Lecture number 1

Topic: Introduction

Plan

1. Basic sciences about nature (physics, chemistry, biology), their similarities and differences.

2. Natural science method of cognition and its components: observation, measurement, experiment, hypothesis, theory.

Basic natural sciences (physics, chemistry, biology), their similarities and differences.

The word "natural science" means knowledge about nature. Since nature is extremely diverse, in the process of its cognition, various natural sciences were formed: physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, geography, geology and many others. Each of the natural sciences deals with the study of some specific properties of nature. When new properties of matter are discovered, new natural sciences appear with the aim of further studying these properties, or at least new sections and directions in the already existing natural sciences. This is how a whole body of natural sciences was formed. According to the objects of research, they can be divided into two large groups: the sciences of animate and inanimate nature. The most important natural sciences about inanimate nature are: physics, chemistry, astronomy.

Physics- the science that studies the most general properties matter and the forms of its movement (mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, atomic, nuclear). Physics has many types and sections (general physics, theoretical physics, experimental physics, mechanics, molecular physics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, physics of electromagnetic phenomena, etc.).

Chemistry- the science of substances, their composition, structure, properties and mutual transformations. Chemistry studies the chemical form of motion of matter and is divided into inorganic and organic chemistry, physical and analytical chemistry, colloidal chemistry, etc.

Astronomy- the science of the universe. Astronomy studies the movement of celestial bodies, their nature, origin and development. The most important branches of astronomy, which today have become essentially independent sciences, are cosmology and cosmogony.

Cosmology- physical teaching about the Universe as a whole, its structure and development.

Cosmogony- a science that studies the origin and development of celestial bodies (planets, the Sun, stars, etc.). The newest direction in the knowledge of space is astronautics.

Biology- the science of wildlife. The subject of biology is life as a special form of motion of matter, the laws of development of living nature. Biology, apparently, is the most ramified science (zoology, botany, morphology, cytology, histology, anatomy and physiology, microbiology, virology, embryology, ecology, genetics, etc.). At the junction of sciences, related sciences arise, such as physical chemistry, physical biology, chemical physics, biophysics, astrophysics, etc.

So, in the process of cognition of nature, separate natural sciences were formed. This is a necessary stage of cognition - the stage of differentiation of knowledge, differentiation of sciences. It is caused by the need to cover an ever increasing number of natural objects under study and a deeper penetration into their details. But nature is a single, unique, multifaceted, complex, self-governing organism. If nature is one, then the idea of it from the point of view of natural science should also be one. Natural science is such a science.

Natural science- the science of nature as a single whole or the totality of the sciences of nature, taken as a single whole. The last words in this definition once again emphasize that this is not just a collection of sciences, but a generalized, integrated science. This means that today the differentiation of knowledge about nature is replaced by their integration. This task is due, firstly, to the objective course of cognition of nature and, secondly, to the fact that mankind learns the laws of nature not for the sake of simple curiosity, but for using them in practical activities, for their life support.

2. Natural science method of cognition and its components: observation, measurement, experiment, hypothesis, theory.

Method is a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical activity.

Methods of scientific knowledge include the so-called general methods , i.e. general human methods of thinking, general scientific methods and methods of specific sciences. Methods can be classified according to the ratio empirical knowledge (i.e. knowledge gained as a result of experience, experimental knowledge) and theoretical knowledge, the essence of which is knowledge of the essence of phenomena, their internal connections.

Features naturally scientific method knowledge:

1. Is objective

2. The subject of knowledge is typical

3. Historicity is optional

4. Creates only knowledge

5. The natural scientist seeks to be an outside observer

6. Based on the language of terms and numbers

Methods of natural science 1 page

Analysis of the means of obtaining and storing knowledge is of great importance for understanding scientific knowledge. The means of obtaining knowledge are the methods of scientific knowledge. What is a method?

The concept of a method (from the Greek "methodos" - the way to something) means a set of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical mastering of reality.

In the literature there are equal definitions method. We will use the one that, in our opinion, is suitable for the analysis of natural science. Method is the subject's mode of action aimed at theoretical and practical mastery of the object.

The subject in the broad sense of the word is understood as the whole of humanity in its development. In the narrow sense of the word, a subject is a separate person, armed with the knowledge and means of cognition of his era.

The method equips a person with a system of principles, requirements, rules, guided by which he can achieve the intended goal. Possession of a method means for a person the knowledge of how, in what sequence to perform certain actions to solve certain problems, and the ability to apply this knowledge in practice.

The doctrine of the method began to develop in the science of modern times. Its representatives considered the correct method to be a reference point in the movement towards reliable, true knowledge. Thus, the prominent 17th century philosopher F. Bacon compared the method of cognition with a lantern illuminating the way for a traveler walking in the dark. And another famous scientist and philosopher of the same period, R. Descartes, outlined his understanding of the method as follows: “By method I mean precise and simple rules, strict adherence to which ... without wasting mental energy, but gradually and continuously increasing knowledge, contributes to the fact that the mind achieves true knowledge of everything that is available to it. "

There is a whole area of knowledge that is specifically concerned with the study of methods and which is commonly referred to as methodology. Methodology literally means "teaching about methods" (for this term comes from two Greek words: "methodos" - method and "logos" - teaching). Studying the laws of human cognitive activity, the methodology develops on this basis the methods of its implementation. The most important task of the methodology is to study the origin, essence, effectiveness and other characteristics of the methods of cognition.

Methods of scientific knowledge are usually subdivided according to the degree of their generality, that is, according to the breadth of applicability in the process of scientific research.

There are two universal methods in the history of cognition: dialectical and metaphysical. These are general philosophical methods. From the middle of the 19th century, the metaphysical method began to be more and more displaced from natural science by the dialectical method.

The second group of cognitive methods is made up of general scientific methods that are used in various fields of science, that is, they have a very wide interdisciplinary range of applications. The classification of general scientific methods is closely related to the concept of levels of scientific knowledge.

There are two levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. Some general scientific methods are applied only at the empirical level (observation - purposeful perception of the phenomena of objective reality; description - fixation by means of natural or artificial language of information about objects; measurement - comparison of objects by any similar properties or parties; experiment-observation in specially created and controlled conditions, which allows you to restore the course of the phenomenon when the conditions are repeated), others - only at the theoretical (idealization, formalization), and some (for example, modeling) - both at the empirical and theoretical levels ...

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by a direct study of real-life, sensually perceived objects. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by making observations, performing various measurements, and setting up experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the obtained factual data in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc. is also carried out. In addition, already at the second level of scientific knowledge, as a consequence of the generalization of scientific facts, it is possible to formulate some empirical laws.

The theoretical level of scientific research is carried out at the rational (logical) level of cognition. At this level, the most profound, essential sides, connections, patterns inherent in the studied objects and phenomena are revealed. The theoretical level is a higher level in scientific knowledge. The results of theoretical knowledge are hypotheses, theories, laws.

While distinguishing these two different levels in scientific research, one should not, however, separate them from each other and oppose them. After all, the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected. The empirical level acts as the basis, the foundation of the theoretical comprehension of scientific facts, statistical data obtained at the empirical level. In addition, theoretical thinking inevitably relies on sensory-visual images (including diagrams, graphs, etc.) with which the empirical level of research deals.

In turn, the empirical level of scientific knowledge cannot exist without the achievement of the theoretical level. Empirical research is usually based on a certain theoretical structure that determines the direction of this research, determines and justifies the methods used in this case.

The general methods used not only in science, but also in other branches of human activity include:

analysis - the dismemberment of an integral subject into its component parts (sides, signs, properties or relationships) for the purpose of their comprehensive study;

synthesis - the combination of previously identified parts of an object into a single whole;

abstraction - a distraction from a number of properties and relations of the studied phenomenon that are not essential for this study, while simultaneously highlighting the properties and relations of interest to us;

generalization - a method of thinking, as a result of which the general properties and characteristics of objects are established;

induction is a research method and a way of reasoning in which a general conclusion is built on the basis of particular premises;

deduction is a way of reasoning by means of which a conclusion of a private nature necessarily follows from general premises;

analogy is a method of cognition, in which, on the basis of the similarity of objects in some features, they conclude about their similarity in other features;

modeling - the study of an object (original) by creating and researching its copy (model), replacing the original from certain sides of interest to the researcher;

classification - the division of all studied subjects into separate groups in accordance with some important feature for the researcher (it is especially often used in descriptive sciences - many sections of biology, geology, geography, crystallography, etc.).

The third group of methods of scientific knowledge includes methods used only in the framework of research of a specific science or some specific phenomenon. Such methods are called private science. Each particular science (biology, chemistry, geology, etc.) has its own specific research methods.

At the same time, particular scientific methods, as a rule, contain, in various combinations, certain general scientific methods of cognition. In particular scientific methods, observations, measurements, inductive or deductive inferences, etc. may be present. The nature of their combination and use depends on the conditions of research, the nature of the objects under study. Thus, specific scientific methods are not divorced from general scientific ones. They are closely related to them, include the specific application of general scientific cognitive techniques for studying a specific area of the objective world.

Private scientific methods are also associated with the universal dialectical method, which, as it were, is refracted through them. For example, the universal dialectical principle of development manifested itself in biology in the form of the natural-historical law of evolution of animal and plant species discovered by Charles Darwin.

Statistical methods have acquired great importance in modern science, which make it possible to determine the average values characterizing the entire set of studied subjects. “By applying the statistical method, we cannot predict the behavior of an individual in a population. We can only predict the likelihood that it will behave in a certain way.

Statistical laws can only be applied to systems with a large number of elements, but not to individuals or objects.

Characteristic feature modern natural science is also the fact that research methods are increasingly influencing its result (the so-called "device problem" in quantum mechanics).

It should be added that any method by itself does not yet predetermine success in cognizing certain aspects of material reality. It is also important to be able to correctly apply the scientific method in the process of cognition.

1.3 The structure of natural science

The structure of scientific research is, in a broad sense, a method of scientific knowledge or a scientific method as such.

So, we started scientific research, we recorded the first empirical fact, which, and became a scientific fact.

These facts are accompanied by observation, and in some areas of natural science this method remains the only and main empirical research method. For example, in astronomy.

We can speed up research, i.e. conduct an experiment, test the object of research. Peculiarity scientific experiment is that it can be reproduced by every researcher at any time.

During the experiment, it is worth considering whether there is anything in common in the behavior of objects that at first glance behave completely differently? Finding analogies in differences is a necessary stage of scientific research.

Not all bodies can be experimented with. For example, heavenly bodies can only be observed. But we can explain their behavior by the action of the same forces directed not only towards the Earth, but also away from it. The difference in behavior, therefore, can be explained by the amount of force that determines the interaction of two or more bodies.

If we nevertheless consider the experiment necessary, then we can conduct it on models, i.e. on bodies, the dimensions and mass of which are proportionally reduced in comparison with real bodies. The results of model experiments can be considered proportional to the results of the interaction of real bodies.

In addition to the model experiment, it is possible thought experiment... To do this, you need to imagine bodies that do not exist at all in reality, and conduct an experiment on them in the mind.

In modern science, one must be ready for idealized experiments, i.e. thought experiments with the use of idealization, with which (namely, Galileo's experiments) began the physics of modern times. Representation and imagination (the creation and use of images) has in science great importance, but unlike art, this is not the final, but an intermediate goal of research. The main goal of science is hypothesis and theory as an empirically confirmed hypothesis.

Concepts play a special role in science. Even Aristotle believed that by describing the essence to which the term indicates, we explain its meaning. And his name is a sign of a thing. Thus, the explanation of the term (and this is the definition of the concept) allows us to understand a given thing in its deepest essence (“concept” and “understand” are the same root words). Scientific terms and signs are nothing more than abbreviations of records that would otherwise take up much more space.

Concept formation belongs to the next level of research, which is not empirical, but theoretical. But first, we must write down the results of empirical research so that everyone can check them and make sure they are correct.

From empirical research, empirical generalizations can be made that are meaningful in themselves. In the sciences called empirical, or descriptive, like geology, empirical generalizations complete research; in the experimental, theoretical sciences, this is just the beginning. To move on, you need to come up with a satisfactory hypothesis to explain the phenomenon. Empirical evidence alone is not enough for this. All prior knowledge is required.

At the theoretical level, in addition to empirical facts, concepts are required that are created anew or taken from other (mainly immediate) branches of science. These concepts should be defined and presented in a short form in the form of words (called terms in science) or signs (including mathematical ones), which each have a strictly fixed meaning.

When putting forward a hypothesis, not only its compliance with empirical data is taken into account, but also some methodological principles, called the criteria of simplicity, beauty, economy of thinking, etc.

After putting forward a certain hypothesis (a scientific assumption that explains the reasons for a given set of phenomena), the study returns to the empirical level to test it. When testing a scientific hypothesis, new experiments should be carried out, asking nature new questions, based on the formulated hypothesis. The goal is to test the consequences of this hypothesis, about which nothing was known before it was put forward.

If a hypothesis withstands empirical testing, then it acquires the status of a law (or, in a weaker form, regularity) of nature. If not, it is considered disproved, and the search for another, more acceptable one, continues. Scientific assumption, therefore, remains a hypothesis as long as it is not clear whether it is empirically confirmed or not. The stage of a hypothesis cannot be final in science, since all scientific propositions, in principle, are empirically refuted, and the hypothesis sooner or later either becomes a law or is rejected.

Verification experiments are set up in such a way as not so much to confirm as to refute this hypothesis. An experiment that aims to refute this hypothesis is called a decisive experiment. It is he who is most important for accepting or rejecting a hypothesis, since it alone is enough to recognize the hypothesis as false.

Natural laws describe immutable regularities that are either there or not. Their properties are the periodicity and universality of a class of phenomena, i.e. the need for their occurrence under certain precisely formulated conditions.

So, natural science studies the world in order to create the laws of its functioning, as products of human activity, reflecting periodically repeating facts of reality.

The collection of several laws related to one area of knowledge is called theory. If the theory as a whole does not receive convincing empirical confirmation, it can be supplemented with new hypotheses, of which, however, there should not be too many, as this undermines the credibility of the theory.

A theory confirmed in practice is considered true until the moment when a new theory is proposed that better explains the known empirical facts, as well as new empirical facts that became known after the adoption of this theory and turned out to be contrary to it.

So, science is built from observations, experiments, hypotheses, theories and argumentation. In terms of content, science is a collection of empirical generalizations and theories that are confirmed by observation and experiment. Moreover, the creative process of creating theories and argumentation in support of them plays no less role in science than observation and experiment.

The structure of scientific knowledge can be schematically represented as follows:

Empirical fact → scientific fact→ observation → real experiment → model experiment → thought experiment → fixing the results of the empirical level of research → empirical generalization → using existing theoretical knowledge → image → formulating a hypothesis → testing it by experience → formulating new concepts → introducing terms and signs → defining their meaning → deriving law → creating a theory → testing it by experience → accepting additional hypotheses if necessary.

What interests natural science? The problems that arise in this very vast field of knowledge are very diverse - from the structure and origin of the Universe to the knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of the existence of a unique Earth phenomenon - Life.

What are the names of scientists working in the field of natural science? In ancient times, Aristotle (384-322 BC) called them physicists or physiologists, because the ancient Greek word phisis, very close to the Russian word nature, originally meant origin, creation.

At present, the spectrum of scientific research in natural science is unusually wide. The system of natural sciences, in addition to the basic sciences: physics, chemistry and biology, also includes many others - geography, geology, astronomy, and even sciences that stand on the border between the natural and the humanities - for example, psychology. The goal of psychologists is to study human and animal behavior. On the one hand, psychology relies on the scientific achievements of biologists working in the field of physiology of higher nervous activity and observing the activity of the brain. On the other hand, this science is also concerned with social, that is, social phenomena, drawing on knowledge from the field of sociology. Social psychology, for example, studies the relationship of groups of people in society. Psychology, accumulating the knowledge of all natural sciences, is, as it were, a bridge thrown from the highest step of natural knowledge to the sciences, the purpose of which is Man and Society.

When studying the humanities, students should be aware of their relationship with the sciences that study Nature. Economists cannot do without knowledge of geography and mathematics, philosophers - without the basics of natural philosophy; sociologists interact with psychologists, and restorers of ancient paintings resort to the help of modern chemistry, and so on. There are countless examples of such examples.

There are two widespread definitions of the concept of natural science.

one). Natural science is the science of Nature as a single whole. 2). Natural science is a set of natural sciences considered as a whole.

The difference between natural science as a science and special natural sciences is that it investigates the same natural phenomena at once from the standpoint of several sciences, "looking for" the most general patterns and tendencies, and considers Nature as if from above. Natural science, recognizing the specifics of the sciences included in it, at the same time has as its main goal the study of Nature as a whole.

Why study natural science? In order to clearly imagine the true unity of Nature, that single foundation on which all the variety of objects and phenomena of Nature is built and from which the basic laws that connect the micro- and macrocosms follow: the Earth and the Cosmos, physical and chemical phenomena among themselves, life, mind ... Studying individual natural sciences, it is impossible to cognize Nature as a whole. Therefore, the study of subjects separately - physics, chemistry and biology - is only the first step to the knowledge of Nature in its entirety, i.e. knowledge of its laws from a general natural science position. Hence, the goals of natural science follow, which represent a double task.

The goals of natural science:

1. Revealing hidden connections that create an organic unity of all physical, chemical and biological phenomena.

2. Deeper and more accurate knowledge of these phenomena themselves.

The unity of the objects of research leads to the emergence of new, so-called interdisciplinary sciences, standing at the junction of several traditional natural sciences. Among them are biophysics, physical chemistry, physicochemical biology, psychophysics, etc.

The tendencies of such unity or integration of natural science knowledge began to appear for a very long time. Back in 1747-1752, MV Lomonosov (1711-1765) substantiated the need to involve physics to explain chemical phenomena. He coined a name for the new science, calling it physical chemistry.

In addition to physics, chemistry and biology, natural sciences include others, for example, geology and geography, which are complex in nature. Geology studies the composition and structure of our planet in their evolution over billions of years. Its main sections are mineralogy, petrography, volcanology, tectonics, etc. are derivatives from crystallography, crystal physics, geophysics, geochemistry and biogeochemistry. Also, geography is "saturated" with physical, chemical and biological knowledge, which to varying degrees are manifested in such its main sections as: physical geography, soil geography, etc. Thus, all the research of Nature today can be represented as a huge network connecting numerous branches of the physical, chemical and biological sciences.

2.2 Trends in the development of modern natural science

The integration of science, the emergence of new related disciplines in natural science - all this marks the current stage in the development of science. All in all (from the point of view of the history of science) humanity in its knowledge of Nature has passed three stages and enters the fourth.

At the first of them, general ideas about the surrounding world were formed as about something whole, a single one. The so-called natural philosophy appeared, which was a repository of ideas and guesses. This continued until the 15th century.

The analytical stage began in the 15th-16th centuries, i.e. dismemberment and separation of particulars that led to the emergence and development of physics, chemistry and biology, as well as a number of other, more specific natural sciences.

Finally, at present, attempts are being made to substantiate the fundamental integrity of all natural science and to answer the question: why exactly physics, chemistry, biology and psychology have become the main and, as it were, independent branches of the science of Nature?

There is also a differentiation of science, i.e. the creation of narrow areas of any science, however, the general tendency is precisely towards the integration of science. Therefore, the last stage (fourth), which begins to be implemented, is called integral-differential.

Currently, there is not a single area of natural - scientific research that would relate exclusively to physics, chemistry or biology in its purest form. All these sciences are "permeated" by the laws of Nature common to them.

1.3. Mathematics - the universal language of exact natural science

The outstanding Italian physicist and astronomer, one of the founders of exact natural science Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) said: “Anyone who wants to solve problems of the natural sciences without the help of mathematics poses an insoluble problem. it is not. "

The mathematics necessary for accurate natural science begins with the simplest counting and with all sorts of simplest measurements. As it develops, exact natural science uses an increasingly perfect mathematical arsenal of the so-called higher mathematics.

Mathematics, as a logical conclusion and a means of cognition of Nature, is the creation of the ancient Greeks, which they began to study seriously six centuries before our era. Since the VI century. BC. the Greeks developed an understanding that Nature is organized rationally, and all phenomena proceed according to a precise plan, a "mathematical" one.

The German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) asserted in his "Metaphysical Principles of Natural Science" that: "In any particular doctrine of nature, one can find science in its proper sense (i.e. pure, fundamental) only as much as there is mathematics in it. ". Here it is worth citing the statement of Karl Marx (1818-1883) that: "Science achieves perfection only when it manages to use mathematics."

While working on the general theory of relativity, and in the future, A. Einstein (1879-1955) continuously improved in the study and application of mathematics, and the most recent and complex of its branches.

From all the statements of great people, it follows that mathematics is a "cement" that binds together the sciences that are part of natural science and allows you to look at it as an integral science.

3 Stages of development of natural science

3.1 An attempt at a scientific systematization of the picture of the world. Aristotle's natural science revolution

It is easier to assimilate natural science by examining its development in time. The fact is that the system of modern natural science, along with the new sciences about Nature, also includes such historical areas of knowledge as ancient Greek natural philosophy, natural science of the Middle Ages, modern science and classical natural science until the beginning of the 20th century. This is a truly bottomless treasury of all the knowledge acquired by mankind over the long years of its existence on our planet.

An attempt to understand and explain the world without involving mysterious forces was first undertaken by the ancient Greeks. In the VII-VI centuries. BC. in Ancient Greece the first scientific institutions appeared: the Plato Academy, the Aristotle Lyceum, the Alexandria Museum. It was in Greece that the idea of a single material basis of the world and its development was first put forward. The most ingenious idea was the atomic structure of matter, first expressed by Leucippus (500-400 BC) and developed by his student Democritus (460-370 BC).

The essence of the teachings of Democritus is as follows:

1. There is nothing but atoms and pure space (ie, emptiness, nothingness).

2. Atoms are infinite in number and infinitely varied in shape.

3. Nothing comes from "nothing".

4. Nothing happens by chance, but only for some reason and in connection with necessity.

5. The difference between things comes from the difference in their atoms in number, size, shape and order.

Developing the teachings of Democritus, Epicurus (341-270 BC) tried to explain all natural, mental and social phenomena on the basis of atomic concepts. If we summarize all the views of Democritus and Epicurus, then, having a good imagination, one can see in their works the rudiments of atomic and molecular kinetic theory. The teachings of the ancient Greek atomists have come down to us through the famous poem "On the Nature of Things" by Lucretius (99-56 BC).

With the accumulation of knowledge about the world, the task of their systematization became more and more urgent. This task was accomplished by one of the greatest thinkers of antiquity, a student of Plato - Aristotle (384-322 BC). Aristotle was the mentor of Alexander the Great until his death. Aristotle wrote many works. In one of them - "Physics", he considers questions about matter and motion, about space and time, about finite and infinite, about existing causes.

In his other work, On the Sky, he gave two compelling arguments in favor of the fact that the Earth is not a flat plate (as was believed at that time), but a round ball.

First, Aristotle guessed that lunar eclipses occur when the Earth is between the Moon and the Sun. The Earth always casts a round shadow on the Moon, and this can only be if the Earth has the shape of a ball.

Secondly, from the experience of their travels, the Greeks knew that in the southern regions the North Star is located lower in the sky than in the northern ones. The North Star at the North Pole is directly above the observer's head. To a person at the equator, it seems that it is located on the horizon. Knowing the difference in the apparent location of the North Star in Egypt and Greece, Aristotle was able to calculate the length of the equator! True, this length turned out to be somewhat larger (approximately twice), but still in those days it was a major scientific discovery.

Aristotle believed that the Earth is motionless, and the Sun, Moon, planets and stars revolve around it in circular orbits.

Interestingly, the first global scientific discoveries were made by scientists not in the earthly area, but in the universal, cosmic area. It was from this astronomical knowledge that a new picture of the structure of the Universe was born, destroying all the old familiar ideas about the world around people. This knowledge so changed the very worldview of all people who lived at that time that the power of their influence on the minds can only be compared with a revolution - a sharp change in views on the structure of the world. Such "revolutions" in the foundations of knowledge in the scientific world are called natural science revolutions.

Every global natural science revolution begins precisely with astronomy (the greatest example is the creation of the theory of relativity). Solving purely astronomical problems, scientists begin to clearly understand that modern science there is no sufficient reason to explain it. Further, a radical revision of all existing cosmological ideas about the world and about the Universe as a whole begins. The natural science revolution ends (if it comes to this) with the construction of a new physical foundation for new, radically revised cosmological ideas about the entire universe.

Scientific knowledge is a system that has several levels of knowledge, differing in a number of parameters. Empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are distinguished depending on the subject, nature, type, method and method of the acquired knowledge. Each of them performs specific functions and has specific research methods. The levels correspond to interrelated, but at the same time, specific types of cognitive activity: empirical and theoretical research. Highlighting the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge, the modern researcher realizes that if in everyday knowledge it is legitimate to distinguish between sensory and rational levels, then in scientific research the empirical level of research is never limited to purely sensory knowledge, theoretical knowledge does not represent pure rationality. Even the initial empirical knowledge gained through observation is recorded using scientific terms. Theoretical knowledge is also not pure rationality. When constructing a theory, visual representations are used, which are the basis of sensory perception. Thus, we can say that at the beginning of empirical research, the sensual predominates, and in the theoretical, the rational. At the level of empirical research, it is possible to identify dependencies and connections between phenomena, certain patterns. But if the empirical level can only capture the external manifestation, then the theoretical one comes to explain the essential connections of the object under study.

Empirical knowledge is the result of direct interaction of the researcher with reality in observation or experiment. At the empirical level, not only the accumulation of facts occurs, but also their primary systematization, classification, which makes it possible to identify empirical rules, principles and laws that are transformed into observable phenomena. At this level, the object under study is reflected mainly in external relations and manifestations. The complexity of scientific knowledge is determined by the presence in it of not only levels and methods of cognition, but also the forms in which it is fixed and developed. The main forms of scientific knowledge are facts, problems, hypotheses and theory. Their meaning is to reveal the dynamics of the cognitive process in the course of research and study of an object. Fact-finding is necessary condition the success of natural science research. To build a theory, the facts should not only be reliably established, systematized and generalized, but also considered in interrelation. A hypothesis is conjectural knowledge that is probabilistic in nature and requires verification. If, during the test, the content of the hypothesis does not agree with the empirical data, then it is rejected. If the hypothesis is confirmed, then we can talk about it with varying degrees of probability. As a result of testing and proving, some hypotheses become theories, others are refined and concretized, and others are discarded if their test gives a negative result. The main criterion for the truth of a hypothesis is practice in different forms.

Scientific theory is a generalized system of knowledge that gives a holistic reflection of natural and essential relationships in a certain area of objective reality. The main task of the theory is to describe, systematize and explain the whole set of empirical facts. Theories are classified as descriptive, scientific and deductive. In descriptive theories, researchers formulate general patterns based on empirical evidence. Descriptive theories do not imply logical analysis and concreteness of evidence (physiological theory of I. Pavlov, evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, etc.). In scientific theories, a model is constructed that replaces a real object. The consequences of the theory are verified by experiment (physical theories, etc.). In deductive theories, a special formalized language has been developed, all terms of which are subject to interpretation. The first of them is Euclid's "Beginnings" (the basic axiom is formulated, then provisions are added to it that are logically derived from it, and all proofs are carried out on this basis).

The main elements of scientific theory are principles and laws. The principles provide general and important support for the theory. In theory, principles play the role of the primary premises that form its basis. In turn, the content of each principle is revealed with the help of laws. They concretize the principles, reveal the mechanism of their action, the logic of the relationship, the consequences arising from them. Laws are a form of theoretical statements that reveal the general connections of the studied phenomena, objects and processes. When formulating principles and laws, it is rather difficult for a researcher to be able to see, behind numerous, often completely outwardly dissimilar facts, the essential properties and characteristics of the investigated properties of objects and phenomena. The difficulty lies in the fact that it is difficult to fix the essential characteristics of the investigated object in direct observation. Therefore, it is impossible to go directly from the empirical level of knowledge to the theoretical one. Theory is not built by direct generalization of experience, so the next step is to formulate the problem. It is defined as a form of knowledge, the content of which is a conscious question, for the answer to which the available knowledge is not enough. Search, formulation and solution of problems are the main features of scientific activity. In turn, the presence of a problem in comprehending inexplicable facts entails a preliminary conclusion that requires experimental, theoretical and logical confirmation. The process of cognition of the surrounding world is the solution of various kinds of problems arising in the course of human practical activity. These problems are solved by using special techniques - methods.

Methods of Science- a set of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical knowledge of reality.

Research methods optimize human activity, equip him with the most rational ways of organizing activities. A.P. Sadokhin, in addition to highlighting the levels of knowledge in the classification of scientific methods, takes into account the criterion of applicability of the method and highlights general, special and particular methods of scientific knowledge. The highlighted methods are often combined and combined in the research process.

Common Methods cognition relate to any discipline and make it possible to connect all stages of the cognition process. These methods are used in any field of research and make it possible to identify connections and features of the objects under study. In the history of science, researchers refer to such methods as metaphysical and dialectical methods. Private methods scientific knowledge - these are methods that are used only in a particular branch of science. Various methods of natural science (physics, chemistry, biology, ecology, etc.) are private in relation to the general dialectical method of cognition. Sometimes private methods can be used outside the branches of natural science in which they arose. For example, physical and chemical methods used in astronomy, biology, ecology. Researchers often apply a complex of interrelated private methods to the study of one subject. For example, ecology simultaneously uses the methods of physics, mathematics, chemistry, and biology. Private methods of cognition are associated with special methods. Special methods investigate certain features of the object under study. They can manifest themselves at the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge and be universal.

Among special empirical methods of cognition distinguish observation, measurement and experiment.

Observation is a purposeful process of perceiving objects of reality, a sensory reflection of objects and phenomena, during which a person receives primary information about the world around him. Therefore, research most often begins with observation, and only then researchers move on to other methods. Observations are not associated with any theory, but the purpose of observation is always associated with some problem situation. Observation presupposes the existence of a certain research plan, an assumption that is subject to analysis and verification. Observations are used where a direct experiment cannot be performed (in volcanology, cosmology). The observation results are recorded in the description, noting those signs and properties of the studied object, which are the subject of study. The description should be as complete, accurate and objective as possible. It is the descriptions of observation results that constitute the empirical basis of science, on their basis empirical generalizations, systematization and classification are created.

Measurement- This is the determination of quantitative values (characteristics) of the studied sides or properties of an object using special technical devices. Units of measurement with which the obtained data are compared play an important role in the study.

Experiment - a more complex method of empirical knowledge compared to observation. It is a purposeful and strictly controlled impact of a researcher on an object or phenomenon of interest to study its various aspects, connections and relationships. In the course of experimental research, the scientist intervenes in the natural course of processes, transforms the object of research. The specificity of the experiment also lies in the fact that it allows you to see an object or process in its purest form. This is due to the maximum elimination of the influence of extraneous factors. The experimenter separates essential facts from irrelevant ones and thereby greatly simplifies the situation. This simplification contributes to a deep understanding of the essence of phenomena and processes and creates the ability to control many factors and quantities important for a given experiment. A modern experiment is characterized by the following features: an increase in the role of theory at the preparatory stage of the experiment; the complexity of the technical means; the scale of the experiment. The main task of the experiment is to test hypotheses and conclusions of theories that have fundamental and applied value. In experimental work, with active influence on the object under study, one or another of its properties are artificially distinguished, which are the subject of study in natural or specially created conditions. In the process of a natural science experiment, they often resort to physical modeling of the object under study and create various controlled conditions for it. S. Kh.Karpenkov subdivides the experimental means according to the content into the following systems:

♦ a system containing the object under study with specified properties;

♦ a system that provides impact on the investigated object;

♦ measuring system.

S. Kh. Karpenkov points out that, depending on the task at hand, these systems play a different role. For example, when determining the magnetic properties of a substance, the experimental results largely depend on the sensitivity of the instruments. At the same time, in the study of the properties of a substance that does not occur in nature under ordinary conditions, and even at low temperatures, all systems of experimental means are important.

In any natural science experiment, the following stages are distinguished:

♦ preparatory stage;

♦ the stage of collecting experimental data;

♦ stage of processing the results.

The preparatory stage is a theoretical justification of the experiment, its planning, making a sample of the object under study, the choice of conditions and technical means of research. Results obtained on a well-prepared experimental base, as a rule, lend themselves more easily to complex mathematical processing. Analysis of the results of the experiment allows one to evaluate certain signs of the object under study, to compare the results obtained with the hypothesis, which is very important in determining the correctness and degree of reliability of the final results of the study.

To increase the reliability of the obtained experimental results, you need:

♦ multiple repetition of measurements;

♦ improvement of technical means and devices;

♦ strict consideration of factors affecting the object under study;

♦ clear planning of the experiment, allowing to take into account the specifics of the investigated object.

Among special theoretical methods of scientific knowledge allocate procedures for abstraction and idealization. In the processes of abstraction and idealization, concepts and terms are formed that are used in all theories. The concepts reflect the essential side of the phenomena that appears when generalizing the research. In this case, only a certain side of the object or phenomenon stands out. So, the concept of "temperature" can be given an operational definition (an indicator of the degree of heating of a body in a certain thermometer scale), and from the standpoint of molecular kinetic theory, temperature is a quantity proportional to the average kinetic energy of motion of particles that make up the body. Abstraction - mental distraction from all properties, connections and relationships of the studied object, which are considered insignificant. These are the models of a point, straight line, circle, plane. The result of the abstraction process is called abstraction. Real objects in some tasks can be replaced by these abstractions (the Earth when moving around the Sun can be considered a material point, but not when moving along its surface).

Idealization represents the operation of mentally isolating one property or relation that is important for a given theory, mentally constructing an object endowed with this property (relation). As a result, the ideal object possesses only this property (relation). In reality, science distinguishes general patterns that are essential and are repeated in various objects, so you have to go for distractions from real objects. This is how such concepts as "atom", "set", "absolutely black body", "ideal gas", "continuous medium" are formed. The ideal objects obtained in this way do not really exist, since there cannot be objects and phenomena in nature that have only one property or quality. When applying the theory, it is necessary to reconcile the obtained and used ideal and abstract models with reality. Therefore, it is important to choose abstractions in accordance with their adequacy to a given theory and then exclude them.

Among special universal research methods allocate analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, analogy, modeling. The process of natural science knowledge is carried out in such a way that we first observe the general picture of the studied object, in which particulars remain in the shadows. With such an observation, it is impossible to know the internal structure of the object. To study it, we must separate the objects under study.

Analysis- one of the initial stages of research, when a complete description of an object is transferred to its structure, composition, features and properties. Analysis is a method of scientific knowledge, which is based on the procedure of mental or real division of an object into its constituent parts and their separate study. It is impossible to know the essence of an object only by highlighting in it the elements of which it consists. When the particulars of the investigated object are studied by means of analysis, it is supplemented by synthesis.

Synthesis - the method of scientific knowledge, which is based on the combination of the elements identified by the analysis. Synthesis acts not as a method of constructing the whole, but as a method of representing the whole in the form of the only knowledge obtained through analysis. It shows the place and role of each element in the system, their relationship with other constituent parts. Analysis captures mainly the specific that distinguishes the parts from each other, synthesis - generalizes the analytically identified and studied features of the object. Analysis and synthesis are rooted in human practice. A person has learned to mentally analyze and synthesize only on the basis of practical separation, gradually comprehending what happens to the object when performing practical actions with it. Analysis and synthesis are components of the analytical-synthetic method of cognition.

In a quantitative comparison of the investigated properties, parameters of objects or phenomena, one speaks of the comparison method. Comparison- a method of scientific knowledge, which allows to establish the similarity and difference of the objects under study. Comparison is at the heart of many of the natural science measurements that make up an integral part of any experiment. Comparing objects with each other, a person gets the opportunity to correctly cognize them and thereby correctly navigate in the world around him, to purposefully influence it. Comparison is important when really homogeneous and similar objects are compared. The comparison method highlights the differences between the objects under study and forms the basis of any measurements, that is, the basis of experimental research.

Classification- a method of scientific knowledge, which unites objects into one class that are most similar to each other in essential features. The classification makes it possible to reduce the accumulated diverse material to a relatively small number of classes, types and forms and to identify the initial units of analysis, to find stable signs and relationships. Typically, classifications are expressed in the form of natural language texts, diagrams and tables.

Analogy - a method of cognition, in which there is a transfer of knowledge obtained when considering an object to another, less studied, but similar to the first in some essential properties. The analogy method is based on the similarity of objects for a number of any signs, and the similarity is established as a result of comparing objects with each other. Thus, the method of analogy is based on the method of comparison.

The analogy method is closely related to the method modeling, which is the study of any objects using models with the further transfer of the obtained data to the original. This method is based on a significant similarity between the original object and its model. Modern research uses different kinds modeling: subject, mental, symbolic, computer. Subject modeling is the use of models that reproduce certain characteristics of an object. Mental modeling is the use of various mental representations in the form of imaginary models. Symbolic modeling uses drawings, diagrams, formulas as models. They reflect certain properties of the original in symbolic and sign form. The type of symbolic modeling is mathematical modeling performed by means of mathematics and logic. It involves the formation of systems of equations that describe the studied natural phenomenon, and their solution under various conditions. Computer modeling has become widespread in recent years (Sadokhin A.P., 2007).

The variety of methods of scientific knowledge creates difficulties in their application and understanding of their role. These problems are solved by a special area of knowledge - methodology. The main task of the methodology is to study the origin, essence, effectiveness, development of methods of cognition.

Scientific research is carried out using special techniques - methods.

Methods of Science- a set of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical knowledge of reality.

Allocate general, private and special methods of scientific research.

Common Methods cognition relate to any discipline and make it possible to connect all stages of the cognition process. In the history of science, researchers refer to such methods as metaphysical and dialectical methods.

Private methods scientific knowledge - these are methods that are used only in a particular branch of science. Various methods of natural science (physics, chemistry, biology, ecology, etc.) are private in relation to the general dialectical method of cognition. Sometimes private methods can be used outside the branches of natural science in which they arose. For example, physical and chemical methods are used in astronomy, biology, ecology.

Special methods investigate certain features of the object under study. They can manifest themselves at the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge and be universal.

Among the special empirical methods of cognition, observation, measurement and experiment are distinguished.

Experiment - purposeful and strictly controlled impact of the researcher on the object or phenomenon of interest to study its various aspects, connections and relationships.

In the course of experimental research, the scientist intervenes in the natural course of processes, transforms the object of research. The specificity of the experiment also lies in the fact that it allows you to see an object or process in its purest form. This is due to the maximum elimination of the influence of extraneous factors. The experimenter separates essential facts from irrelevant ones and thereby greatly simplifies the situation.

In any natural science experiment, the following stages are distinguished: preparatory stage; the stage of collecting experimental data; stage of processing the results.

To increase the reliability of the obtained experimental results, the following are required: multiple repetition of measurements; improvement of technical means and devices; strict consideration of factors affecting the object under study; clear planning of the experiment, allowing to take into account the specifics of the investigated object.

Among the special theoretical methods of scientific knowledge, the procedures of abstraction and idealization are distinguished. In the processes of abstraction and idealization, concepts and terms are formed that are used in all theories.

Abstraction - mental distraction from all properties, connections and relationships of the studied object, which are considered insignificant. These are the models of a point, straight line, circle, plane. The result of the abstraction process is called abstraction. Real objects in some tasks can be replaced by these abstractions (the Earth when moving around the Sun can be considered a material point, but not when moving along its surface).

Among the special universal research methods, analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, analogy, modeling are distinguished.

Analysis- a method of scientific cognition, which is based on the procedure of mental or real division of an object into its constituent parts and their separate study. It is impossible to know the essence of an object only by highlighting in it the elements of which it consists. When the particulars of the investigated object are studied by means of analysis, it is supplemented by synthesis.

Analysis and synthesis are rooted in human practice. A person learned to mentally analyze and synthesize only on the basis of practical separation, gradually comprehending what happens to an object when performing practical actions with it, a person learned to mentally analyze and synthesize.

Comparison - the method of scientific knowledge, which allows to establish the similarity and difference of the studied objects. Comparison is at the heart of many of the natural science measurements that make up an integral part of any experiment. Comparing objects with each other, a person gets the opportunity to correctly cognize them and thereby correctly orient himself in the world around him, to purposefully influence it.

Classification - the method of scientific cognition, which unites into one class objects that are maximally similar to each other in essential features. Classification makes it possible to reduce the accumulated diverse material to a relatively small number of classes, types and forms and to identify the initial units of analysis, to find stable signs and relationships.

The analogy method is closely related to the method modeling, which is the study of any objects using models with the further transfer of the obtained data to the original.

In modern research, various types of modeling are used: subject, mental, symbolic, computer. Subject modeling is the use of models that reproduce certain characteristics of an object. Mental modeling is the use of various mental representations in the form of imaginary models. Symbolic modeling uses drawings, diagrams, formulas as models. They reflect certain properties of the original in symbolic and sign form. The type of symbolic modeling is mathematical modeling performed by means of mathematics and logic. It involves the formation of systems of equations that describe the studied natural phenomenon, and their solution under various conditions. Computer modeling has become widespread in recent years.

Method is of great importance for scientific knowledge, i.e. a way of organizing the study of an object. Method - a set of principles, rules and techniques of practical and theoretical activity. The method equips a person with a system of principles, requirements, rules, guided by which a person can achieve the intended goal.

The correct method is of great importance for the knowledge of nature. The doctrine of the method (methodology) begins to develop in the science of modern times. The famous English philosopher Francis Bacon compared the method to a lantern that illuminates the way for a traveler. A scientist who is not armed with the correct method is a traveler wandering in the dark and groping for his way. René Descartes, the great French philosopher of the 17th century, also attached great importance to the development of a scientific method: “By method I mean precise and simple rules, strict adherence to which, without wasting mental energy, but gradually and continuously increasing knowledge, contributes to the fact that the mind reaches the true knowledge of everything that is available to him. " It was during this period of rapid development of natural science that two opposite methodological concepts were formed: empiricism and rationalism.

Empiricism is a trend in methodology that recognizes experience as a source of reliable knowledge, reducing the content of knowledge to a description of this experience.

Rationalism is a trend in methodology, according to which reliable knowledge is provided only by reason, logical thinking.

Methods of scientific knowledge can be classified according to the degree of generality into universal (philosophical) and scientific, which in turn are divided into general scientific and specific scientific.

Private scientific methods are applied within the framework of one science or field of scientific research, for example: the method of spectral analysis, the method of color reactions in chemistry, the methods of electromagnetism in physics, etc.

General scientific methods have a wide interdisciplinary range of applications and can be applied in any science, for example: modeling, experiment, logical methods, etc.

One of the most important features of scientific knowledge is the presence of two levels: empirical and theoretical, which differ in the methods used. At the empirical (experimental) stage, mainly methods are used that are associated with sensory-visual methods of cognition, which include observation, measurement, experiment.

Observation is the initial source of information and is associated with the description of the object of knowledge. Purposefulness, orderliness, activity are characteristic requirements for scientific observation. According to the method of observation, there are direct and mediated. During direct observation, the properties of an object are perceived by the human senses. Such observations have always played a large role in the study of science. Thus, for example, the observation of the position of planets and stars in the sky, carried out for more than twenty years by Tycho Brahe with accuracy uncommon for the naked eye, contributed to Kepler's discovery of his famous laws. However, most often scientific observation is indirect, i.e. carried out with the help of technical means. Galileo's invention of an optical telescope in 1608 expanded the possibilities of astronomical observations, and the creation in the 20th century of X-ray telescopes and their launch into space on board an orbital station made it possible to observe such space objects as quasars and pulsars that could not be observed in any other way.

The development of modern natural science is associated with an increase in the role of so-called indirect observations. For example, objects studied by nuclear physics cannot be observed either directly, with the help of human senses, or indirectly, with the most sophisticated instruments. What scientists observe in the process of empirical research in atomic physics is not the micro-objects themselves, but only the results of their impact on certain technical means. For example, the registration of interactions of elementary particles is recorded only indirectly with the help of counters (gas-charged, semiconductor, etc.) or track devices (Wilson's chamber, bubble chamber, etc.) By decoding the "pictures" of interactions, researchers get information about the particles and their properties.

An experiment is a more complex method of empirical knowledge, it involves an active, purposeful and strictly controlled influence of the researcher on the object under study to identify its certain aspects and properties. Advantages of the experiment: firstly, it allows you to study the object in "pure form", ie. eliminate any side factors that impede the study. Secondly, it allows you to study an object in some artificial, for example, extreme, conditions, when it is possible to discover the amazing properties of objects, thereby comprehending their essence deeper. Space experiments are very interesting and promising in this regard, which make it possible to study objects in such special conditions like weightlessness, deep vacuum, which are unattainable in terrestrial laboratories. Thirdly, studying any process, the experimenter can interfere with it, actively influence its course. Fourth, the repetition, repeatability of the experiment, which can be repeated as many times as necessary to obtain reliable results.

Depending on the nature of the tasks, experiments are divided into research and verification. Research experiments allow making discoveries, discovering new, previously unknown properties of an object. For example, experiments in the laboratory of E. Rutherford showed a strange behavior of alpha particles when they bombarded gold foil: most of the particles passed through the foil, a small number of particles deflected and scattered, and some particles did not just deflect, but bounced back like a ball from the net ... Such a picture, according to the calculations, was obtained due to the fact that the entire mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus, which occupies an insignificant part of the volume of the atom, and alpha particles bounced back, colliding with the nucleus. So Rutherford's research experiment led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus, and thus to the birth of nuclear physics.

Verification experiments serve to confirm some theoretical constructs. For example, the existence of a number of elementary particles (positron, neutrino, etc.) was initially predicted theoretically.

Measurement is a process that consists in determining the quantitative values of the properties or sides of the object under study using special technical devices. The measurement result is obtained in the form of a number of units of measurement. The unit of measurement is the standard against which the measured object is compared. Units of measurement are subdivided into basic ones, used as basic ones when constructing a system of units, and derivatives, derived from basic ones using some mathematical relations. The method for constructing a system of units was first proposed in 1832 by Karl Gauss. The proposed system is based on three arbitrary units: length (millimeter), mass (milligram), time (second). All other units could be obtained from these three. Later, with the development of science and technology, other systems of units of physical quantities, built according to the Gauss principle, appeared. In addition, the so-called natural systems units in which the basic units were determined from the laws of nature. An example is the system of units proposed by Max Planck, which was based on the "world constants": the speed of light in a vacuum, the constant of gravitation, Boltzmann's constant and Planck's constant. Based on them (and equating them to "1"), Planck received a number of derived units: length, mass, time, temperature. At present, in natural science, the International System of Units (SI), adopted in 1960 by the General Conference on Weights and Meters, is mainly used. This system is the most perfect and universal of all that existed until now and covers the physical quantities of mechanics, thermodynamics, electrodynamics and optics, which are interconnected by physical laws.

At the theoretical stage, they resort to abstractions and the formation of concepts, build hypotheses and theories, and discover the laws of science. General scientific theoretical methods include comparison, abstraction, idealization, analysis, synthesis, deduction, induction, analogy, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete. Their main feature is that these are logical devices, i.e. operations with thoughts, knowledge.

Comparison is a mental operation of identifying the similarities and differences of the studied subjects. A special case of comparison is analogy: the conclusion about the presence of one or another feature in the object under study is made on the basis of the detection of a number of similar features with another object in it.

Abstraction is the mental isolation of the attributes of an object and their consideration separately from the object itself and its other attributes. Idealization is the mental construction of a situation (object, phenomenon), to which properties or relations are attributed in the "limiting" case. The result of such a design is idealized objects, such as: a point, a material point, an absolutely black body, an absolutely solid body, an ideal gas, an incompressible liquid, etc. Thanks to idealization, the processes are considered in a "pure form", which makes it possible to reveal the laws by which these processes flow. For example, suppose someone is walking down a path with a baggage trolley and suddenly stops pushing it. The cart will move for a while, walking a short distance, and then stop. You can think of many ways to lengthen the path the cart travels after being pushed. However, it is impossible to eliminate all external influences on the path length. But, considering the movement of the body in the "limiting" case, we can conclude that if you completely eliminate external influences on the moving body, then it will move endlessly and at the same time uniformly and rectilinearly. This conclusion was made by Galileo and was called the "principle of inertia", and most clearly formulated by Newton in the form of the law of inertia.

Associated with idealization is such a specific method as a thought experiment, which involves operating with an idealized object that replaces the real object in abstraction.

Analysis is a research method consisting in dividing the whole into parts for the purpose of their independent study.

Synthesis is the connection of previously identified parts into a whole in order to identify their relationship and interaction. The connection between analysis and synthesis follows from the very nature of objects that represent the unity of the whole and its parts. Analysis and synthesis condition each other.

Induction - logical method, based on the movement of thought from the singular or particular to the general. In inductive inference, the truth of premises (facts) does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion drawn, it will only be probabilistic. The method of scientific induction is based on elucidating the causal (causal) relationship of the phenomena under study. Causality is such an internal relationship between two phenomena when one of them generates, causes the other. This relationship contains: a phenomenon that claims to be a cause; the phenomenon to which we attribute the nature of the action (effect), and the circumstances in which the interaction of cause and action occurs.

The causal relationship is characterized by:

the cause constantly precedes its action in time; this means that the cause of this phenomenon should be sought among the circumstances preceding it in time, taking into account the fact of some coexistence in time of cause and effect.

· The reason gives rise to action, conditions its appearance; this means that precedence in time alone is not enough for a causal connection, an occasion is a condition that precedes the appearance of a phenomenon, but does not generate it.

· The connection of cause and effect is necessary; this means that it is possible to prove the absence of a causal relationship in the case when the action occurs, and the alleged cause was not observed.

· The connection between cause and effect is universal; this means that each phenomenon has a cause, therefore, as a rule, the presence of a causal relationship cannot be established on the basis of a single phenomenon, it is necessary to study a certain set of phenomena, within which the desired causal relationship is systematically manifested.

· With a change in the intensity of the cause, the intensity of the action also changes. This occurs when cause and effect coexist for a certain time.

These properties are the basis for the methods of discovering causal relationships, developed by F. Bacon (1561-1626), and then improved by the English philosopher, logician, economist John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). These methods are called scientific induction methods. There are five of them:

1. The method of the only similarity: if some circumstance constantly precedes the onset of the phenomenon under study while other circumstances change, then this condition is probably the cause of this phenomenon.

2. Method of the only difference: if some condition occurs when the phenomenon under investigation occurs, and is absent when this phenomenon does not exist, and all other conditions remain unchanged, then, probably, this condition is the cause of the phenomenon under investigation.

3. The combined method of similarity and difference: if two or more cases when a given phenomenon occurs are similar only in one condition, while two or more cases when this phenomenon is absent differ from the first only in that this condition is absent , then this condition is probably the cause of the observed phenomenon.

4. Method of concomitant changes: if, with a change in conditions, some phenomenon changes to the same extent, and other circumstances remain unchanged, then this condition is probably the cause of the observed phenomenon.

5. The method of residuals: if complex conditions produce a complex action and it is known that part of the conditions causes a certain part of this action, then the remaining part of the conditions causes the remaining part of the action.

Deduction is the movement of thought from general provisions to particular or individual ones. Deduction is a general scientific method, but the deductive method is especially important in mathematics. In modern science, the outstanding philosopher and mathematician R. Descartes developed and promoted the deductive-axiomatic method of cognition. His methodology was in direct opposition to Bacon's empirical inductivism.

From the general position that all metals have electrical conductivity, we can conclude about the electrical conductivity of a particular copper wire, knowing that copper is a metal. If the initial general propositions are true, then deduction will always yield a true conclusion.

The most common type of deduction is a simple categorical syllogism, which establishes a relationship between two extreme terms S and P based on their relationship to the middle term M. For example:

All metals (M) conduct electric current (P).

Conditionally categorical inference also occupies an important place in the theory of deductive reasoning.

Affirmative modus (modus ponens):

If a person has a fever (a), he is sick (b). This person has a fever (a). So he is sick (b).

As you can see, the thought here moves from the statement of the basis to the statement of the corollary: (a - ›b, a) -› b.

Negative modus (modus tollens):

If a person has a fever (a), he is sick (b). This person is not sick (not-b). This means that he does not have an elevated temperature (not-a).

As you can see, here the thought moves from denying the effect to denying the reason: (a - ›b, not-b) -› not-a.

Deductive logic plays an important role in substantiating scientific knowledge, proving theoretical propositions.

Analogy and modeling. Both of these methods are based on identifying similarities in objects or relationships between objects. A model is a device artificially created by man that, in a certain respect, reproduces real-life objects that are the object of scientific research. Modeling is based on abstraction of similar features in different subjects and establishing between a certain relationship between them. With the help of modeling, it is possible to study such properties and relationships of the studied phenomena that may be inaccessible to direct study.

In the well-known planetary model of the atom, its structure is likened to the structure Solar system... Light electrons move along closed trajectories around the massive core at different distances from it, just as planets revolve around the sun. In this analogy, as usual, the similarity is established, but not the objects themselves, but the relations between them. The atomic nucleus is not like the Sun, and the electrons are not like the planets. But the relationship between the nucleus and the electrons is much like the relationship between the sun and the planets.

The analogy between living organisms and technical devices underlies bionics. This area of cybernetics studies the structure and life of organisms; open regularities and discovered properties are then used to solve engineering problems and build technical systems that approach living systems in their characteristics.

Thus, analogy not only allows one to explain many phenomena and make unexpected and important discoveries, it even leads to the creation of new scientific directions or a radical transformation of the old.

Types of modeling.

Mental (ideal) modeling is the construction of various mental representations in the form of imaginary models. For example, in the ideal model of the electromagnetic field created by Maxwell, the lines of force were represented in the form of tubes of various sections through which an imaginary fluid flows, which does not have inertia and compressibility.

Physical modeling - reproduction in a model of processes inherent in the original, based on their physical similarity. It is widely used for the development and experimental study of various structures (power plant dams, etc.), machines (the aerodynamic qualities of aircraft, for example, are studied on their models blown by an air flow in a wind tunnel), to study effective and safe methods of mining. etc.

Symbolic (sign) modeling is associated with the representation of various schemes, graphs, drawings, formulas as models. A special kind of symbolic modeling is mathematical modeling. The symbolic language of mathematics allows one to express the properties, sides, relations of objects of the most diverse nature. The relationship between various quantities describing the functioning of the object under study is expressed by the corresponding equations.

Numerical simulation on a computer is based on a mathematical model of the object under study and is used in cases of large amounts of calculations required to study this model, for which a special program is created. In this case, the algorithm (computer program) of the functioning of the object under study acts as a model.

Method there is a set of rules, methods of cognitive and practical activity, conditioned by the nature and laws of the object under study.

The modern system of cognitive methods is highly complex and differentiated. The simplest classification of methods of cognition presupposes their division into general, general scientific, concrete scientific.

Universal methods characterize the techniques and methods of research at all levels of scientific knowledge.

These include methods of analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, comparison, idealization, etc. These methods are so versatile that they work even at the level of everyday consciousness.

Analysis is a procedure for mental (or real) dismemberment, decomposition of an object into constituent elements in order to identify their systemic properties and relationships.

Synthesis- the operation of connecting the elements of the studied object selected in the analysis into a single whole.

Induction- a method of reasoning or a method of obtaining knowledge, in which a general conclusion is made on the basis of generalization of particular premises.

Induction can be complete or incomplete. Full induction is possible when the premises cover all phenomena of a particular class. However, such cases are rare. The inability to take into account all the phenomena of this class forces us to use incomplete induction, the final conclusions of which are not strictly unambiguous.

Deduction- a way of reasoning or a method of movement of knowledge from the general to the particular, i.e.

the process of logical transition from general premises to conclusions about special cases.

The natural scientific method of cognition and its compiled ..

The deductive method can give strict, reliable knowledge, provided that the general premises are true and the rules of inference are observed.

Analogy- a method of cognition, in which the presence of similarity of features of non-identical objects allows us to assume their similarity in other features. Thus, the phenomena of interference and diffraction discovered in the study of light made it possible to draw a conclusion about its wave nature, since earlier the same properties were recorded for sound, the wave nature of which had already been accurately established.

Analogy is an irreplaceable means of visualization, depictive thinking. But even Aristotle warned that "an analogy is not a proof"! It can only give conjectural knowledge.

Abstraction- the method of thinking, which consists in distracting from the insignificant, insignificant for the subject of cognition, the properties and relations of the object under study, while simultaneously highlighting those properties that seem important and essential in the context of the study.

Idealization- the process of mentally creating concepts about idealized objects that do not exist in the real world, but have a prototype.

Examples: ideal gas, absolutely black body.

2. General scientific methods- modeling, observation, experiment.

The initial method of scientific knowledge is considered observation, i.e. deliberate and purposeful study of objects, based on the sensory abilities of a person - sensation and perception. In the course of observation, it is possible to obtain information only about the external, surface sides, qualities and signs of the objects under study.

The result of scientific observations is always a description of the investigated object, recorded in the form of texts, pictures, diagrams, graphs, diagrams, etc.

With the development of science, observation becomes more and more complex and indirect through the use of various technical devices, instruments, measuring instruments.

Another important method of natural science is experiment.

Experiment is a method of active, purposeful research of objects in controlled and controlled conditions. The experiment includes observation and measurement procedures, but is not limited to them. After all, the experimenter has the ability to select the necessary conditions for observation, combine and vary them, achieving the "purity" of the manifestation of the studied properties, as well as intervene in the "natural" course of the investigated processes and even artificially reproduce them.

The main task of an experiment, as a rule, is to predict a theory.

Such experiments are called research... Another type of experiment is checking- is intended to confirm certain theoretical assumptions.

Modeling- the method of replacing the studied object with a similar one for a number of properties and characteristics of interest to the researcher.

The data obtained during the study of the model, then, with some corrections, are transferred to the real object. Modeling is mainly used when direct study of the object is either impossible (it is obvious that the phenomenon of "nuclear winter" as a result of massive use nuclear weapons except on the model it is better not to test), or is associated with unreasonable efforts and costs.

It is advisable to first study the consequences of large interventions in natural processes (river bending, for example) using hydrodynamic models, and then experiment with real natural objects.

Modeling is actually a universal method.

It can be used on a wide variety of systems. Usually, such types of modeling are distinguished as subject, mathematical, logical, physical, chemical, and so on. Computer modeling has become widespread in modern conditions.

3.K specific scientific methods are systems of formulated principles of specific scientific theories.

H: psychoanalytic method in psychology, method of morphophysiological indicators in biology, etc.

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Forms and methods of natural science knowledge. - section Philosophy, QUESTIONS FOR EXAM OR EXAMINATION IN PHILOSOPHY Historically, the Path of Natural-Scientific Cognition of the World Began with F ...

Historically, the path of natural-scientific knowledge of the surrounding world began with living contemplation - sensory perception of facts on the basis of practice.

^ Sensual forms of cognition. Cognition of reality is carried out in different forms, of which the first and simplest is sensation.

Sensations are the simplest sensory images, reflections, copies or a kind of snapshots of individual properties of objects. For example, in an orange we feel a yellowish color, a certain hardness, a specific smell, etc.

n. A holistic image reflecting objects directly affecting the sense organs, their properties and relationships is called perception. Representations are images of those objects that once influenced the human sense organs, and then are restored according to the traces preserved in the brain and in the absence of these objects.

Sensations and perceptions are the beginning of the emergence of conscious reflection.

^ Scientific fact. A necessary condition for scientific research is the establishment of facts. Empirical knowledge supplies science with facts, while fixing stable connections, laws of the world around us.

Ascertaining this or that fact, we fix the existence of a certain object. At the same time, however, it usually remains unknown what he is in essence.

A simple statement of fact keeps our knowledge at the level of being.

^ Observation and experiment. The most important methods of natural science research are observation and experiment. Observation is a deliberate, systematic perception carried out in order to reveal the essential properties of the object of cognition. Experiment - a method, or technique, research, with the help of which an object is either artificially reproduced or placed in predetermined conditions.

The method of changing the conditions in which the object under study is located is the main method of experiment.

Thinking. Thinking is the highest level of knowledge. Thinking is a purposeful, mediated and generalized reflection in the human brain of essential properties, causal relationships and natural connections of things. The main forms of thinking are concepts, judgments and inferences. A concept is a thought that reflects the general and essential properties of objects and phenomena.

All topics in this section:

The subject of philosophy, its main functions.
The subject of philosophy and its functions in society.

Philosophy is a general theory of the world and man in it. Philosophy originated about 2500 years ago in the countries of the East: India, Greece, Rome. Most developed

The place of philosophy in the cultural system.
Feature phenomena of culture - their "involvement" in man. Culture in general means the measure of the human in natural and social objects and phenomena, that is, how much, in what degree

Ancient philosophy, its specific features.
Philosophy Ancient Rome unites with the ancient Greek under the general name "ancient philosophy".

Ancient philosophy in its development went through four main stages (this is one of the most

Philosophy of Socrates.
Socrates (c. 469 BC, Athens - 399 BC, ibid.) Is an ancient Greek philosopher whose teaching marks a turn in philosophy - from considering nature and the world to considering man

The main ideas of Plato's philosophy, his doctrine of the ideal state.
The main part of Plato's philosophy, which gave the name to the whole direction of philosophy, is the doctrine of ideas (eidos), about the existence of two worlds: the world of ideas (eidos) and the world of things, or forms.

Idea - center

Philosophy of Aristotle.
Plato's student Aristotle criticized his teacher. Plato's mistake, from his point of view, was that he tore the "world of ideas" from the real world. The essence of the object is in the object itself, and

Theocentrism of the philosophy of the Middle Ages. The teachings of A. Augustine. Philosophy of F. Aquinas.
Medieval philosophy was inextricably linked with Christianity, therefore general philosophical and Christian ideas are closely intertwined in it.

The main idea of medieval philosophy is theocentrism.

Formation of the scientific method of cognition in the philosophy of F. Bacon and R. Deckard (emporism and rationalism).
English philosopher F.

Bacon (1561-1626) was the ancestor of English empiricism, the study of experience. Empiricism is understood as a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes the sensory experience of the source

B. Spinoza on nature and man.
Spinoza's doctrine of nature is based on the doctrine of substance, which he identifies with God, that is, with nature. By substance Spinoza understands that "... That exists by itself and pre

T. Hobbes about the problems of the relationship between man and society.
If spiritual substances existed, they would be unknown.

He does not admit the existence of disembodied spirits, but adheres to the idea of the existence of God. He viewed God as the source of n

I. Kant's theory of knowledge.
Kant believed that the solution of such problems of philosophy as the problem of the existence of man, soul, morality and religion should be preceded by the study of the possibilities of human knowledge and the establishment of its boundaries.

Ethics of I. Kant.
Kant's ethics is characterized by the doctrine of independence or "autonomy" of morality.

Kant's predecessors and contemporary idealist philosophers believed that the basis of ethics in religion: a moral law is given and

The main ideas of Hegel's philosophy. Contradictions between system and method.
The doctrine of the identity of subject and object also underlies the philosophical system of G. Hegel. The first step towards overcoming the opposition of subject and object, according to Hegel, is movement

Philosophy of history by G. Hegel.
The basis of Hegel's philosophical views can be presented as follows.

The whole world is a grandiose historical process of unfolding and realizing the capabilities of a certain world mind, spirit. Mi

Man, Society and Nature in the Philosophy of French Enlightenment.
French philosophy of the 18th century.

commonly called the philosophy of the Enlightenment. This name is French philosophy of the 18th century. received due to the fact that its representatives destroyed the established ideas

Marxist understanding of the understanding of society, society and history.
Marxist philosophy is a cumulative concept that denotes the philosophical views of Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), as well as the views of their followers.

Absolutely

Marxist philosophy in Russia (G. Plekhanov, V. Lenin).
G.V. Plekhanov substantiated and popularized the doctrine of Marxism, developed and concretized its individual issues, especially in the field of social philosophy: the role of the masses and the individual in history.

Russian materialistic philosophy in the 19th century.
The ideas of materialism and socialism The search for Russian philosophical thought of ways historical development Russia in the XIX century.

took place in an atmosphere of confrontation between two tendencies. Representatives of the first accent

Russian religious philosophy 19-20 centuries
Russian religious philosophy occupied special place practically throughout the history of Russian social thought, starting from the era of Kievan Rus.

The heyday of this philosophy came at the end of the 19th century.

Russian cosmism as philosophy.
Russian cosmism is a special worldview that developed in the 19th - 20th centuries ..

Its signs are: 1) consideration of the world, the cosmos as a whole, man - in an inextricable connection with the cosmos

The problem of being in the history of philosophy.
Being is a philosophical concept that fixes the aspect of the existence of a being, in contrast to its essence. What really exists. This concept captures the most common thing in things - their simple presence. If with

The essence of consciousness. Consciousness and unconsciousness.
Consciousness is the highest form of reflection of the real world, is characteristic only of people and is associated with speech, the function of the brain, which consists in a generalized and purposeful reflection of reality, in the pre

Movement and its essence.

Movement and development.
Movement is a phenomenon that reflects change; an attribute of matter associated with any change in the moments of objective reality; a philosophical category that reflects any changes in the world.

In the European tradition

Philosophical concepts of space and time.
Space is a form of existence of material objects and processes (characterizes the structure and extent of material systems); time is a form of sequential change in the states of objects and pro

Unity and diversity of the world.
The unity of the world lies in its materiality, in the fact that all objects and phenomena in the world represent different states and properties of moving matter.

There is nothing in the world that does not exist.

Dialectics as a theory of development and as a method of cognition. Forms of dialectics.
The concept of dialectics. The constantly evolving struggle between the old and the new, the opposite and the contradictory, the emerging and the disappearing, leads the world to new structures. This struggle itself is objectively

They do not have a specific functional form.

The concept of a picture of the world. Scientific and religious picture of the world.
The philosophical picture of the world comprehends the universe in terms of the relationship between man and the world in all aspects of ontological, cognitive, value and activity.

The system-forming principle of phil

Cognition as the interaction of subject and object.
Subject - a being that possesses consciousness and will, the ability to pursue purposeful activities aimed at a particular object; a person who knows and changes the world around him.

The subject on which

Object of cognition. Real and idealized objects.
Real objects are presented in empirical knowledge in the form of ideal objects with a fixed and limited set of features. Idealized objects, in contrast to empirical ones, on

Sensual cognition and its specificity.

Natural science way of knowing

Figurative and symbolic cognition.
Sensory cognition is the simplest and most basic form of cognition. Sensory cognition begins with sensations arising as a result of individual influences of reality on the sense organs. In count

Rational in cognition and its form. Role rational knowledge in man's assimilation of reality.
Rational cognition is a cognitive process that is carried out through the forms of mental activity.

The forms of rational cognition have several general characteristics: first, n

The problem of truth is knowledge. Basic concepts of truth. The concept of objective, absolute and relative truth. The criterion of truth.
Truth is the correct reflection of reality in thought. In the process of cognition, a person subjectively reflects the objective world. The forms of reflection participating in cognition give a subjective image of the objective

Intuition and its role in cognition.
Intuition is the ability to feel the already existing logical chains of related information concerning the desired question, and, thus, instantly find the answer to any question.

In history philosopher

Consciousness and language. Problem of origin. Language as a sign system. The main functions of the language.
Consciousness is one of the forms of manifestation of our soul, at the same time it is very essential, full of deep content. Consciousness is the highest, peculiar only to people and associated with speech function of the brain,

Society as a society.

Concept, main features.
Society is a kind of unified whole, consisting of people connected by various degrees of community, which allows us to call them compatibility, and this is possible only for a sufficient high level develop

Activity as a specific way of human existence.
The social qualities of a person are manifested in her actions, deeds, in her relation to other people.

For these externally manifested actions, as well as through questionnaires, tests and introspection (self-observation

Social relations and their importance in the life of society.
Social relations are a system of normalized interactions between partners about something that binds them (subject, interest, etc.).

Unlike social interaction, social from

Alienation of personality. Freedom and responsibility of the individual.
Alienation is the process of separation from people of the process and the results of their activities (activity is understood broadly, like any social activity), which become beyond the control of a person and

One of the principles of research ethics is.

1.the intrinsic value of truth

2.Lack of criticism of ideas already accepted by the scientific community

3.Preference to eminent scientists in matters of scientific evidence

complete coincidence of the interests of science and society

The principle of falsification in scientific knowledge means that only

1.Knowledge that is fundamentally refuted

2.scientific knowledge cannot be refuted

3.A scientist must prove his hypothesis with a large number of experiments, and not try to refute its truth

hypotheses need to be confirmed by experience

Pseudoscience that searches for extraterrestrial civilizations is

1. astronomy

2.Ufology

3.astrology

4.parapsychology

Pseudoscience, which studies the dependence of a person's fate on position, is

deviant science

2. astronomy

3.parapsychology

4.astrology

Pseudoscience, within the framework of which false archaeological finds take place, is ...

1.devnant science

2.geology

3.parapsychology

4.alchemy

1.fragment, lack of consistency

full compliance with the observed facts

3.systemic nature

Physics is the science of nature. Natural science method of cognition, its possibilities and limits of applicability

susceptibility to criticism

The hallmark of pseudoscience is:

1.full compliance with the observed facts

full compliance with ethical standards

3.non-critical approach to the original data

4. systemic character

Choose the correct judgment:

1. Scientific knowledge from unscientific cannot be distinguished according to the principle of falsification

2. Only fundamentally refutable knowledge can claim the status of "pseudoscientific"

3. The structure of pseudoscientific knowledge is a system

Only fundamentally refutable knowledge can claim the status of "scientific"

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself

1.determination of the quantitative values of properties, sides of the object or phenomenon under study with the help of special technical devices;

method of thinking, as a result of which the general properties and characteristics of objects are established;

3. a way of reasoning, in which the general conclusion is built on the basis of particular sprinkles;

A) generalization -2

B) induction -3

B) measurement -1

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself

1. construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the studied processes of reality;

the operation of connecting the selected parts of the subject of study into a single whole;

3. study of an object by creating and researching a copy of it, replacing the object of research from certain sides;

A) formalization, -1

B) modeling -3

B) synthesis -2

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself:

2) abstraction from a number of properties of the studied phenomenon that are insignificant for this study, while simultaneously highlighting the properties and relationships of interest

A) modeling-3

B) classification -1

B) abstraction -2

1) a method of thinking, as a result of which the general properties and characteristics of objects are established

2) similarity, similarity of some properties, attributes or relationships in various objects as a whole

3) connection of previously identified parts of an object into a single whole

A) synthesis - 3

B) analogy -2

B) generalization -1

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) a way of reasoning, in which the general conclusion is built on the basis of particular premises

2) a method of cognition, in which, on the basis of the similarity of objects in some features, they conclude about their similarity in other features

A) modeling -3

B) analogy -2

B) induction -1

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) a way of reasoning in which the general conclusion is built on the basis of partial premises

2) sensory reflection of objects and phenomena of the external world

3) study of an object by creating and researching a copy of it, replacing the object of research from certain sides

A) observation - 2

B) modeling - 3

B) induction -1

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

2) active, purposeful research of objects in a controlled and controlled environment

3) the method of replacing the object under study with a similar one for a number of properties and characteristics of interest to the researcher

A) experiment - 2

B) observation -1

B) modeling -3

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) deliberate and purposeful study of objects based on human sensory abilities

2) a technique of cognition, in which the presence of similarity, the coincidence of the features of non-identical objects allows us to assume their similarity in other features

A) observation -1

B) generalization -3

B) analogy -2

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) deliberate and purposeful study of objects based on human sensory abilities

3) a method of cognition, in which the presence of similarity, the coincidence of signs of non-identical objects allows us to assume their similarity in other signs

A) analogy -3

B) observation -1

B) synthesis -2

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the studied processes of reality

2) the operation of connecting the selected parts of the subject of study into a single whole

3) study of an object by creating and researching a copy of it, replacing the object of research from certain sides

A) modeling -3

B) formalization -1

B) synthesis -2

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) the division of all studied subjects into separate groups in accordance with any sign

2) abstraction from a number of properties of the studied phenomenon that are insignificant for this study, while simultaneously highlighting the properties and relationships of interest

3) construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the studied processes of reality

A) formalization -3

B) classification -1

C) abstraction-2

Establish a correspondence between the definition of the method of scientific knowledge and the method itself.

1) the division of all studied subjects into separate groups in accordance with any sign

2) active, purposeful, strictly controlled influence of the researcher on the studied object

3) a method of thinking, as a result of which the general properties and characteristics of objects are established

A) experiment -2

B) generalization -3

B) classification -1

Experiment.

is the study of natural processes in vivo

2.does not imply the study of the object in artificial conditions

does not allow to exclude extraneous factors that complicate the research process

4. allows you to study the object, moving away from extraneous factors that complicate the research process

Empirical research.

1.Its main task is to explain and interpret the facts

2.deals exclusively with idealized objects (for example, a material point, an ideal gas)

3.Uses mainly mathematical modeling, abstraction as methods of cognition

based on direct practical interaction of the researcher with the object under study

The process of scientific knowledge begins with ...

putting forward a hypothesis;

2. building a model;

3. observing and gathering facts;

4. setting up the experiment.

The process of scientific cognition according to the hypothetical-deductive method begins with ... ..

1.building the model

2. setting up the experiment

3.observing and gathering facts

4. making a hypothesis

It does not belong to the empirical methods of cognition ...

1.experiment 2. abstraction 3.Observation 4.

dimension

It does not apply to theoretical methods of cognition ...

1.abstraction 2.formalization 3. observation 4.idealization

The method of cognition, which boils down to dividing the whole subject into its component parts for the purpose of their comprehensive study, is called:

analysis 2.deduction 3.formalization 4.synthesis

The method of cognition based on inference, which leads to a general conclusion based on particular premises, is called:

analysis 2. idealization 3. synthesis 4. induction

The method of cognition, which boils down to obtaining private conclusions based on knowledge of some general provisions, is called:

1.induction 2. deduction 3.analysis 4. idealization

The method of cognition, which consists in the use of special symbolism, which allows one to distract from the study of real objects, from the content of the theoretical provisions describing them, and allows one to operate instead with some set of symbols, is called

1.idealization

3.formalization