For scientific knowledge great importance has a method i.e. way of organizing the study of the object. Method - a set of principles, rules and techniques of practical and theoretical activity. The method equips a person with a system of principles, requirements, rules, guided by which a person can achieve the intended goal.

The correct method is of great importance for the knowledge of nature. The doctrine of the method (methodology) begins to develop in the science of modern times. The famous English philosopher Francis Bacon compared the method to a lantern that illuminates the way for a traveler. A scientist who is not armed with the correct method is a traveler wandering in the dark and groping for his way. René Descartes, the great French philosopher of the 17th century, also attached great importance to the development of the scientific method: “By method I mean precise and simple rules, strict adherence to which, without wasting mental energy, but gradually and continuously increasing knowledge, contributes to the fact that the mind reaches the true knowledge of everything that is available to him. " It was during this period of rapid development of natural science that two opposite methodological concepts were formed: empiricism and rationalism.

Empiricism is a trend in methodology that recognizes experience as a source of reliable knowledge, reducing the content of knowledge to a description of this experience.

Rationalism is a trend in methodology, according to which reliable knowledge is provided only by reason, logical thinking.

The methods of scientific knowledge can be classified according to the degree of generality into universal (philosophical) and scientific, which in turn are divided into general scientific and specific scientific.

Private scientific methods are applied within the framework of one science or field of scientific research, for example: the method of spectral analysis, the method of color reactions in chemistry, the methods of electromagnetism in physics, etc.

General scientific methods have a wide interdisciplinary range of applications and can be applied in any science, for example: modeling, experiment, logical methods, etc.

One of the most important features of scientific knowledge is the presence of two levels: empirical and theoretical, which differ in the methods used. At the empirical (experimental) stage, mainly methods are used that are associated with sensory-visual methods of cognition, which include observation, measurement, experiment.

Observation is the initial source of information and is associated with the description of the object of knowledge. Purposefulness, orderliness, activity are characteristic requirements for scientific observation. According to the method of observation, there are direct and mediated. During direct observation, the properties of an object are perceived by the human senses. Such observations have always played a large role in the study of science. Thus, for example, the observation of the position of planets and stars in the sky, carried out for more than twenty years by Tycho Brahe with accuracy uncommon for the naked eye, contributed to Kepler's discovery of his famous laws. However, most often scientific observation is indirect, i.e. carried out with the help of technical means. Galileo's invention of an optical telescope in 1608 expanded the possibilities of astronomical observations, and the creation in the 20th century of X-ray telescopes and their launch into space on board an orbital station made it possible to observe such space objects as quasars and pulsars that could not be observed in any other way.

The development of modern natural science is associated with an increase in the role of so-called indirect observations. So, for example, objects studied by nuclear physics can not be observed either directly, with the help of human senses, or indirectly, with the help of the most sophisticated instruments. What scientists observe in the process of empirical research in atomic physics is not the micro-objects themselves, but only the results of their impact on certain technical means. For example, the registration of interactions of elementary particles is recorded only indirectly with the help of counters (gas-charged, semiconductor, etc.) or track devices (Wilson's chamber, bubble chamber, etc.) By decoding the "pictures" of interactions, researchers get information about the particles and their properties.

An experiment is a more complex method of empirical knowledge, it involves an active, purposeful and strictly controlled influence of the researcher on the object under study to identify its certain aspects and properties. Advantages of the experiment: firstly, it allows you to study the object in "pure form" eliminate any side factors that impede the study. Secondly, it allows you to study an object in some artificial, for example, extreme, conditions, when it is possible to discover the amazing properties of objects, thereby comprehending their essence deeper. Space experiments are very interesting and promising in this regard, which make it possible to study objects in such special conditions like weightlessness, deep vacuum, which are unattainable in terrestrial laboratories. Thirdly, studying any process, the experimenter can interfere with it, actively influence its course. Fourth, the repetition, repeatability of the experiment, which can be repeated as many times as necessary to obtain reliable results.

Depending on the nature of the tasks, experiments are divided into research and verification. Research experiments allow making discoveries, discovering new, previously unknown properties of an object. For example, experiments in the laboratory of E. Rutherford showed a strange behavior of alpha particles when they bombarded gold foil: most of the particles passed through the foil, a small number of particles deflected and scattered, and some particles did not just deflect, but bounced back like a ball from the net ... Such a picture, according to the calculations, was obtained due to the fact that the entire mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus, which occupies an insignificant part of the volume of the atom, and alpha particles bounced back, colliding with the nucleus. So Rutherford's research experiment led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus, and thus to the birth of nuclear physics.

Verification experiments serve to confirm some theoretical constructs. For example, the existence of a number of elementary particles (positron, neutrino, etc.) was initially predicted theoretically.

Measurement is a process that consists in determining the quantitative values ​​of the properties or sides of the object under study using special technical devices. The measurement result is obtained in the form of a number of units of measurement. The unit of measurement is the reference against which the measured object is compared. Units of measurement are subdivided into basic ones, used as basic ones when constructing a system of units, and derivatives, derived from basic ones using some mathematical relations. The method for constructing a system of units was first proposed in 1832 by Karl Gauss. The proposed system is based on three arbitrary units: length (millimeter), mass (milligram), time (second). All other units could be obtained from these three. Later, with the development of science and technology, other systems of units of physical quantities, built according to the Gauss principle, appeared. In addition, the so-called natural systems units in which the basic units were determined from the laws of nature. An example is the system of units proposed by Max Planck, which was based on the "world constants": the speed of light in a vacuum, the constant of gravitation, Boltzmann's constant and Planck's constant. Based on them (and equating them to "1"), Planck received a number of derived units: length, mass, time, temperature. At present, in natural science, the International System of Units (SI), adopted in 1960 by the General Conference on Weights and Meters, is mainly used. This system is the most perfect and universal of all that existed until now and covers the physical quantities of mechanics, thermodynamics, electrodynamics and optics, which are interconnected by physical laws.

At the theoretical stage, they resort to abstractions and the formation of concepts, build hypotheses and theories, and discover the laws of science. General scientific theoretical methods include comparison, abstraction, idealization, analysis, synthesis, deduction, induction, analogy, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete. Their main feature is that these are logical devices, i.e. operations with thoughts, knowledge.

Comparison is a mental operation of identifying the similarities and differences of the studied subjects. A special case of comparison is analogy: the conclusion about the presence of one or another feature in the object under study is made on the basis of the detection of a number of similar features with another object in it.

Abstraction is the mental isolation of the attributes of an object and their consideration separately from the object itself and its other attributes. Idealization is the mental construction of a situation (object, phenomenon), to which properties or relations are attributed in the "limiting" case. The result of such design is idealized objects, such as: a point, a material point, an absolutely black body, an absolutely rigid body, an ideal gas, an incompressible liquid, etc. Thanks to idealization, the processes are considered in a "pure form", which makes it possible to reveal the laws by which these processes flow. For example, suppose someone is walking down a path with a baggage trolley and suddenly stops pushing it. The cart will move for a while, walking a short distance, and then stop. You can think of many ways to lengthen the path the cart travels after being pushed. However, it is impossible to eliminate all external influences on the path length. But, considering the movement of the body in the "limiting" case, we can conclude that if you completely eliminate external influences on the moving body, then it will move endlessly and at the same time uniformly and rectilinearly. This conclusion was made by Galileo and was called the "principle of inertia", and was most clearly formulated by Newton in the form of the law of inertia.

Associated with idealization is such a specific method as thought experiment, which involves operating with an idealized object that replaces the real object in abstraction.

Analysis is a research method consisting in dividing the whole into parts for the purpose of their independent study.

Synthesis is the connection of previously identified parts into a whole in order to identify their relationship and interaction. The connection between analysis and synthesis follows from the very nature of objects that represent the unity of the whole and its parts. Analysis and synthesis condition each other.

Induction - logical method based on the movement of thought from the singular or particular to the general. In inductive reasoning, the truth of premises (facts) does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion drawn, it will only be probabilistic. The method of scientific induction is based on elucidating the causal (causal) relationship of the phenomena under study. Causality is such an internal relationship between two phenomena when one of them generates, causes the other. This relationship contains: a phenomenon that claims to be a cause; the phenomenon to which we attribute the nature of the action (effect), and the circumstances in which the interaction of cause and action occurs.

The causal relationship is characterized by:

• the cause constantly precedes its action in time; this means that the cause of this phenomenon should be sought among the circumstances preceding it in time, taking into account the fact of some coexistence in time of cause and effect.

· The reason gives rise to action, conditions its appearance; this means that precedence in time alone is not enough for a causal connection, an occasion is a condition that precedes the appearance of a phenomenon, but does not generate it.

· The connection of cause and effect is necessary; this means that it is possible to prove the absence of a causal relationship in the case when the action occurs, and the alleged cause was not observed.

· The connection between cause and effect is universal; this means that each phenomenon has a cause, therefore, as a rule, the presence of a causal relationship cannot be established on the basis of a single phenomenon, it is necessary to study a certain set of phenomena, within which the sought causal relationship is systematically manifested.

· With a change in the intensity of the cause, the intensity of the action also changes. This occurs when cause and effect coexist for a certain time.

These properties are the basis for the methods of discovering causal relationships, developed by F. Bacon (1561-1626), and then improved by the English philosopher, logician, economist John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). These methods are called scientific induction methods. There are five of them:

1. Method of the only similarity: if some circumstance constantly precedes the onset of the phenomenon under study while other circumstances change, then this condition is probably the cause of this phenomenon.

2. Method of the only difference: if some condition occurs when the phenomenon under investigation occurs, and is absent when this phenomenon does not exist, and all other conditions remain unchanged, then, probably, this condition is the cause of the phenomenon under investigation.

3. The combined method of similarity and difference: if two or more cases when a given phenomenon occurs are similar only in one condition, while two or more cases when this phenomenon is absent differ from the first only in that this condition is absent , then this condition is probably the cause of the observed phenomenon.

4. Method of concomitant changes: if, with a change in conditions, some phenomenon changes to the same extent, and other circumstances remain unchanged, then this condition is probably the cause of the observed phenomenon.

5. The method of residuals: if complex conditions produce a complex action and it is known that part of the conditions causes a certain part of this action, then the remaining part of the conditions causes the remaining part of the action.

Deduction is the movement of thought from general provisions to particular or individual ones. Deduction - general scientific method, but the deductive method is especially important in mathematics. In modern science, the outstanding philosopher and mathematician R. Descartes developed and promoted the deductive-axiomatic method of cognition. His methodology was in direct opposition to Bacon's empirical inductivism.

From the general position that all metals have electrical conductivity, we can conclude about the electrical conductivity of a particular copper wire, knowing that copper is a metal. If the initial general propositions are true, then deduction will always yield a true conclusion.

The most common type of deduction is a simple categorical syllogism, which establishes a relationship between two extreme terms S and P based on their relationship to the middle term M. For example:

All metals (M) conduct electric current (P).

Conditionally categorical inference also occupies an important place in the theory of deductive reasoning.

Affirmative modus (modus ponens):

If a person has a fever (a), he is sick (b). This person has a fever (a). So he is sick (b).

As you can see, the thought here moves from the statement of the basis to the statement of the corollary: (a - ›b, a) -› b.

Negative modus (modus tollens):

If a person has a fever (a), he is sick (b). This person is not sick (not-b). This means that he does not have an elevated temperature (not-a).

As you can see, here the thought moves from negation of the consequence to the denial of reason: (a - ›b, not-b) -› not-a.

Deductive logic plays an important role in substantiating scientific knowledge, proving theoretical propositions.

Analogy and modeling. Both of these methods are based on identifying similarities in objects or relationships between objects. A model is a device artificially created by man, which, in a certain respect, reproduces real-life objects that are the object of scientific research. Modeling is based on abstraction of similar features in different objects and establishing a certain relationship between them. With the help of modeling, it is possible to study such properties and relationships of the studied phenomena that may not be available to direct study.

In the well-known planetary model of the atom, its structure is likened to the structure Solar system... Light electrons move along closed trajectories around the massive core at different distances from it, just as the planets revolve around the sun. In this analogy, as usual, the similarity is established, but not the objects themselves, but the relations between them. The atomic nucleus is not like the Sun, and the electrons are not like the planets. But the relationship between the nucleus and the electrons is much like the relationship between the sun and the planets.

The analogy between living organisms and technical devices underlies bionics. This area of ​​cybernetics studies the structure and life of organisms; open regularities and discovered properties are then used to solve engineering problems and build technical systems that approach living systems in their characteristics.

Thus, analogy not only allows one to explain many phenomena and make unexpected and important discoveries, it even leads to the creation of new scientific directions or a radical transformation of the old.

Types of modeling.

Mental (ideal) modeling - building different mental representations in the form of imaginary models. For example, in the ideal model of the electromagnetic field created by Maxwell, lines of force were represented in the form of tubes of various sections through which an imaginary fluid flows, which does not have inertia and compressibility.

Physical modeling - reproduction in the model of processes inherent in the original, based on their physical similarity. It is widely used for the development and experimental study of various structures (power plant dams, etc.), machines (the aerodynamic qualities of aircraft, for example, are studied on their models blown by an air flow in a wind tunnel), to study effective and safe methods of mining. etc.

Symbolic (sign) modeling is associated with the representation of various schemes, graphs, drawings, formulas as models. A special kind of symbolic modeling is mathematical modeling. The symbolic language of mathematics allows one to express the properties, sides, relations of objects of the most diverse nature. The relationship between various quantities describing the functioning of the object under study is expressed by the corresponding equations.

Numerical modeling on a computer is based on a mathematical model of the object under study and is used in cases of large amounts of calculations required to study this model, for which a special program is created. In this case, the algorithm (computer program) of the functioning of the object under study acts as a model.

Method there is a set of rules, methods of cognitive and practical activity, conditioned by the nature and laws of the object under study.

The modern system of cognitive methods is highly complex and differentiated. The simplest classification of methods of cognition presupposes their division into general, general scientific, concrete scientific.

Universal methods characterize the techniques and methods of research at all levels of scientific knowledge.

These include methods of analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, comparison, idealization, etc. These methods are so versatile that they work even at the level of everyday consciousness.

Analysis is a procedure for mental (or real) dismemberment, decomposition of an object into constituent elements in order to identify their systemic properties and relationships.

Synthesis- the operation of connecting the elements of the studied object selected in the analysis into a single whole.

Induction- a way of reasoning or a method of obtaining knowledge, in which general conclusion is done on the basis of generalization of particular premises.

Induction can be complete or incomplete. Full induction is possible when the premises cover all phenomena of a particular class. However, such cases are rare. The inability to take into account all the phenomena of this class forces us to use incomplete induction, the final conclusions of which are not strictly unambiguous.

Deduction- a way of reasoning or a method of movement of knowledge from the general to the particular, i.e.

the process of logical transition from general premises to conclusions about special cases.

The natural scientific method of cognition and its compiled ..

The deductive method can give strict, reliable knowledge, provided that the general premises are true and the rules of inference are observed.

Analogy- a method of cognition, in which the presence of similarity of features of non-identical objects allows us to assume their similarity in other features. Thus, the phenomena of interference and diffraction discovered in the study of light made it possible to draw a conclusion about its wave nature, since earlier the same properties were recorded in sound, the wave nature of which had already been precisely established.

Analogy is an irreplaceable means of visualization, depictive thinking. But even Aristotle warned that "an analogy is not a proof"! It can only give conjectural knowledge.

Abstraction- the method of thinking, which consists in distracting from the insignificant, insignificant for the subject of cognition, the properties and relations of the object under study, while simultaneously highlighting those properties that seem important and essential in the context of the study.

Idealization- the process of mentally creating concepts about idealized objects, which in real world do not exist, but have a type.

Examples: ideal gas, absolutely black body.

2. General scientific methods- modeling, observation, experiment.

The initial method of scientific knowledge is considered observation, i.e. deliberate and purposeful study of objects, based on the sensory abilities of a person - sensation and perception. In the course of observation, it is possible to obtain information only about the external, surface sides, qualities and signs of the objects under study.

The result of scientific observations is always a description of the investigated object, recorded in the form of texts, pictures, diagrams, graphs, diagrams, etc.

With the development of science, observation becomes more and more complex and indirect through the use of various technical devices, instruments, measuring instruments.

Another important method of natural science is experiment.

Experiment is a way of active, purposeful research of objects in controlled and controlled conditions. The experiment includes observation and measurement procedures, but is not limited to them. After all, the experimenter has the opportunity to select the necessary conditions for observation, combine and vary them, achieving the "purity" of the manifestation of the studied properties, as well as intervene in the "natural" course of the investigated processes and even artificially reproduce them.

The main task of an experiment, as a rule, is to predict a theory.

Such experiments are called research... Another type of experiment is checking- is intended to confirm certain theoretical assumptions.

Modeling- the method of replacing the studied object with a similar one for a number of properties and characteristics of interest to the researcher.

The data obtained during the study of the model, then, with some corrections, are transferred to the real object. Modeling is mainly used when direct study of the object is either impossible (it is obvious that the phenomenon of "nuclear winter" as a result of massive use nuclear weapons except on the model it is better not to test), or is associated with unreasonable efforts and costs.

It is advisable to first study the consequences of large interventions in natural processes (river bending, for example) using hydrodynamic models, and then experiment with real natural objects.

Modeling is actually a universal method.

It can be used on a wide variety of systems. Usually, such types of modeling are distinguished as subject, mathematical, logical, physical, chemical, and so on. Computer modeling has become widespread in modern conditions.

3.K specific scientific methods are systems of formulated principles of specific scientific theories.

H: psychoanalytic method in psychology, method of morphophysiological indicators in biology, etc.

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Forms and methods natural science... - section Philosophy, QUESTIONS FOR EXAM OR EXAMINATION IN PHILOSOPHY Historically, the Path of Natural-Scientific Cognition of the World Began with F ...

Historically, the path of natural scientific knowledge of the world around began with living contemplation - sensory perception of facts on the basis of practice.

^ Sensual forms of cognition. Cognition of reality is carried out in different forms, of which the first and simplest is sensation.

Sensations are the simplest sensory images, reflections, copies, or a kind of snapshots of individual properties of objects. For example, in an orange we feel a yellowish color, a certain hardness, a specific smell, etc.

n. A holistic image reflecting objects directly affecting the sense organs, their properties and relationships is called perception. Representations are images of those objects that once influenced the human sense organs, and then are restored according to the traces preserved in the brain and in the absence of these objects.

Sensations and perceptions are the beginning of the emergence of conscious reflection.

^ Scientific fact. A necessary condition for scientific research is the establishment of facts. Empirical knowledge supplies science with facts, while fixing stable connections, laws of the world around us.

Ascertaining this or that fact, we fix the existence of a certain object. At the same time, however, it usually remains unknown what he is in essence.

A simple statement of fact keeps our knowledge at the level of being.

^ Observation and experiment. The most important methods of natural science research are observation and experiment. Observation is a deliberate, systematic perception carried out in order to reveal the essential properties of the object of cognition. Experiment - a method, or technique, research, with the help of which an object is either artificially reproduced or placed in predetermined conditions.

The method of changing the conditions in which the object under study is located is the main method of experiment.

Thinking. Thinking is the highest level of cognition. Thinking is a purposeful, mediated and generalized reflection in the human brain of essential properties, causal relationships and natural connections of things. The main forms of thinking are concepts, judgments and inferences. A concept is a thought that reflects the general and essential properties of objects and phenomena.

All topics in this section:

The subject of philosophy, its main functions.
The subject of philosophy and its functions in society.

Philosophy is a general theory of the world and man in it. Philosophy originated about 2500 years ago in the countries of the East: India, Greece, Rome. Most developed

The place of philosophy in the cultural system.
Feature phenomena of culture - their "involvement" in man. Culture in general means the measure of the human in natural and social objects and phenomena, that is, how much, in what degree

Ancient philosophy, its specific features.
Philosophy Ancient Rome unites with the ancient Greek under the general name "ancient philosophy".

Ancient philosophy in its development went through four main stages (this is one of the most

Philosophy of Socrates.
Socrates (c. 469 BC, Athens - 399 BC, ibid.) Is an ancient Greek philosopher whose teaching marks a turn in philosophy - from considering nature and the world to considering human

The main ideas of Plato's philosophy, his doctrine of the ideal state.
The main part of Plato's philosophy, which gave the name to the whole direction of philosophy, is the doctrine of ideas (eidos), of the existence of two worlds: the world of ideas (eidos) and the world of things, or forms.

Idea - center

Philosophy of Aristotle.
Plato's student Aristotle criticized his teacher. Plato's mistake, from his point of view, was that he tore the "world of ideas" from the real world. The essence of the object is in the object itself, and

Theocentrism of the philosophy of the Middle Ages. The teachings of A. Augustine. Philosophy of F. Aquinas.
Medieval philosophy was inextricably linked with Christianity, therefore general philosophical and Christian ideas are closely intertwined in it.

The main idea of ​​medieval philosophy is theocentrism.

Formation of the scientific method of cognition in the philosophy of F. Bacon and R. Deckard (emporism and rationalism).
English philosopher F.

Bacon (1561-1626) was the ancestor of English empiricism, the study of experience. Empiricism is understood as a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes the sensory experience of the source

B. Spinoza on nature and man.
Spinoza's doctrine of nature is based on the doctrine of substance, which he identifies with God, that is, with nature. By substance Spinoza understands that "... That exists by itself and pre

T. Hobbes about the problems of the relationship between man and society.
If spiritual substances existed, they would be unknown.

He does not admit the existence of disembodied spirits, but adheres to the idea of ​​the existence of God. He viewed God as the source of n

I. Kant's theory of knowledge.
Kant believed that the solution of such problems of philosophy as the problem of the existence of man, soul, morality and religion should be preceded by the study of the possibilities of human knowledge and the establishment of its boundaries.

Ethics of I. Kant.
Kant's ethics is characterized by the doctrine of independence or "autonomy" of morality.

Kant's predecessors and contemporary idealist philosophers believed that the basis of ethics in religion: a moral law is given and

The main ideas of Hegel's philosophy. Contradictions between system and method.
The doctrine of the identity of subject and object is also at the heart of Hegel's philosophical system. The first step towards overcoming the opposition of subject and object, according to Hegel, is movement

Philosophy of history by Hegel Hegel.
The basis of Hegel's philosophical views can be presented as follows.

The whole world is a grandiose historical process of unfolding and realizing the capabilities of a certain world mind, spirit. Mi

Man, Society and Nature in the Philosophy of French Enlightenment.
French philosophy of the 18th century.

commonly called the philosophy of the Enlightenment. This name is French philosophy of the 18th century. received due to the fact that its representatives destroyed the established ideas

Marxist understanding of the understanding of society, society and history.
Marxist philosophy is a cumulative concept that denotes the philosophical views of Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), as well as the views of their followers.

Absolutely

Marxist philosophy in Russia (G. Plekhanov, V. Lenin).
G.V. Plekhanov substantiated and popularized the doctrine of Marxism, developed and concretized its individual issues, especially in the field of social philosophy: the role of the masses and the individual in history.

Russian materialistic philosophy in the 19th century.
The ideas of materialism and socialism The search for Russian philosophical thought of ways historical development Russia in the XIX century.

took place in an atmosphere of confrontation between two tendencies. Representatives of the first accent

Russian religious philosophy 19-20 centuries
Russian religious philosophy occupied special place practically in the entire history of Russian social thought, starting from the era of Kievan Rus.

The heyday of this philosophy came at the end of the 19th century.

Russian cosmism as philosophy.
Russian cosmism is a special worldview that developed in the 19th - 20th centuries ..

Its features are: 1) consideration of the world, space as a whole, man - in an inextricable connection with space

The problem of being in the history of philosophy.
Being is a philosophical concept that fixes the aspect of the existence of a being, in contrast to its essence. What really exists. This concept captures the most common thing in things - their simple presence. If with

The essence of consciousness. Consciousness and unconsciousness.
Consciousness is higher form reflections of the real world, is characteristic only of people and is associated with speech, the function of the brain, which consists in a generalized and purposeful reflection of reality, in the pre

Movement and its essence.

Movement and development.
Movement is a phenomenon that reflects change; an attribute of matter associated with any change in the moments of objective reality; a philosophical category that reflects any changes in the world.

In the European tradition

Philosophical concepts of space and time.
Space is a form of existence of material objects and processes (characterizes the structure and extent of material systems); time is a form of sequential change in the states of objects and pro

Unity and diversity of the world.
The unity of the world lies in its materiality, in the fact that all objects and phenomena in the world represent different states and properties of moving matter.

There is nothing in the world that does not exist.

Dialectics as a theory of development and as a method of cognition. Forms of dialectics.
The concept of dialectics. The constantly evolving struggle between the old and the new, the opposite and the contradictory, the emerging and the disappearing, leads the world to new structures. This struggle itself is objectively

They do not have a specific functional form.

The concept of a picture of the world. Scientific and religious picture of the world.
The philosophical picture of the world comprehends the universe in terms of the relationship between man and the world in all aspects of ontological, cognitive, value and activity.

The system-forming principle of phil

Cognition as the interaction of subject and object.
Subject - a being that possesses consciousness and will, the ability to pursue purposeful activities aimed at a particular object; a person who knows and changes the world around him.

The subject on which

Object of cognition. Real and idealized objects.
Real objects are presented in empirical knowledge in the form of ideal objects with a fixed and limited set of features. Idealized objects, in contrast to empirical ones, on

Sensual cognition and its specificity.

Natural science way of knowing

Figurative and symbolic cognition.
Sensory cognition is the simplest and most basic form of cognition. Sensory cognition begins with sensations arising as a result of individual influences of reality on the sense organs. In count

Rational in cognition and its form. The role of rational knowledge in human assimilation of reality.
Rational cognition is a cognitive process that is carried out through the forms of mental activity.

The forms of rational cognition have several general characteristics: first, n

The problem of truth is knowledge. Basic concepts of truth. The concept of objective, absolute and relative truth. The criterion of truth.
Truth is the correct reflection of reality in thought. In the process of cognition, a person subjectively reflects the objective world. The forms of reflection participating in cognition give a subjective image of the objective

Intuition and its role in cognition.
Intuition is the ability to feel the already existing logical chains of related information concerning the desired question, and, thus, instantly find the answer to any question.

In history philosopher

Consciousness and language. Problem of origin. Language as a sign system. The main functions of the language.
Consciousness is one of the forms of manifestation of our soul, at the same time it is very essential, full of deep content. Consciousness is the highest, peculiar only to people and associated with speech function of the brain,

Society as a society.

Concept, main features.
Society is a kind of unified whole, consisting of people connected by various degrees of community, which allows us to call them compatibility, and this is possible only at a sufficiently high level of development.

Activity as a specific way of human existence.
The social qualities of a person are manifested in her actions, deeds, in her relation to other people.

For these externally manifested actions, as well as through questionnaires, tests and introspection (self-observation

Social relations and their importance in the life of society.
Social relations are a system of normalized interactions between partners about something that binds them (subject, interest, etc.).

Unlike social interaction, social from

Alienation of personality. Freedom and responsibility of the individual.
Alienation is the process of separation from people of the process and the results of their activities (activity is understood broadly, like any social activity), which become beyond the control of a person and

One of the principles of research ethics is.

1.the intrinsic value of truth

2.Lack of criticism of ideas already accepted by the scientific community

3.Preference to eminent scientists in matters of scientific evidence

complete coincidence of the interests of science and society

The principle of falsification in scientific knowledge means that only

1.Knowledge that is fundamentally refuted

2.scientific knowledge cannot be refuted

3.A scientist must prove his hypothesis with a large number of experiments, and not try to refute its truth

hypotheses need to be confirmed by experience

Pseudoscience that searches for extraterrestrial civilizations is

1. astronomy

2.Ufology

3.astrology

4.parapsychology

Pseudoscience, which studies the dependence of a person's fate on position, is

deviant science

2. astronomy

3.parapsychology

4.astrology

Pseudoscience, within the framework of which false archaeological finds take place, is ...

1.devnant science

2.geology

3.parapsychology

4.alchemy

1.fragment, lack of consistency

full compliance with the observed facts

3.systemic nature

Physics is the science of nature. Natural science method of cognition, its possibilities and limits of applicability

susceptibility to criticism

The hallmark of pseudoscience is:

1.full compliance with the observed facts

full compliance with ethical standards

3.non-critical approach to the original data

4. systemic character

Choose the correct judgment:

1. Scientific knowledge from unscientific cannot be distinguished according to the principle of falsification

2. Only fundamentally refutable knowledge can claim the status of "pseudoscientific"

3. The structure of pseudoscientific knowledge is a system

Only fundamentally refutable knowledge can claim the status of "scientific"

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself

1.determination of the quantitative values ​​of properties, sides of the object or phenomenon under study with the help of special technical devices;

method of thinking, as a result of which general properties and signs of objects;

3. a way of reasoning, in which the general conclusion is built on the basis of particular sprinkles;

A) generalization -2

B) induction -3

B) measurement -1

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself

1. construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the studied processes of reality;

the operation of connecting the selected parts of the subject of study into a single whole;

3. study of an object by creating and researching a copy of it, replacing the object of research from certain sides;

A) formalization, -1

B) modeling -3

B) synthesis -2

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself:

2) abstraction from a number of properties of the studied phenomenon that are insignificant for this study, while simultaneously highlighting the properties and relationships of interest

A) modeling-3

B) classification -1

C) abstraction -2

1) a method of thinking, as a result of which the general properties and characteristics of objects are established

2) similarity, similarity of some properties, attributes or relationships in various objects as a whole

3) connection of previously identified parts of an object into a single whole

A) synthesis - 3

B) analogy -2

B) generalization -1

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) a way of reasoning, in which the general conclusion is built on the basis of particular premises

2) a method of cognition, in which, on the basis of the similarity of objects in some features, they conclude about their similarity in other features

A) modeling -3

B) analogy -2

B) induction -1

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) a way of reasoning, in which the general conclusion is built on the basis of partial premises

2) sensory reflection of objects and phenomena of the external world

3) study of an object by creating and researching a copy of it, replacing the object of research from certain sides

A) observation - 2

B) modeling - 3

B) induction -1

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

2) active, purposeful research of objects in a controlled and controlled environment

3) the method of replacing the object under study with a similar one for a number of properties and characteristics of interest to the researcher

A) experiment - 2

B) observation -1

B) modeling -3

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) deliberate and purposeful study of objects based on human sensory abilities

2) a method of cognition, in which the presence of similarity, the coincidence of signs of non-identical objects allows us to assume their similarity in other signs

A) observation -1

B) generalization -3

B) analogy -2

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) deliberate and purposeful study of objects based on human sensory abilities

3) a method of cognition, in which the presence of similarity, the coincidence of signs of non-identical objects allows us to assume their similarity in other signs

A) analogy -3

B) observation -1

B) synthesis -2

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the studied processes of reality

2) the operation of connecting the selected parts of the subject of study into a single whole

3) study of an object by creating and researching a copy of it, replacing the object of research from certain sides

A) modeling -3

B) formalization -1

B) synthesis -2

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) the division of all studied subjects into separate groups in accordance with any sign

2) abstraction from a number of properties of the studied phenomenon that are insignificant for this study, while simultaneously highlighting the properties and relationships of interest

3) construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the studied processes of reality

A) formalization -3

B) classification -1

C) abstraction-2

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) the division of all studied subjects into separate groups in accordance with any sign

2) active, purposeful, strictly controlled influence of the researcher on the studied object

3) a method of thinking, as a result of which the general properties and characteristics of objects are established

A) experiment -2

B) generalization -3

B) classification -1

Experiment.

is the study of natural processes in vivo

2.does not imply the study of the object in artificial conditions

does not allow to exclude extraneous factors that complicate the research process

4.Allows you to study the object, moving away from extraneous factors that complicate the research process

Empirical research.

1.Its main task is to explain and interpret the facts

2.deals exclusively with idealized objects (for example, a material point, an ideal gas)

3.Uses mainly mathematical modeling, abstraction as methods of cognition

based on direct practical interaction of the researcher with the object under study

The process of scientific knowledge begins with ...

putting forward a hypothesis;

2. building a model;

3. observing and gathering facts;

4. setting up the experiment.

The process of scientific cognition according to the hypothetical-deductive method begins with ... ..

1.building the model

2. setting up the experiment

3.observing and gathering facts

4. making a hypothesis

It does not belong to the empirical methods of cognition ...

1.experiment 2. abstraction 3.Observation 4.

dimension

It does not apply to theoretical methods of cognition ...

1.abstraction 2.formalization 3. observation 4.idealization

The method of cognition, which boils down to dividing the whole subject into its component parts for the purpose of their comprehensive study, is called:

analysis 2.deduction 3.formalization 4.synthesis

The method of cognition based on inference, which leads to a general conclusion based on particular premises, is called:

analysis 2. idealization 3. synthesis 4. induction

The method of cognition, which boils down to obtaining private conclusions based on knowledge of some general provisions, is called:

1.induction 2. deduction 3.analysis 4. idealization

The method of cognition, which consists in the use of special symbols, which allows one to distract from the study of real objects, from the content of the theoretical propositions describing them, and allows one to operate instead with some set of symbols, is called

1.idealization

3.formalization

Scientific research is carried out using special techniques - methods.

Methods of Science- a set of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical knowledge of reality.

Allocate general, private and special methods of scientific research.

Common Methods cognition relate to any discipline and make it possible to connect all stages of the cognition process. In the history of science, researchers refer to such methods as metaphysical and dialectical methods.

Private methods scientific knowledge - these are methods that are used only in a particular branch of science. Various methods of natural science (physics, chemistry, biology, ecology, etc.) are private in relation to the general dialectical method of cognition. Sometimes private methods can be used outside the branches of natural science in which they arose. For example, physical and chemical methods are used in astronomy, biology, ecology.

Special methods investigate certain features of the object under study. They can manifest themselves at the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge and be universal.

Among the special empirical methods of cognition, observation, measurement and experiment are distinguished.

Observation is a purposeful process of perceiving objects of reality, a sensory reflection of objects and phenomena, during which a person receives primary information about the world around him. Therefore, research most often begins with observation, and only then researchers move on to other methods. Observations are used where a direct experiment cannot be performed (in volcanology, cosmology). The results of observation are recorded in the description, noting those signs and properties of the studied object, which are the subject of study. It is the descriptions of the results of observation that constitute the empirical basis of science, on their basis empirical generalizations are created.

Measurement- This is the determination of quantitative values ​​(characteristics) of the studied sides or properties of an object using special technical devices. Units of measurement with which the obtained data are compared play an important role in the study.

Experiment - purposeful and strictly controlled impact of the researcher on the object or phenomenon of interest to study its various aspects, connections and relationships.

In the course of experimental research, the scientist intervenes in the natural course of processes, transforms the object of research. The specificity of the experiment also lies in the fact that it allows you to see an object or process in its purest form. This is due to the maximum elimination of the influence of extraneous factors. The experimenter separates essential facts from irrelevant ones and thereby greatly simplifies the situation.

In any natural science experiment, the following stages are distinguished: preparatory stage; the stage of collecting experimental data; stage of processing the results.

To increase the reliability of the obtained experimental results, the following are required: multiple repetition of measurements; improvement of technical means and devices; strict consideration of factors affecting the object under study; clear planning of the experiment, allowing to take into account the specifics of the investigated object.

Among the special theoretical methods of scientific knowledge, the procedures of abstraction and idealization are distinguished. In the processes of abstraction and idealization, concepts and terms are formed that are used in all theories.

Abstraction - mental distraction from all properties, connections and relationships of the studied object, which are considered insignificant. These are the models of a point, straight line, circle, plane. The result of the abstraction process is called abstraction. Real objects in some tasks can be replaced by these abstractions (the Earth when moving around the Sun can be considered a material point, but not when moving along its surface).

Idealization represents the operation of mentally isolating one property or relation that is important for a given theory, mentally constructing an object endowed with this property (relation). As a result, the ideal object possesses only this property (relation). Science highlights in reality general patterns, which are essential and repeated in various objects, so you have to go for distractions from real objects. This is how such concepts as "atom", "set", "absolutely black body", "ideal gas", "continuous medium" are formed.

Among the special universal research methods, analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, analogy, modeling are distinguished.

Analysis- the method of scientific cognition, which is based on the procedure of mental or real division of an object into its constituent parts and their separate study. It is impossible to know the essence of an object only by highlighting in it the elements of which it consists. When the particulars of the investigated object are studied by means of analysis, it is supplemented by synthesis.

Synthesis - the method of scientific knowledge, which is based on the combination of the elements identified by the analysis. Synthesis acts not as a method of constructing the whole, but as a method of representing the whole in the form of the only knowledge obtained through analysis. It shows the place and role of each element in the system, their relationship with other constituent parts.

Analysis and synthesis are rooted in human practice. A person learned to mentally analyze and synthesize only on the basis of practical separation, gradually comprehending what happens to an object when performing practical actions with it, a person learned to mentally analyze and synthesize.

Comparison - the method of scientific knowledge, which allows to establish the similarity and difference of the studied objects. Comparison is at the heart of many of the natural science measurements that make up an integral part of any experiment. Comparing objects with each other, a person gets the opportunity to correctly cognize them and thereby correctly orient himself in the world around him, to purposefully influence it.

Classification - the method of scientific cognition, which unites into one class objects that are maximally similar to each other in essential features. Classification makes it possible to reduce the accumulated diverse material to a relatively small number of classes, types and forms and to identify the initial units of analysis, to find stable signs and relationships.

Analogy - a method of cognition, in which there is a transfer of knowledge obtained when considering an object to another, less studied, but similar to the first in some essential properties. The analogy method is based on the similarity of objects for a number of any signs, and the similarity is established as a result of comparing objects with each other. Thus, the method of analogy is based on the method of comparison.

The analogy method is closely related to the method modeling, which is the study of any objects using models with the further transfer of the obtained data to the original.

In modern research, various types of modeling are used: subject, mental, symbolic, computer. Subject modeling is the use of models that reproduce certain characteristics of an object. Mental modeling is the use of various mental representations in the form of imaginary models. Symbolic modeling uses drawings, diagrams, formulas as models. They reflect certain properties of the original in symbolic and sign form. The type of symbolic modeling is mathematical modeling performed by means of mathematics and logic. It involves the formation of systems of equations that describe the studied natural phenomenon, and their solution under various conditions. Computer modeling has become widespread in recent years.

Method there is a set of rules, methods of cognitive and practical activity, conditioned by the nature and laws of the object under study.

The modern system of cognitive methods is highly complex and differentiated. The simplest classification of methods of cognition presupposes their division into general, general scientific, concrete scientific.

1. Universal methods characterize the techniques and methods of research at all levels of scientific knowledge. These include methods of analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, comparison, idealization, etc. These methods are so versatile that they work even at the level of everyday consciousness.

Analysis is a procedure of mental (or real) dismemberment, decomposition of an object into its constituent elements in order to identify their systemic properties and relationships.

Synthesis- the operation of connecting the elements of the studied object selected in the analysis into a single whole.

Induction- a method of reasoning or a method of obtaining knowledge, in which a general conclusion is made on the basis of generalization of particular premises Induction can be complete or incomplete. Full induction is possible when the premises embrace all phenomena of one class or another. However, such cases are rare. The inability to take into account all the phenomena of this class forces us to use incomplete induction, the final conclusions of which are not strictly unambiguous.

Deduction- a way of reasoning or a method of movement of knowledge from the general to the particular, i.e. the process of logical transition from general premises to conclusions about special cases. The deductive method can give strict, reliable knowledge, provided that the general premises are true and the rules of inference are observed.

Analogy- a method of cognition, in which the presence of similarity of features of non-identical objects allows us to assume their similarity in other features. Thus, the phenomena of interference and diffraction discovered in the study of light made it possible to draw a conclusion about its wave nature, since earlier the same properties were recorded for sound, the wave nature of which had already been precisely established. Analogy is an irreplaceable means of visualization, depictive thinking. But even Aristotle warned that "an analogy is not a proof"! It can only give conjectural knowledge.

Abstraction- a method of thinking, which consists in abstraction from the insignificant, insignificant for the subject of cognition, the properties and relations of the object under study, while simultaneously highlighting those of its properties that are important and essential in the context of the study.

Idealization- the process of mentally creating concepts about idealized objects that do not exist in the real world, but have a prototype. Examples: ideal gas, absolutely black body.

2. General scientific methods- modeling, observation, experiment.

The initial method of scientific knowledge is considered observation, i.e. deliberate and purposeful study of objects, based on human sensory abilities - sensation and perception. In the course of observation, it is possible to obtain information only about the external, surface sides, qualities and signs of the objects under study.

The result of scientific observations is always a description of the object under study, recorded in the form of texts, pictures, diagrams, graphs, diagrams, etc. With the development of science, observation becomes more and more complex and indirect through the use of various technical devices, instruments, measuring instruments.

Another important method of natural science knowledge is experiment... Experiment is a way of active, purposeful research of objects in controlled and controlled conditions. The experiment includes observation and measurement procedures, but is not limited to them. After all, the experimenter has the ability to select the necessary observation conditions, combine and vary them, achieving the "purity" of the manifestation of the studied properties, as well as intervene in the "natural" course of the investigated processes and even artificially reproduce them.

The main task of an experiment, as a rule, is to predict a theory. Such experiments are called research... Another type of experiment is checking- is intended to confirm certain theoretical assumptions.

Modeling- a method of replacing the object under study with a similar one for a number of properties and characteristics of interest to the researcher. The data obtained during the study of the model, then, with some corrections, are transferred to the real object. Modeling is used mainly when a direct study of an object is either impossible (it is obvious that the phenomenon of "nuclear winter" as a result of the massive use of nuclear weapons, except on a model, is better not to be tested), or is associated with exorbitant efforts and costs. It is advisable to first study the consequences of major interventions in natural processes (river bending, for example) using hydrodynamic models, and then experiment with real natural objects.

Modeling is actually a universal method. It can be used on a wide variety of systems. Usually, such types of modeling are distinguished as subject, mathematical, logical, physical, chemical, and so on. Computer modeling has become widespread in modern conditions.

3.K specific scientific methods are systems of formulated principles of specific scientific theories. H: psychoanalytic method in psychology, method of morphophysiological indicators in biology, etc.

Natural science, as noted above, is a set of sciences about the phenomena and laws of nature. Formed from two words: "nature" (nature) and "knowledge", which literally means knowledge of nature. The word "concept" (translated from Latin, understanding, system) is a certain way of understanding, interpreting any phenomena, the main point of view, a guiding idea for their coverage. The conceptual approach is useful not only for understanding the history of the development of natural science, but also for getting acquainted with the most important achievements of natural science by specialists in technical and social sciences. In the process of acquiring new knowledge, the researcher always uses a certain methodology. In the modern sense methodology- the doctrine of the structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity. Method- This is a way to achieve any goal, including a set of methods of practical or theoretical activity. Scientific methods are subdivided into empirical and theoretical.

To scientific methods empirical level studies include:

1) observation - purposeful perception of the phenomena of objective reality to establish the essential properties of the object of knowledge;

2) description - fixation by means of natural or artificial language of information about objects;

3) measurement - comparison of objects for any similar properties or sides

4) experiment - observation in specially created and controlled conditions in order to establish a causal relationship between the specified conditions and the characteristics of the object under study;

5) modeling - reproduction of the properties of an object on a specially created analogue (model), which allows you to explore the processes characteristic of the original, in the absence of the original itself.

To scientific methods theoretical level studies include:

1) idealization - mental separation of essential and abstraction from non-essential properties, features, sides, etc. of phenomena or objects;

2) formalization - the construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the studied processes and phenomena of reality;

3) theorizing - the construction of theories based on axioms - statements, the proof of the truth of which is not required;

4) mathematical modeling of processes or properties of objects based on the study of the system of equations describing the original being studied;

5) hypothetical-deductive (conceptually - deductive) method - obtaining the necessary information using known laws (hypotheses) and the deductive method (movement from the general to the particular);

6) the method of checking the theory for adequacy (the method of confirmation) - comparison of the consequences arising from the theory and the results of mathematical modeling for compliance with empirical facts.

2) Culture. Natural science and humanitarian culture.

Culture is a historically defined level of development of a society, creative forces and human abilities, expressed in the types and forms of organization of life and activities of people, as well as in the material and spiritual values ​​they create.

It is customary to subdivide culture into two interrelated areas: material culture and spiritual culture.

Currently, there are two main scientific cultures: natural science and humanitarian. C. Snow wrote that there is a huge gap between the natural science and humanitarian-artistic cultures, which is increasing every year.

Natural science culture is based on the knowledge gained by man in the process of studying nature and the phenomena occurring in it, and humanitarian culture is based on knowledge about the actions of people, their value and sensory assessment, and is focused on humanism, morality, human rights, art, literature, mythology , religion, etc.

Characteristics and differences	Natural Sciences	Humanitarian sciences
Object of study
Studied phenomena	Natural phenomena	The actions of people
The relationship between the subject and the object of cognition	Strictly separated	Overlap
Basic theoretical concept		Value
Main function	Explanation (Truths Proved)	Understanding (truths are interpreted)
The nature of the methodology	Generalizing (generalizing)	Individualizing
Basic scientific method	Hypothetical-deductive	Hypothetical value
Experimental research	Form the basis of knowledge	Complicated
The main criterion for scientific character	Verifiability	Efficiency
Ideological neutrality	Ideological burden

In his everyday and usual life, a person does not always realize what clear and well-developed structures are behind the data and information that form the information field of human society. Even the chaotic flow of everyday everyday information and data has its roots, processing space and field of application.

And the sphere and specificity of obtaining knowledge about the nature of the world in which a person lives, simply must have strict regulation. One of these regulations is the structure of natural science knowledge.

Natural science knowledge is possible only within the framework of natural sciences. Research that goes beyond the subjects and methods of these sciences can be used as the basis for scientific hypotheses. But they will not get the status of independent developments recognized by the scientific community.

To streamline the acquired knowledge, since the beginning of the 17th century, there has been a division of all sciences into natural and humanitarian. These levels of natural science knowledge differ both in the subject of study and in the methods and area of ​​application of the acquired knowledge. The division is based on the relationship of the knower (science) to the object (nature) and to the subject (man).

Natural science studies the phenomena, objects and things of nature, and the humanities study the events associated with the subject (person).

The structure of modern science

As you know, the main task of science is the development and systematization of knowledge about reality for a person. This knowledge is verified for validity through empirical verification and mathematical proof.

The concept of systematization provides for the presence of a certain system, structure, on the basis of which the entire array of human knowledge is formed.

All science is divided into two main categories:

• fundamental;
• applied.

Presentation: "Concepts of Modern Natural Science"

Applied Science

They are engaged in introducing the knowledge gained as a result of the development of other areas of science into the practical activity of a person. The main areas of applied sciences are medical, technological and social.

Fundamental sciences

These are areas of science that develop theoretical concepts and search for patterns. These regularities are responsible for such basic characteristics of the universe as its structure, composition, form and conditions for the processes in it. The fundamental sciences are very diverse. To simplify the orientation of a person in the subjects of study of certain studies, the fundamental sciences are divided into three main subcategories:

• Humanities;
• natural;
• mathematical.

The humanities are also divided into two types: about society and about a person. Whereas mathematical and natural, each completely covers its own spectrum of subjects.

One of the main tasks of science is the development of mathematical proofs of a particular process, which is included in the subject of scientific research. In this regard, mathematical sciences by themselves are not engaged in the study of the surrounding reality. They are developing mathematical tools that allow all other sciences to use the developments of mathematicians to confirm the scientific validity of hypotheses and theories.

The main features of natural science

How can a person distinguish science from non-science, what is the specificity of natural science knowledge? It is easy to answer these questions if it is possible to inspect the existing body of knowledge for the presence of the main features that natural science should possess:

System availability

It is rather difficult to check the existing body of knowledge for consistency. but internal structure it always becomes obvious as soon as you try to understand the basic provisions on which the information presented by these developments is based. The whole structure should be based on a system of objects of study. That is - the presence of parts that are components of something whole. Biology studies organisms as a whole, chemistry studies processes of interaction as a whole chemical elements etc.

Criticality

Testing theories for doubt. Each, even the most fundamental concept of the theory, can be questioned by a person for compliance with other provisions of other theories.

Continuity

Regardless of the level at which new knowledge goes, their structure should always maintain a connection with the knowledge that was obtained by a person earlier. Yes, new knowledge can reject, change or expand old, but new knowledge cannot be outside of old knowledge.

The ability to make predictions

Scientific knowledge must contain an element of foresight. Each scientific research has a forecast of how events related to scientific developments will occur. For example, every chemical scientist can predict what products will be obtained as a result of a chemical oxidation reaction, physicists know at what pressure water boils when heated to 50 degrees Celsius. And all these predictions come true with high reliability.

If a person does not receive the predicted results, then conversations begin about going into unexplored planes or about violating the procedure for conducting experiments.

Determinism

This sign has the underlying reason that all manifestations of objective reality are connected by reasons. The relationship of some investigated objects with others can be characterized exclusively by a causal relationship (even its absence, and not only its presence). Modern science believes that now, when she has reached a dead end on many issues, a rejection of determinism is required. At least in the form in which it exists today in the field of scientific research. The development of new approaches to causal relationships is the main problem of modern epistemology.

Versatility

The knowledge obtained by a person within the framework of one science can be used by another science in terms of studying its subject.

None of the provisions of different sciences can cause confusion or give unpredictable consequences of scientific research of fundamental or applied developments.

Algebraic techniques operate according to the same laws in physics, mathematics, biology, and sociology. Likewise, the laws of chemical interaction have the same characteristics when applied both in chemistry and in physics, and in biology, and in medicine, and in technological developments.

There are a number of other signs, such as:

• sensuality (a person's acquisition of knowledge based on information from the senses),
• impersonality (regardless of the personality of the scientist who became the discoverer of this or that knowledge, the derived laws work equally predictably),
• incompleteness (scientists do not assume that somewhere there are principles, theories or laws, with a successful study of which will complete cognitive activity, since there will be nothing more to learn).

The structure and composition of knowledge

So what is the structure of natural science knowledge? A person's acquisition of knowledge in the field of natural sciences is possible in two directions, which are closely related:

• theoretical knowledge;
• empirical knowledge.

Each of these areas of natural science works to obtain a scientific fact. The difference between them is solely in the methods by which these scientific facts are obtained.

The method of natural scientific knowledge consists of several techniques. Depending on which direction - theoretical or empirical - a person plans to receive scientific fact, he uses fundamentally different methods of natural science knowledge.

Methods of human cognition of truth are defined as scientific methods - tools for obtaining new knowledge and solving problems in any of the sciences.

Since the beginning and development of the scientific and technological revolution, society has always been critical of scientific methods. Such interest is associated with the problem that, according to some popular philosophers, it is the constraint and conservatism of the methods of cognition that impedes the development of science. If we analyze the procedure for using a scientific method by a person, then its very application does not guarantee the development of new scientific knowledge. Only when faced with anomalies and unexplained phenomena, scientists can move forward.

Empirical cognition methods

Methods of empirical cognition include methods for a person to obtain knowledge from phenomena directly observed and processed by human senses. There are only two main ways of obtaining such knowledge:

• observation (obtaining information by perceiving objects of research through the senses, while the objects are observed in natural conditions for them, without any intervention of a natural scientist);
• experiment (reproduction of experiments under controlled conditions).

In separate scientific methods, two methods of human processing of information obtained during the preparation, conduct and study of observations and experiments have also been derived:

• study;
• measurement.

Building a scientific experiment

Experimenting is one of the most exciting activities for humans. Conducting experiments aimed at obtaining certain results - this activity itself carries a progressive cognitive charge.

For experiments to be called scientific, a person must build them according to a certain principle:

• To begin with, a natural scientist collects information about a particular phenomenon, the study of which was required to consider a certain scientific problem.
• Having received the information available in the system of scientific knowledge about a phenomenon (its characteristics, conditions of occurrence, possible results, etc.), a person must organize the observation of the phenomena of interest in their natural conditions of reproduction. If a scientist wants to grow a modified plant under experimental conditions, he must observe, and more than once, how similar plants grow and develop under normal conditions.
• Analysis of the received information and data. Having received empirical experience through observation and having information about the phenomenon, which is already in the base of scientific knowledge, a person is able to analyze which judgments-premises can form the basis of a future experiment in order to obtain the necessary conclusions about certain studied phenomena.

• Constructing a hypothesis. In this part of the experimental plan, theoretical methods of cognition are already connected, since the construction of hypotheses is attributed by epistemology precisely to the theoretical method. The developed hypothesis makes assumptions that explain the necessary aspects of the phenomenon under study.
• Development of the theory. Another method used in experimental research. Theories are built after the direct implementation of the experiment, when the data obtained at all the previous stages are compared, and the phenomenon that underlies this or that phenomenon is explained. For example, the phenomenon of carbon dioxide consumption by plants is based on the phenomenon of photosynthesis. And a person can confirm this experimentally.

Theoretical methods

The theoretical scientific method is at the heart of all scientific research. Without it, it is impossible to get at least some knowledge from the information obtained empirically.

Without theoretical processing, empirical data is only a collection of statistical information about properties and processes.

The theoretical method contains the rational component of natural science knowledge. The theoretical method is a way of constructing reasoning about the subject of research.

The main theoretical methods of scientific knowledge used by man are:

1. Formalization (transmission of reflections regarding the phenomenon under study in terms and concepts defined and recognized by the scientific community). As a result of formalization, it is not the subjective experience of a person that is displayed, but a certain abstract model of the phenomenon under study is built.
2. Axiomatization. Application in the construction of hypotheses and theories of statements that are among the a priori truths. Those that do not require additional evidence in the framework of ongoing research. For example, when setting up scientific experiments, a person does not prove that the boiling point of water depends on pressure, even if these two phenomena are used in ongoing research.
3. Abstraction. The need in research to discard all those properties of an object or phenomenon that are insignificant in this research and cannot affect its results. Man is always very careful about this scientific method, because in modern research in very subtle areas, every not perceived deviation can cause a major scientific omission.
4. Analysis. Splitting the subject of research into smaller components (signs, forms, properties, connections, etc.). Studying each separately taken aspect of one phenomenon, a person receives detailed information about the studied phenomenon and, combining the knowledge gained during the study, come to useful conclusions. This combination actually flows into the next scientific method - synthesis.
5. Induction, deduction, analogy are three ways of constructing inferences, taken by science from logic. Each of these methods characterizes the relationship between reasoning-premises for obtaining the necessary conclusions. So, deduction is characterized by the fact that from reasoning-premises related to general scientific knowledge, a person draws certain conclusions for special cases. Induction, on the contrary, derives general laws from particular cases. Analogy involves obtaining conclusions from the study of the similarities and differences of certain phenomena. So, if some signs of the phenomenon under study have certain similarities, it means that these phenomena can be checked for the presence of other similarities.