Allen says that in another ancient Egyptian text it is recommended to apply mold bread and assumes that the doctors used this method until Penicillin appeared. "They did not know what bacteria were, but already fought with infection," says James Allen. In Egypt, there were metal tools, but the doctors used stone knives, because the "flint knives they could sharpen better, and just sharpened silicon knife was sterile."
Preparation of bodies to the mummification gave the Egyptians detailed knowledge of anatomy and dressing. They understood that damage to one side of the head could cause the paralysis of the opposite side of the body. The difference between cracks, fragmentation and fracture of bones is determined in papyrus.
Since in the XIX century, American Edwin Smith bought and translated Papirus, he amazes those who read it, with its modernity. He has magic spellsBut most of the text is a methodical and empirical approach to diagnosis and treatment. Probably, the most amazing in it is restraint. The author's approach is careful, and in some cases it is recommended to wait until the body itself is cured.
Papyrus was written in the XVII century BC, sixth centuries after the great pyramids were built, but by century before, by legend, lived Moses. Although there are also older excerpts of medical works, experts believe that there is no longer anything like more.
The document uses words that have already become archaic, and the author clarifies their meanings. This suggests that Papyrus is a copy of the document written a few hundred years earlier.
An ancient manuscript is written by black and red ink, a heeratic spring, more abstract than familiar image-hieroglyphs.
The document mainly speaks of such injuries as bold wounds and fractures, so we can assume that he was a "instruction on field medicine", but it describes and the case of replacing the neoplasm - cysts or tumors. Among the serious councils there is a lighter fragment: someone added someone to the recipe "rejuvenating" ointment. "When you remember some of the aggressive methods of treatment recommended by later specialists, what was done in the Middle Ages, goosebumps fleeing the skin. These methods were sometimes harmful, and Papius more corresponds to our today's thinking," says Miriam Mandelbaum, a rare curator Books and manuscripts of the New York Medical Academy.
Avl Cornelius Cels
Celsis Aulus Cornelius (Aulus Cornelius Celsus) (approx. 25 BC. E.- OK. 50 N. E.), Ancient Roman scientist-encyclopedist. OK. 25-30 Based on Greek sources, the encyclopedic work of "Arts" ("Artes") wrote, which reflects various areas of knowledge - philosophy, rhetoric, law, medicine, agriculture, military affair. From this work (more than 20 books), a section dedicated to medicine is preserved - "De Medicina" (6-13th books), which contains information on hygiene, diettics, pathology, therapy and surgery, borrowed ch. arr. From op. Dr. Greek. Medikov, in particular, Alexandrian school (heterophile, erasistrate, etc.). The work of C. "On Medicine" - unity, honey. Writing on the lat. The language of the era of the ancient world, the reached to our time. Contemporaries called C. Cicero in medicine (for the purity and elegance of the language) and Roman hypocratic. C. Developed Scientific honey. terminology; In its work, the characteristic 4 signs are characteristic of inflammation: redness, swelling, heat and pain. The name of C. Some surgical methods and diseases were named.
P. E. Zabludovsky.
Used materials of the Big Soviet Encyclopedia.
Celsius Aural Cornelius (Aulus Cornelius Celsus) (first half of 1 century AD), Roman scientist encyclopedist, written artist (Artes), covered agricultural science, medicine, military, rhetoric, philosophy and jurisprudence. Medical section about medical business (DE RE MEDICA) in 8 books - the only preserved part of the writings. Although Celsius was not a practitioner doctor (we only know about him that he lived in the era of Tiberius) and his work is addressed to non-specialists, the essay is of great interest, since it is the main source of information on late antiquity medicine. The ideas that Celsis expresses in areas such as plastic surgery or the doctrine of malaria, indicate a high degree of development of medicine in his time. In his work, Culis is most often referring to Askletpiad, a doctor from Viphini, who practiced in Rome. But Celsius was also a large admirer of the hippocratic and one of the first to popularize the teaching of the Greek physician among the Romans. Celsius was even called the Latin Hippocratic. At the work of Celsius, along with the Hippocratic Corps (Assembly of the Works of the Hippocratic School) and the works of Galen, almost all of our knowledge in the field of antique medicine are based. The work of Celsius was published in 1478 and was one of the first books on medicine in Europe. Another 16 century. Glory and the authority of Celsius were so high that the theophraist Bombaster von Gogenheim (1493-1541), the famous Alchemist and the doctor took the name of Paracels (which means "superior Celsius").
Anatomical descriptions of Celsius Demoles, but very intelligent. Celsius was against the vivisection of a person, but the opening of the corpses considered it possible. Celsius pointed out that the pulse is an insufficient health status indicator, since the floor depends on the floor, age and physique of patients. He noted that even a temporary disorder of digestion leads to the weakening of the pulse.
Celsius left an excellent malaria description. His believes that heat is caused by the nature of the efforts to remove malicious substances from the body, much ahead of his time.
Celsis suggested lithotomy (CHANDERCHES) - Operation on the fragmentation of stones in bladder bubble. Described plastic surgery to restore the nose, lips and ears. I was interested in the treatment of wounds, fractures, dislocation, diseases of bones, necrosis. Described fistulas, ulcers, tumors, hernias, amputation of the limbs and trepanation of the skull. Listed methods of stopping bleeding and methods of dressing blood vessels.
Used materials encyclopedia "the world around us."
Read:
Rome in the first century BC. (chronological table).
Rome in the first century N.E. (chronological table).
Works:
Op. in rus. Per.: On Medicine, [CN. 1-8], M., 1959.
Literature:
Cowner S. G., History of Ancient Medicine, in. 3, K., 1888.
Indian texts tell about the successes of legendary antiquity doctors. One of the most famous was jig. According to legend, he studied in Taxiv, the city in the north-west of India, famous for its medical school. On the exam, he received a task: examine the terrain around the city and determine which of herbs do not have medical properties. After a long experience, the jigging came to the conclusion that there are no such herbs. Buddhist literature contains many stories about the amazing art of the healing, which the jig was famous. He did complex surgical operations, studied the influence of the climate on human health and treated the Buddha himself.
A variety of drugs that have used Indian medicine prepared from vegetable, mineral and animal products. Noble metals played a major role in the art of healing. The composition of ointments often included zinc, lead, sulfur, antimony, ammonia, but Mercury and her salt were most often used. "The doctor who is familiar with the healing properties of Kingov - a person who knows the power of prayers - the Prophet, who knows the properties of mercury - God," teaches the old Indian saying. Already in Vedic texts, the recipe for mercury ointments, which was preparing from metal mercury, sulfur and animal fat. The widespread use of mercury in ancient Indian medicine was associated with high levels Development of alchemy. On the role of mercury and its compounds in alchemical transformations, the medieval name of the Indian alchemy is "Raslayn" ("Path of mercury"). The combustion of mercury with sulfur should have discovered the path to obtaining the elixir of immortality. Alchemic information was held mainly in medical texts, which described in detail "Rasashal" - a room for chemical experiments. The spacious laboratory, equipped with sinks, a variety of glassware, dryers, devices for washing the compositions, inflatable fumes for the mountain and many others, adorned numerous images of gods and religious symbols. Mercury, intended for the preparation of drugs and alchemical compounds, was freed from impurities, "treated" with medicinal herbs - aloe, lemon and red mustard.
Charaka and Sushruut - Great Doctors of Ancient India
The main directions of art of the healing of the ancients are reflected in the medical treatises of "Charaka-Samhita" - about internal diseases (I-II centuries BC), and "Sushrute-Schita" - about surgery (IV century. N.E.) . The first treatise belongs to Charaka - the great doctor of Ancient India. Much attention in this essay is paid to the diagnosis of the disease: the doctor should take into account the age of the patient, its physical characteristics, living conditions, habits, profession, nutrition, and climate and terrain. It was necessary to thoroughly inspect the urine and allocating the body, check the sensitivity to various stimuli, muscle strength, voice, memory, pulse. It is interesting to note that Charaka-Samhita mentions such cases when the blood drop is learned from the patient, and also describes the methods of active impact on the body in order to exacerbate the disease for a short time to identify its symptoms.
Historical parallels: Active impact on the body in order to exacerbate the disease to identify its symptoms was applied in cases where the doctor was difficult in the formulation of an accurate diagnosis. This method has moved later to Tibetan medicine, prescribing special means for those cases when you need to "lure" the disease, "raise" it. This can see the beginning of the "Provocation method", which uses modern medicine.
Charata Dal detailed description Methods for treating internal diseases, including plague, smallpox, malaria, cholera, tuberculosis. The treatise contains sections about the anatomy and art of bloodsuet.
Historical parallels:
The Indian word "samhita" means not only "treatise", "writing", but also "comment". Ancient medical books often represented comments to even earlier works. So, Ebers and Smith's papyrus contain comments of fragments that did not reach us the Egyptian "heart book." In the title of the Chinese Medical Treatise "Answers to Difficult Questions", usually attributed to Bian Qiao, the character of the book is reflected: this is a comment of difficult to understand the fragments of medical essays of the ancient authors. Later, in the middle
The author of the treatise "Sushrut-Samhita" was another great Indian doctor - Sushruut. His name tradition connects with a medical school in Benares. Probably, after her graduation, Sushrut was a teacher in this school, producing doctors and surgeons. All his life he lived and practiced in this city. Medical information in his treatise was six sections, the first of which contains a special section on surgery: the author considered it an essential part of medicine. In addition, the treatise sets out information on the anatomy, therapy, the doctrine of poisons and antids, as well as to treat eye diseases.
Sushrut wrote that many diseases are a consequence of damage to the three main substances - air, bile and mucus. The damage of air in the body can be caused by excessive labor or abundant food, it leads to 80 different diseases; Bile damage comes from anger, sorrow or fright and entails 40 diseases; To damage the mucus and to 20 diseases can cause inaction, apathy and long sleep.
In addition, the causes of the disease were considered violations of natural equilibrium between the three elements of the body. In the treatise, the sushruits highlighted three reasons for the possible violation of this balance:
Pathological changes within the body itself, due to either natural deviations from the norm, or unfavorable to the health of a person's life;
External circumstances (the influence of climate, injury, poisoning, snake bites and other similar causes);
The action of supernatural forces - gods and demons, as well as "inevitable processes" accompanying the aging of the body.
Historical parallels:
In medicine of many countries of the ancient world, antiquity and the Middle Ages distinguished diseases originating from natural and supernatural causes. Information about this contains clinox signs and Egyptian papyrus, Roman encyclopedias and Christian medieval manuscripts. The art of healing included knowledge about which methods should be applied in different cases. Interest in this respect, an episode from the life-known Chinese philosopher "perforated" Mo Tzu (V-WEE. BC). When he fell ill, a student came to him and asked: "Mr., you say that the spirits are intelligent and manage disasters and blessings. They reward well and punish evil. You are the perfect, how can you be sick? Does this mean that your teaching is not entirely correct, or that the spirits are still not so reasonable? ". Mo Tzu replied to him: "Even if I am sick, why should not be intelligible perfume? There are many paths that a person can pick up the disease. Some diseases are picked up due to heat or cold, others from fatigue. If only one is closed out of a hundred doors, will the robbers fail to enter? ".
Let us turn to another historical testimony. Christian Bishop Gregory Tour-sky (Vie.) Tells in his notes about how one day, feeling a strong headache, he went to church and prayed at the tomb of the saint - the pain of subsided. However, he did not stop at this and suggesting that the cause of pain was an excess of blood, made himself bleeding. The pain immediately resumed. "Everyone can bring teaching from this incident," concludes a bishop - that it should not be resorted to the Earth's means of someone who has already had the happiness to experience heavenly tools. "
Here is the instruction of drying to care: "Above early from sleep, you should clean your teeth with a brush. The brush is made of fresh, not touched by the worms of the tree branch ..., which teeth splits at the end in the form of a brush. Depending on the time of the year and the temperament of a person choose a tree of sour, bitter or binding taste. In addition to the brush, a paste containing honey is also used daily vegetable oils and a number of aromatic ingredients. Each tooth is cleaned separately, and damage to the gums should be avoided. "
Historical parallels: similar devices for cleaning teeth were described in Chinese hygienic and medical treatises. They also apply to many modern peoples.
Indian doctors knew that rabies were coming from bite with mad animals, they were famous for their antifles from the bites of the snake. Sushruut writes about 80 kinds of poisonous snakes and three types of antidotees: water, vomiting and laxatives, as well as the need to immediately drag the bite part of the body above the wound. It was also practiced suction, and a piece of fish bubble was laid between her lips and the wound.
Historical parallels: Similarly, Egyptian doctors neutralized scorpion bite. Blood was sucked from the wound and put the tight bandage above the wounds so that the poison did not apply.
In the treatises of chamaki and dried great importance attached to medical ethics (from Greek. "Ethos" is custom, character). According to ancient legends, the gods mixed the sky and the earth and created 14 "precious things", one of them was a doctor. His position in society was relatively high, but the requirements for it were presented large. Sushrut in his treatise wrote: "The doctor, insecual in operations, comes from the bed of a patient to confusion ... A doctor who can only operate and neglect theoretical information, I do not deserve respect and may endanger even the life of the kings. Each of them owns only half of his art and looks like a bird with one wing. "
Medical treatises constantly emphasize that the real doctor, in addition to good knowledge of theory and practice, should have moral advantages: selfless, honesty, courage, composure. Medicine requires greater moral durability than other professions. Debt before the patient should be added above personal interest. When incurable disease The doctor must honestly recognize his powerlessness. The prescriptions of medical ethics concerned and the appearance of the doctor: it was necessary that the "doctor who wishes to be successful in practice was healthy, heated, modest, patient, wore a briefly odble beard, diligently cleaned, cropped nails, white sophisticated incense clothes, went out of the house Otherwise, as with a stick and an umbrella and especially avoiding chatter. "
In ancient India, there was a concept of medical mystery: the information received from the patient was not disclosed if they could have a serious impression on loved ones. The doctor should not have reported to the patient about those of his observations that could adversely affect the mental state of the patient and thus prevent recovery. This corresponded to Ayurvedic ideas about the need for sincere rest to preserve health.
