2.2. Individual psychological characteristics of a person. Temperament, character and ability.
In psychology, when they talk about the individual-typological characteristics of a person, they usually mean such phenomena as temperament, character and abilities. Temperament - the biological foundation on which the personality is formed. It reflects the dynamic aspects of behavior, mainly of an innate nature. V.S.Merlin considers the properties of temperament to be individual characteristics that
regulate the dynamics of mental activity in general;
characterize the features of the dynamics of individual mental processes;
are stable and permanent;
are in strictly regular proportions that characterize the type of temperament;
due to the general type nervous system.
It should be borne in mind that individual dynamic characteristics, if they are features of temperament, are not due to any objective content of activity. Temperament- This is a personality trait that characterizes the dynamics of the course of mental processes and activities. The word temperament was introduced into circulation by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (U-IV centuries BC). He understood it as a property that determines the individual differences of people and depends on the proportions of 4 fluids in the body: blood (in Latin "sanguine"), lymph (in Greek "phlegm"), bile (in Greek "chole") and black bile (in Greek "melana hole"). The predominance of one of the liquids corresponded to a certain temperament. The name of the types of temperament has survived to this day (sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, melancholic). At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the formation of temperaments in modern psychology is explained in a completely different way. It is proved that at the heart of each type of temperament are the features of the human nervous system, the properties of this nervous system. The following properties of the human nervous system were experimentally identified:
strength, manifested in endurance, performance of the nervous system and in a certain way characterizes the processes of excitation and inhibition (therefore, strong and weak types of the nervous system are distinguished);
poise characterizing optimal ratio processes of excitation and inhibition;
mobility, which is the characteristic of the speed of movement of nervous processes along the cerebral cortex.
Psychophysiologist I.P. Pavlov showed that each type of temperament corresponds to its own combination of properties of the nervous system:
phlegmatic - strong, balanced, inert type of the nervous system;
sanguine - a strong, balanced, mobile type of the nervous system;
choleric is a strong, unbalanced, mobile type of the nervous system;
melancholic is a weak type of the nervous system.
The main psychological characteristics of temperament include:
sensitivity (sensitivity), revealing the picture of which is the smallest force of external influences that causes mental reactions of the individual and what is the speed of this response;
reactivity, showing the degree and intensity of the individual's involuntary reactions to internal and external stimuli (criticism, threat, etc.);
activity, characterizing the degree of energy, performance of a person in activity, his ability to overcome obstacles, purposefulness, perseverance, focus on activity, etc .;
the ratio of reactivity and activity, revealing a picture of what the personality's activity depends on - from random external and internal circumstances, moods, random events or from consciously set goals, life aspirations, plans, etc .;
the rate of reactions, which characterizes the speed of actions, movements, speed of speech, intelligence, resourcefulness, etc .;
extroversion;
introversion;
plasticity, which characterizes the ease of adaptation of a person to new and unexpected situations, flexibility of behavior;
rigidity, showing the tendency of the individual to inert behavior, established habits and stereotypes of life, inertia.
Choleric- a person is fast, sometimes even impulsive, with strong, quickly igniting feelings that are clearly reflected in speech, facial expressions, gestures; often - quick-tempered, prone to violent emotional outbursts;
Sanguine- a person is fast, agile, giving an emotional response to all impressions; his feelings are directly reflected in external behavior, but they are not strong and easily replace one another.
Melancholic- a person characterized by a relatively small variety of emotional experiences, but great strength and duration of them; he does not respond to everything, but when he does, he experiences strong feelings, although he expresses little of his feelings outside;
Phlegmatic person- a person who is slow, balanced and calm, who is not easily emotionally hurt and cannot be pissed off; his feelings do not manifest in any way outside.
In conclusion, it should be noted that temperament belongs to the so-called genotypic personality traits, completely depends on heredity and does not change during life.
Character- This is a personality trait, expressed in its relationship to the world around it, to society, to activity, to oneself, to other people, to things and objects. The character includes stable personality traits, which from the content side describe her behavior and activities. Therefore, in psychology, character is often understood as a set of individually peculiar traits that are manifested in the ways of activity typical for a given personality, are found in these typical circumstances and express the attitude of the individual to these circumstances. Human relationships and characterological traits are formed during life and therefore character is an acquired personal formation. Character is a set of stable individual personality traits that develops and manifests itself in activity and communication, conditioning her typical ways of behavior. The concept of character is very different in different theoretical constructions. In foreign characterology, three areas can be distinguished:
constitutionally - biological (E. Kretschmer - character, essentially comes down to the sum of the constitution and temperament);
psychoanalytic (Z. Freud, C.G. Jung, A. Adler, etc.). Character is explained on the basis of a person's unconscious drives;
ideological (Robeck's psychoethical theory): Character consists in the inhibition of instincts, which is determined by ethical and logical sanctions. What instincts and what sanctions are inhibited depends on the internal immanent properties of the personality. Baud character determines the social status of a person, etc.
In domestic psychology, the study of character is associated with the names of N.O. Lossky, P.F. Lesgaft, A.F. Lazursky, A.P. Nechaev, V.I. Strakhov, B.G. Ananyev, N.D. Levitov and etc. Here you can also distinguish various directions: idealistic, biologizing, materialistic. Based on various approaches to this topic, it is possible to note the social-evaluative connotation in determining the character; significant stability of psychological characteristics. Character is formed on the basis of temperament under the influence of living conditions. In character, the traits of temperament are contained in a transformed form. They are understood and accepted or not accepted by man.
Character structure... In the structure of character, different authors distinguish different properties. Thus, B.G. Ananiev considers character to be an expression and a condition of the integrity of a person, and to its main properties he considers orientation, habits, communicative properties, emotional and dynamic manifestations formed on the basis of temperament:
poise - imbalance;
sensitivity - aggressiveness;
latitude - narrowness;
depth - superficiality;
wealth, meaningfulness - poverty;
strength - weakness.
ND Levitov emphasizes the certainty of character, its integrity, complexity, dynamism, originality, strength, firmness. These and many other attempts to isolate the structural properties of character require analysis and generalization. Characteristic qualities (traits, properties) found by a person in different types relationship to the outside world:
in relation to society (ideological or non-ideological, actively participating in politics or apolitical, etc.);
in relation to activity (active or inactive, hardworking or lazy, etc.);
in relation to other people (altruist or egoist, sociable or withdrawn, etc.);
in relation to oneself (having adequate or inadequate self-esteem, confident or arrogant, etc.);
in relation to things (kind, greedy, etc.).
Abilities- these are individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another and are related to the success of an activity. When talking about abilities, keep in mind the following:
These are the characteristics that distinguish one person from another. B. M. Teplov considers the most important sign of abilities to be the individual uniqueness of productive activity, the originality and originality of the techniques used in the activity.
Abilities serve the successful performance of an activity. Some researchers, for example N.A.Menchinskaya, believe that in this case it is more logical to talk about learning as success in acquiring skills, knowledge, and skills.
Abilities are characterized by the possibility of transferring developed skills and abilities to a new situation. In this case, the new task should be similar to the previously solved tasks not by the sequence of methods of action, but by the requirements for the same mental properties of a person.
Abilities are based on inclinations. Makings- these are natural prerequisites that are a condition for the development of abilities, not only in the sense that they give originality to the process of their development, but also in the sense that, within certain limits, they can determine the content side and influence the level of achievement. The inclinations include not only the anatomical, morphological and physiological properties of the brain, but also mental properties to the extent that they are directly and directly determined by heredity. Ability is a dynamic concept. They are formed, developed and manifested in activity.
General and special abilities. Special abilities - the ability for certain types of activities (mathematical ability, musical ability, teaching, etc.). General abilities are the ability to develop special abilities. Giftedness- this is a qualitatively unique combination of abilities, on which the possibility of achieving more or less success in performing one or another activity depends. The concept of ability is usually associated with mental activity. But there are no grounds for such a narrow interpretation of abilities, although traditionally it is the sphere of mental activity that has been studied and continues to be studied in connection with abilities. High general mental development may not be accompanied by the manifestation in any special area of abilities or any kind of special giftedness. However, the manifestation and achievement of high special abilities, special giftedness is unthinkable without the presence of general abilities, general giftedness. The inclinations include morphological and functional features of the structure of the brain, sense organs, movement, acting as a prerequisite for the development of abilities.
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The human psyche remains one of the biggest mysteries for researchers. However, every day there are some discoveries in the world, and the world of psychology is no exception.
1. Everyone knows that placebo is a substance medicinal properties used as medicinal product, the therapeutic effect of which is associated with the patient's belief in the efficacy of the drug. So this is how placebo affects health: capsules work more effectively than pills, and injections are often more effective than capsules.
2. The placebo effect works even when a person consciously takes a substance with no apparent healing properties.
3. People can go much longer without food than without sleep.
4. Even a little noise will cause your pupils to dilate.
5. By the age of 60, you will have lost half of your taste buds.
6. If saliva does not dissolve any food, then you will not be able to taste it.
7. Our brain constantly interacts with our stomach. Therefore, our emotions, especially negative ones, affect the well-being of our stomach.
8. With the advent of the Internet, fewer people are turning to religion.
9. Chewing gum activates memory, so you can earn high scores on tests.
10. Purple or lavender has a calming effect. It is especially good to use it in the bedroom.
11. According to Freud's doctrine of the stages of psychosexual personality development, at the phallic stage, children begin to take an interest in their genitals, the genitals of their parents and friends. At this stage, girls, discovering the absence of a male genital organ, begin to experience the so-called "penis envy", accompanied by a sense of resentment.
12. Our short-term memory is much more limited than we thought. The duration of information storage in short-term memory is 20 seconds, and it can process only 5 to 9 things at a time.
13. Red makes a person more sexually attractive to the opposite sex, and men in blue are more attractive to women.
14. Most people tend to be late judgments, that is, they have a tendency to predict the outcome of an event before it happens.
15. It is estimated that an average person thinks 70 thousand thoughts daily.
16. It takes an average of 66 days to form a new habit.
17. If the interlocutor looks into your eyes 60% of the time of the conversation, then he is bored, 80% - he likes you, 100% - he threatens you.
18. Excessive stress can change brain cells, structure and function.
19. The words used when interviewing eyewitnesses to describe an event they saw can influence how they later remember the event.
20. The sensation of falling that sometimes occurs before bed is actually due to the fact that we fall asleep too quickly, and our brain thinks that we are dying. Therefore, it feels like the brain is giving itself an electric shock.
21. If you are in a bad mood, then a fake smile will help you feel much better and even make you happier.
22. Clear skin, bright big eyes, pink lips and shiny hair not only attract men and serve as an indicator of health, but are also an indicator that a woman is able to become a suitable partner for procreation.
23. It is not at all necessary that a person suffering from obsessive-compulsive disorder is a germophobe (one who is afraid of contracting germs through contact with another person or object). This disorder is associated with obsessive, unnecessary thoughts and associations from unrelated events.
24. When you yawn, and immediately after that someone else yawns, it means that they looked at you and / or they like you.
25. It is a myth that people use only 10% of their brain capacity at any given time. In fact, we can use about 35% of our brain at a time.
26. When we are fully focused on performing a task, our brain blocks other things, forcing us to not notice anything around us. This is called selective attention.
27. In some people, the brain produces more chemical substances than others. This is why some people are considered more emotional than others.
28. Intelligence depends to a certain extent on heredity.
29. On the one hand, the placebo effect can make a person think he is recovering, but on the other hand, it can be harmful. If a person takes drugs that he does not need, then when he really needs them, the drugs will not work, even if they are real.
30. According to T. Chamorro-Premuzic and E. Fernhem, certain character traits, rather than mental abilities, can affect academic performance. In fact, conscientious but closed introverts tend to perform better than others.
31. Our reflex reactions are controlled not by the brain, but by the spinal cord. The nerves that run through the spine come to the rescue when the body needs a lightning-fast reaction, for example, when touching something hot.
32. Members of the same family smell the same. That is why a person cannot continue his race with his relatives. This is nature's natural way of avoiding genetic mutations.
33. In addition to being sexually attractive, red can also be a sign of aggression and scare people away.
34. There are no pain receptors in the brain itself. This fact allows neurosurgeons to perform operations on it when the patient is awake. During such manipulations, feedback from the patient is extremely important so as not to damage important areas of the brain, for example, those responsible for speech.
35. Women have twice as many pain receptors as men, but also twice the pain tolerance threshold.
36. When we hold a loved one by the hand, we feel less pain and less worry.
37. People with high intelligence have fewer friends than the average person. The smarter, the more selective.
38. Women, whose majority of friends are men, are more likely to be in a good mood.
39. It is very easy to dominate the interlocutor if you speak in a quiet and calm voice. Especially in an argument.
40. And finally, a brief statement of facts, without detailed explanations... Take my word for it, it really is:
People who know how to thank are the easiest to be happy with.
- By constantly speaking two languages, you can delay the onset of symptoms of Alzheimer's disease.
- FROM closed eyes we remember information easier.
- Dreamers are more likely to dream and remember them.
- A person has a close emotional connection with the one with whom he sings.
- A person makes decisions faster when he wants to go to the toilet. :))
The growth of physical strength occurs simultaneously with mental development. The process of inhibition develops in the cerebral cortex of the child, which allows him to better control himself, to think about the consequences of his actions before taking anything.
At this age, the main natural movements.The former interest only in the very process of movement is replaced by an increasing interest in the results of actions. Joy and satisfaction are delivered not only by the motor activity itself, but also by the achievement of the goal that is set during a certain action. The movements are becoming more precise and coordinated.
Along with all this, the development of the mechanisms of the central nervous system is still weak, therefore, the ability for prolonged productive work and prolonged muscle tension is also insufficient. Therefore, children 7-11 years old quickly get tired.
During the restructuring of the adolescent's body, a feeling of anxiety, increased excitability, depression may occur. Many begin to feel awkward, awkward, worried about their appearance, short in boys and tall in girls, etc. These changes have an indirect meaning - they are refracted through social ideas about development, through the cultural traditions of growing up, through the attitude of others to the adolescent and comparing oneself with others. Conventionally, both external and internal - biological and psychological - prerequisites are distinguished.
External prerequisites. Changing the nature of educational activity: multidisciplinary, content teaching material represents the theoretical foundations of the sciences, proposed for the assimilation of abstraction, cause a qualitatively new cognitive attitude to knowledge; there is no unity of requirements: how many teachers, so many different assessments of the surrounding reality, the behavior of the child, his activities, views, attitudes, personality traits. Hence - the need to develop your own position, independence from the direct influence of adults, the introduction of socially useful labor into the program schooling... The adolescent becomes aware of himself as a participant in social and labor activities; new demands are made in the family: help with the housework, they begin to consult with the teenager; the teenager begins to intensely reflect on himself.
Internal prerequisites. During this period, rapid physical growth and puberty occur: new hormones appear in the blood, an effect on the central nervous system occurs, and the rapid growth of tissues and body systems. The pronounced uneven maturation of various body systems during this period leads to increased fatigue, excitability, irritability, and negativity.
From the point of view of internal psychological prerequisites, the key problem is the development of various interests in the transitional age (L.S.Vygotsky).
This famous teacher identifies several groups of teenagers' interests by dominants:
· egocentric- interest in one's own personality;
· dominant gave- installation on a large scale;
· dominant effort- craving for volitional tension, for resistance (stubbornness, protest);
· dominant romance- the desire for risk, heroism, the unknown.
In adolescence, children undergo changes in the development of higher mental functions, as well as in the emotional sphere.
So, in the moral sphere, two features should be noted: a reassessment of moral values; stable own moral views, judgments and assessments, independent of random influences.
However, the morality of a teenager is not supported by moral convictions and has not yet formed into a worldview, therefore it can easily change under the influence of the opinions of peers.
The ideal acts as a condition that increases moral stability. An ideal perceived or created by a child means that he has a constantly acting motive. As they grow older, moral ideals become more and more generalized and begin to act as a consciously chosen model of behavior. Central neoplasms can be as follows: abstract thinking, self-awareness, gender identity, a sense of "adulthood", revaluation of values, autonomous morality.
L.S. Vygotsky considered the central and specific neoplasm of this age sense of maturity- the emerging idea of oneself as no longer a child. The teenager begins to feel like an adult, strives to be and be considered an adult, which manifests itself in attitudes, assessments, in a line of behavior, as well as in relationships with peers, parents and teachers.
T.V. Dragunova notes the following manifestations in the development of adulthood in a teenager:
· imitation of the external manifestations of adults- the desire to resemble them externally, to acquire their features, skills and privileges;
· focus on the qualities of an adult- the desire to possess the character traits of an adult, for example, in boys - the qualities of a "real man": strength, courage, will, etc .;
· adult as an example of activity- the formation of social maturity in the context of cooperation between adults and children. This creates a sense of responsibility, care for other people, etc .;
· intellectual maturity- the desire to know something and be able to really: there is a formation of a dominant orientation cognitive interests, the search for new types and forms of socially significant activities that can create conditions for self-affirmation of adolescents.
Leading positions at this age begin to be taken by socially useful activities and intimate and personal communication with peers.
Public benefit activities is for a teenager the area where he can realize his increased capabilities, the desire for independence, satisfying the need for recognition from adults; it creates an opportunity for adolescents to realize their individuality in a common cause, satisfying their desire in the process of communication not to take, but to give.
Every adolescent has a strong need for communication with peers... The leading motive of behavior is the desire to find one's place among them, and the lack of such an opportunity very often leads to social maladjustment and delinquency. Peer grades are beginning to take on more importance than the grades of teachers and parents. The teenager is most susceptible to the influence of the group, its values; he has great anxiety if his popularity with peers is jeopardized. In communication as an activity, it assimilates social norms, a reassessment of values, the need for recognition and the desire for self-affirmation are satisfied.
Elements of theoretical thinking begin to form. Reasoning goes from general to particular. The teenager operates with a hypothesis in solving intellectual problems. This is the most important acquisition in the process of analyzing reality. Operations such as classification, analysis, generalization, and reflexive thinking develop. The adolescent's own intellectual operations become the subject of attention and evaluation, and he has an adult logic of thinking.
Memory develops in the direction of intellectualization. Not semantic, but mechanical memorization is used. In adolescence, the development of speech occurs, on the one hand, due to the expansion of the lexicon, on the other, due to the assimilation of a variety of meanings that the dictionary of the native language can encode.
Question number 2
The highest level of mental reflection is represented in a person by consciousness. The emergence of consciousness in the process of evolution of the animal world is associated with the transition of man from the biological to the socio-historical path of development. Consciousness in psychology is considered as a set of sensory and mental images directly presented to the ice age in his internal subjective experience.
Consciousness is a picture of the world that opens up to a person. In other words, consciousness is all that information that comes to a person at a given moment in time and in the presence of which a person can give himself and others an account.
These two characteristics - consciousness - the aggregate knowledge that a person has at a given moment in time, and the possibility of verbal designation of this information with the help of words and concepts available to a person - are the most important characteristics of a person's consciousness.
The structure of consciousness includes the cognitive processes of a person, first of all, his higher mental functions. These include voluntary memory, voluntary attention, abstract logical thinking and speech. The concept of higher mental functions was introduced into psychology by the famous Russian psychologist L.S. Vygotsky. In his cultural-historical theory, he substantiated the existence and identified the main factors in the development of the human psyche. Animals also have lower or natural mental functions. This is involuntary memory, involuntary attention (reflex "what is it?"), The beginnings of intellectual actions. In the course of man's transition to the cultural and historical path of development, according to Vygotsky, two cardinal changes took place: the first is due to the fact that man has learned to influence nature, changing it in accordance with his needs and in his interests. The second is that a person, with the help of a sign, a symbol has learned to influence his own psyche, also changing it. Consciousness performs a number of important functions.
1) the function of cognition - thanks to consciousness, a person has the opportunity to receive reliable information about the world around us: human consciousness includes a set of knowledge about the world around us;
2) the function of orientation in time, place, space - with a loss or impairment of consciousness, a person loses, first of all, orientation in the environment;
3) the function of goal-setting (ensuring the appropriate activity of a person) - thanks to consciousness, a person sets goals for himself, and in case of its loss, a chaotic, chaotic human activity is observed, which is called "field behavior";
4) the function of self-awareness - a person is able to distinguish himself as a subject of activity, to orient himself in his own actions, to explore his own personality.
In psychology, self-awareness is studied as a set of processes of consciousness aimed at self-knowledge, self-regulation and self-control. Self-awareness in psychology is a set of mental processes through which a person realizes himself as a subject, that is, an initiator of an action, an active agent.
In the structure of self-awareness, the following components can be distinguished: Self-awareness - awareness of one's mental properties. As a result, a mental image of "I" is formed - a stable representation of a person about himself. Self-esteem - an emotionally colored representation of a person about himself. Both self-esteem of individual aspects of the personality and its behavior, and generalized self-esteem of a person are possible. Well-being is a complex of sensations, experiences related to the state of physical and mental health, a feeling at the personal level of psychological comfort and safety, security, emotional well-being or ill-being. Self-regulation, self-control - a conscious influence on the course, process of a person's mental life, influence on thoughts, feelings and behavior with the aim of optimizing or correcting them. The lower level of the human psyche forms the unconscious. The unconscious is such a level of reflection of reality, at which no account is given of the actions performed, the completeness of orientation in time, place of action is lost, there is no possibility of regulating behavior with the help of speech. The merit of researching the sphere of the unconscious belongs to the Austrian doctor, psychiatrist Z. Freud. His ideas about the sphere of the unconscious, the structure of the psyche have become widespread and recognized throughout the world, have become the basis of many psychological concepts and theories of personality. 3. Freud divided the entire psyche into consciousness, subconsciousness and unconsciousness. The subconscious is all that information, information, knowledge that we have, but which we do not recognize at the moment.
Question number 3
The reflection of reality by the human brain occurs in the form of various mental phenomena, the totality of which is the inner world of a person, his subjective experience. Mental phenomena are the responses of the brain to external (environment) and internal (the state of the body as a physiological system) influences. Mental phenomena are considered as constant regulators of the activity of humans and animals, arising in response to irritations and generalizing these stimuli effects.
In humans, the psyche is represented in three classes of mental phenomena: mental processes, mental states and mental properties. Mental processes are elementary mental phenomena included in more complex types of mental activity. Mental processes are distinguished by dynamics (beginning, flow, end), phase nature, time parameters. These include cognitive and emotional-volitional processes. Mental states are an integral characteristic of a person's mental activity at a certain point in time, they are characterized by a static moment, the relative constancy of a mental fact. Mental properties show the stability of a mental fact, its fixation and repetition in the structure of the personality. Images objects and phenomena can be reproduced after the action of stimuli in the form of representations, that is, images of previously perceived objects and phenomena.
Sensations, perceptions, representations, images of objects constitute the sensory level of reflection of reality.
At another, higher level of mediated, or rational knowledge the reality of knowledge is achieved through comparisons, generalization ^ inferences, i.e. by thinking. Thinking is closely related to language and is carried out with the help of language. Language, the word are viewed as outwardly sound, material design of thought.
The results of a person's reflection of reality are expressed in images of memory, i.e. in the processes of memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting. Memorization, preservation and subsequent reproduction by an individual of his experience is called memory.
Emotional-volitional processes in a person are represented by emotions, feeling and will. Feelings and emotions are not just a reflection of the external world, but also the experience of a person's relationship to the reflected one. This reflection occurs depending on the characteristics of the reflected object and on the personality characteristics of the reflecting subject of volition. Psychology is understood as a mental process aimed at overcoming obstacles on the way to achieving the goal.
Mental states include, first of all, the emotional states of a person (mood, affect, frustration) and the so-called functional, or working states (efficiency, fatigue). Mental states can last for hours, days, weeks. A state of cheerfulness or depression, working capacity or fatigue, irritability or absent-mindedness, good or bad mood - these states are well known to each of us.
The "mental properties include such personality traits as its temperament and character, abilities and orientation." All these properties are inherent in the personality for a long time, sometimes throughout life.
It should be noted that all three classes are closely related, mental phenomena can move from one class to another. So, for example, the effectiveness of the course of mental processes is due to the mental state of a person: a joyful, cheerful mood increases a person's susceptibility, exacerbating sensations, and depression and despondency, on the contrary, lead to absent-mindedness, cause premature fatigue. The nature of cognitive processes can be determined by the properties of a person's temperament (the choleric person grasps everything on the fly, the phlegmatic person has a slower pace of memorization, but what he learned he remembers firmly and for a long time)
Question number 4
Considerable attention in general psychology is paid to questions of its relationship (psyche (TG) and the activity of the central nervous system). Russian psychology is based on the ideas of the outstanding Russian physiologists I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlova on the regulatory role of the psyche in the life of living beings. According to natural science concepts, in terms of its origin, nature and functions of the psyche, you are the result of the activity of the central nervous system, a product, a property of matter organized in a special way. In man and higher animals, the psyche is a product of the brain. At the same time, the psyche is not a direct, direct reflection of the processes that take place in the central nervous system.
The main content of the psychophysiological problem is the solution to the question of the relationship between mental and physiological processes. This issue has been resolved in different ways in the history of the development of psychological teachings. the scientific understanding of the issue is associated with the consideration of the psyche as one of the forms of reflection, namely, mental reflection. Within the framework of the theory of reflection, the definition of the psyche can be formulated as follows: the psyche is a special property of highly organized matter, which consists in the active display of the objective world by the subject, building a picture of this world and regulating his behavior and activity on its basis.
The central category of psychology is the concept of the image. A characteristic feature of mental reflection is that it exists in the form of an image. Therefore, the psyche is often called the subjective image of the objective world. In psychology, an image in a broad sense is understood as a subjective form of reflection of reality (reality) (Smirnov S.D., 1993). The ratio of the objective and the subjective in the psyche also refers to the debatable problems of psychology. It is generally accepted that a person's reflection of reality is an indissoluble unity of the objective and the subjective. As S.D. Smirnov, mental reflection is objective in content, since it is determined by external influences and reflects external phenomena and objects of the external world. The objectivity of mental reflection is also due to its connection with real nervous processes and their manifestation outside in various external actions and human behavior.
However, the psychic image, psychic reflection is not an exact copy of the reflected external world. It is always subjective, because is carried out by a living being, a subject, and therefore any external influence is refracted through a set of internal conditions (Rubinstein S.L., 1946). These include, first of all, the internal individual experience of a person, his personality traits, the system of a person's relationship to the world and to himself.
Reflection of objective reality serves as the basis for a person's impact on the world and its changes. Thus, the psyche ensures the adaptation of a person to the conditions of a changing world.
Question # 5
Methods of psychology are methods, techniques for obtaining information about mental phenomena. The main methods of psychology include observation, conversation, questioning, experiment, and tests.
Observation is a systematized, purposeful perception of behavioral reactions (manifestations) of another person.
Conversation is an oral receipt from the subject of information about his activity, in which mental phenomena characteristic of a given subject are objectified. There are the following types of interviews: collection of data for anamnesis (history of human development, history of relationship development) and interviews. An interview is a type of conversation in which the task is to get the respondent's answers to certain questions.
The survey is used to study the subjective experience of a person on a problem. If the questions are presented in writing, then a questionnaire takes place. A questionnaire is a collection of questions that follow in a specific order. It is recommended at the beginning of the questionnaire or survey to offer simple questions that do not affect the personal, intimate side of the respondent's life. To conduct a survey, knowledge of the basic laws of establishing psychological contact is required.
An experiment is a method that allows the researcher to actively intervene in the subject's activities. In an experiment, conditions are created in which a psychological fact can not only be discovered, but also changed in a certain direction. This method is characterized by an active position of the researcher-psychologist in relation to the subject. The following components of the experiment are distinguished:
1) experimental situation; 2) dependent and independent
(dependent - those factors that are subject to study, change in any direction, independent - influencing factors).
There are two main types of experiment: 1) laboratory - research is carried out in specially created conditions, using special equipment, the actions of the subject are determined by the instruction; 2) natural - the study takes place in ordinary, natural conditions (lesson, game, conversation, homework preparation).
Tests are a standardized test, passing which a person discovers certain properties, gives information about his condition. When using the test, not only the presence of one or another property of the psyche, personality of the subject is diagnosed, but also the level of its development is revealed, through determining its compliance with existing norms and standards. v "
The following types of tests are distinguished:
task tests - determine the level of development of abilities, including mental ones. An example is tests to determine the IQ;
questionnaire tests, or personality tests - reveal the individual psychological characteristics of a person, the properties of her temperament, orientation and character;
projective tests - they reveal cudgel personality traits inherent in a given person, the presence of internal psychological conflicts, emotional problems.
In addition to the considered basic methods, psychology makes extensive use of an arsenal of private methods and techniques that make it possible to obtain a variety of information of a psychological nature, depending on the goals and objectives of a particular psychological research.
Question # 6
Sensation is the simplest mental process of reflection in the cerebral cortex of individual properties of objects and phenomena of reality, which at the moment affect the sense organs. . ^
A variety of information enters the brain through special channels of communication between the brain and the outside world.; The nervous apparatus that analyzes signals coming from the outside world is called the analyzer) There are three sections in the structure of the analyzer:
1. Peripheral department (receptors), it includes the senses (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin).
2. The conduction section - contains centripetal (afferent) and centrifugal (efferent) nerves.
3. Brain, or central department. These are different parts of the brain in which a complex analysis of the incoming information takes place. It is here that sensations of different kinds arise.
The process of sensation arising can be represented as follows. An irritant object, acting on a receptor, causes a physicochemical process in it. At the receptor level, external energy is converted into a nervous process. Excitation in the form of a nervous (physiological) process is transmitted along the centripetal nerves to the central section of the analyzer. In the cortical region of the analyzer, on the basis of the A nervous process of excitation, mental process feeling. It should be noted that the motor analyzer is most directly involved in the formation of a mental image (sensation). The sense organs are closely related to the organs of movement, which are involved in receiving information. A large number of sensations of various types are also distinguished. The classification of sensations, like any other classification, can be made on various grounds. The division of sensations according to the following criteria is traditional for Russian psychology:
by the presence or absence of direct contact with a stimulus causing sensation - to distant ("sight, hearing, smell) and contact (taste, pain, touch) reception. Contact reception provides orientation in the immediate environment;"
at the location of the receptors - on exteroceptive sensations arising from irritation of receptors located on the surface of the body (visual, auditory, tactile ...); interoceptive sensations arising from irritation of the receptors inside the body - feelings of hunger, thirst, stuffiness. This type of sensation carries information about the state inside the organism itself, they are called in another way organic sensations; proprioceptive or muscular-motor sensations arising from irritation of receptors located in the muscles and tendons of the human body;
by the time of occurrence in the process of evolution - to the new and ancient reception. The new reception is the human vision, the more ancient is the painful reception;
by the modality (type) of the stimulus - visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, static (feeling of tension in the muscles, associated, for example, with the duration of maintaining a certain position of the body in space), kinesthetic (feeling of movement in space), pain, thirst and hunger.
In addition to these types, there are sensations that occupy an intermediate position between other sensations. So, for example, vibrational sensations, due to which a person reflects elastic vibrations of the environment, occupy an intermediate position between auditory and skin. It was found that there is no special analyzer to distinguish them. Vibration can be reflected by many cells of the human body.
Properties of sensations: quality, intensity, duration, spatial localization of the stimulus.
Sensation thresholds. A definite relationship was found between the intensity of sensations and the strength of the active stimulant. The psychological characteristics of this relationship are reflected in the concept of "threshold of sensations." Distinguish between absolute and differential (threshold of discrimination) thresholds of sensations ^ The lower absolute threshold of sensations is characterized by the minimum strength of the stimulus, at which a barely noticeable sensation appears for the first time. The greatest strength ~ of the stimulus, at which a sensation of a given type still arises, is called the upper absolute threshold of sensations.
The threshold of difference * is the smallest increase in the strength of an active stimulus, at which there is a barely noticeable difference in the strength or quality of sensations.
The sensitivity of the sense organ is determined by the minimum stimulus capable of causing sensation under these conditions. Human analyzers have different sensitivity. The threshold of one human olfactory cell for the corresponding odorous substances does not exceed 8 molecules. Gustatory sensations require 25,000 times more molecules than olfactory sensations. The visual and auditory analyzers are extremely sensitive.
It has been established that a change in the sensitivity of the analyzers can be caused by exposure to second-signal stimuli (word, speech). Thus, a change in the electrical sensitivity of the eye and tongue was recorded in response to the presentation of the expression "sour as a lemon" to the subject. These changes are similar to the changes in actual irritation of the tongue with lemon juice.
Adaptation is a regularity of the sensation process, meaning the adaptation of sensitivity to a constantly acting stimulus, which is expressed in a decrease or increase in thresholds. There are great opportunities for adaptation of the olfactory and visual analyzers. An example of an increase in sensitivity and, consequently, a decrease in the threshold of visual sensations, is the fact that after 40 minutes. stay in absolute darkness increases sensitivity to light
200 thousand times.
Interaction of sensations. This pattern reflects the fact that the sensitivity of one analyzer system changes under the influence of the activity of another analyzer system. The existence of this pattern is explained by the presence of cortical connections between the analyzers, as well as the processes of irradiation (propagation) and concentration of excitation in the cerebral cortex. The general principle of mutual influence is as follows: weak stimuli of one analytical system increase the sensitivity of the other analytical system, and strong stimuli reduce it. According to research conducted by I.P. Pavlov, a weak stimulus causes an excitation process in the cerebral cortex, which easily irradiates. As a result of the action of a strong stimulus, a focus of excitation arises, which, as it were, attracts stimuli that enter other analytical systems. According to the law of mutual induction, this leads to inhibition in the central parts of other analyzers and causes a decrease in their sensitivity.
Sensitization is an increase in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of sensations, as well as systematic exercise. Sensitization can be caused by the influence of two factors: 1) the need to compensate for sensory defects (that is, existing disorders of mental functions - blindness, deafness); 2) special requirements of the activity, profession. It is known that loss of sight or hearing can be compensated by the development of other types of sensitivity. Deaf-blind-mute Helen Keller identified friends and acquaintances by smell, which is associated with high level development of olfactory sensitivity. There are known facts of the high development of sense of touch in people without sight, thanks to which they could successfully practice sculpture.
Persons who have been engaged in any kind of professional activity for a long time may also experience sensitization of the sense organs. There is unusual visual acuity in grinders. They see gaps up to 0.0005 ml, and untrained people - only up to 0.1 ml. Specialists in fabric dyeing distinguish from 40 to 60 shades of black. Experienced steelmakers are able to determine the temperature of the melting metal and the degree of its readiness only by the shades of molten metal, without resorting to the use of special equipment.
The contrast of sensations is a regularity of the sensation process, consisting in a change in the intensity or quality of sensations under the influence of a previous or concomitant stimulus. Everybody knows examples of consistent contrast from everyday life: after a cold shower, a warm one seems hot; after honey, tea that is completely sweet does not seem sweet enough to us.
Question # 7
Perception is the mental process of reflection of objects and phenomena of reality in the aggregate of their various properties and parts with their direct impact on the sense organs. Perception is a more complex mental cognitive process in comparison with sensation. Perception is based on two types of neural connections - connections formed within one analytic system, and inter-analytic connections. Perception is the process of reflecting a complex stimulus, it presupposes the presence of various sensations, but is not reduced to their simple sums ^ Perception is an active process closely related to the activity performed ^ by a person. Perception is accompanied by various examiners of the object, movements of the hand feeling the object, movements of the larynx, which reproduces sounds. The organs of movement take part in the formation of images of perception.
Perception is diverse in its types and manifestations, therefore, the classification of types of perception can be built on different grounds. The most common classification is based on
the following reasons.
1. According to the leading analyzer - visual, auditory, tactile,
kinesthetic, olfactory and gustatory.
2. According to the reflected form of the existence of matter -
a) the perception of space (includes the perception of size, shape, volume and depth). The basis of perception of this type is the size and shape of objectively existing objects, the image of which is obtained on the retina of the eye. The perception of volume and depth is based on binocular vision (display as a result of viewing with two eyes). Monocular vision gives a correct display of the distance of objects at a distance not exceeding 30 m. A clear image of objects on the retina is provided due to the convergence mechanism - coordinated eye movement;
b) the perception of time is a reflection of the duration and sequence of events and phenomena. There is no independent time analyzer, time is perceived by all analyzers. The physiological basis for the perception of time is conditioned reflexes for time, which are developed in humans. Determination of time intervals is also associated with the rhythm of the processes occurring in the body. The psychological factors of the perception of time are considered to be the age of a person, his individual psychological characteristics, and the current emotional state. So, it was found that with age, the course of time subjectively accelerates. Time intervals, saturated with a large number of events, cases, are subjectively perceived as shorter (although then, subsequently, they are estimated as longer). Segments of time, not filled with anything, "drag on" very slowly. In addition, the periods of time associated with negative experiences of a person are assessed as longer, and the time filled with joyful experiences and events flies by unnoticed ("moments of happiness");
c) the perception of movement is a reflection of the change in position that objects occupy in space. The perception of motion reflects the speed, acceleration, direction of movement of moving objects. The main role in the perception of movement is played by the visual and kinesthetic analyzers. Perception of spatio-temporal movements and assessment of movements also depend on the perception of time intervals. Perception of movement is vital because moving objects can pose a certain hazard and attract increased attention from the subject.
3. According to the degree of purposefulness of perception, they distinguish between unintentional (involuntary) and intentional (voluntary) perception. Unintentional perception can be caused by the features of the reflected objects, as well as the correspondence of these objects to the interests of the individual. In unintentional perception, there is no pre-set goal and volitional activity. Intentional perception is governed by the task of perceiving an object. In the case when voluntary perception acts as an independent activity, it occurs in the form of observation. Observation, therefore, is an arbitrary, planned perception, which is carried out with a definite, clearly perceived goal with the help of voluntary attention.
Perception properties
Apperception is the dependence of perception on a person's past experience. In apperception, the selectivity of perception, the activity of human consciousness are manifested. One example of apperception is the preferential perception of certain objects over others, as well as making a figure stand out from the background.
Meaningfulness - in the process of perception, the sensory image of the object is not only formed, but also its comprehension takes place. That which is perceived can be named. In this case, a person uses the system of concepts at his disposal. The naming of an object increases the degree of generalization of perception.
Integrity - in the process of perception, individual elements of an object are usually combined into a whole. In this case, it is not the proximity of the elements in their position in space that is of greater importance, but their belonging to a certain object. A holistic image of an object is formed on the basis of generalization_knowledge about individual properties and qualities of an object, obtained in the form of various sensations.
Objectivity - is expressed in referring information received from the outside world to this world. This regularity of perception is associated with such a property of it as the reflection of objects and phenomena not so much according to appearance, how many in accordance with their functions and purpose.
Structurality - perception does not correspond to individual, momentary sensations and (it does not correspond to their simple sum (when reflecting a melody, we hear separate sounds at each moment, but perceive some piece of music; at the same time, the same melody, but performed on different musical instruments) or without musical accompaniment, will be identified by us.) We actually perceive a generalized structure abstracted from individual sensations, which is formed over time.
Constancy - the quality of perception to maintain the correspondence of the image to the reflected object, despite the difference in the individual sensations included in it. It manifests itself in the visual perception of the color, size, shape of objects. Thanks to this property, we perceive the surrounding objects as relatively constant in shape, size, color, despite the changed conditions of perception.
Question # 8
Thinking is the mental process of mediated and generalized cognition (reflection) of objects and phenomena of reality. The main function of thinking is to understand the essence of things and phenomena and to establish regular connections between them. As a special type of cognitive activity, thinking consists of individual actions, the content of which is associated with a specific goal facing a person. Actions, in turn, are carried out with the help of mental operations, which are methods, methods of operating with images, concepts of reflected objects and phenomena, reality. The main mental operations are analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the mental decomposition of the whole into parts, the allocation of individual signs and properties in it. synthesis is a mental combination of parts of objects or phenomena, or a dusty combination of their attributes, properties and / or sides. Operations are derived from the main ones: comparison, generalization, classification, systematization, concretization, abstraction. The main forms of thinking are concept, judgment and inference.
A concept is a form of thinking that reflects the essential properties, connections and relationships of objects and phenomena of reality. Signs are considered essential, each of which, taken separately, is necessary, and all together are sufficient so that with their help it is possible to give a description of an object (phenomenon)
Judgment is a form of thinking in which connections and relationships are established between objects and phenomena of the surrounding world and their properties and signs. A judgment is a statement of something about something or someone. In a judgment, anything can be affirmed or denied (affirmative and negative judgments). The judgment can be true or false.
The form of thinking in which a new judgment is derived from one or more judgments is called inference. The initial judgments from which new knowledge is derived are called premises of inference. The conclusion obtained in the course of inference is called a conclusion. Two types of inference are most commonly used: induction and deduction. Induction is a way of reasoning from private judgments to a more general judgment. The establishment of general rules and laws is based on the study of only individual phenomena and facts. Accumulating knowledge about homogeneous manifestations in something similar to each other and generalizing these facts, we conclude that these manifestations belong to the entire class of these objects. Deduction is a way of reasoning from general judgment to private judgment, the knowledge of individual objects and phenomena based on the study of general laws and rules.
Traditional differentiation of thinking into species as they appear. development in ontogenesis (in the process of individual development of a person). In such a classification, it is customary to distinguish the following types.
Visual-effective thinking - it is directly included in the practical activity of a person. He solves any; or_ task by directly manipulating certain objects. In this case, the task is presented in a visual form and the way to solve it will be practical action.
Visual-figurative thinking - in the process of cognition, a person clearly presents_to himself_object and operates with visual images. In this type of thinking, the connection with practical actions is not unambiguous and direct.
Abstract logical thinking is a type of thinking in which the reflection of objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality is carried out with the help of abstract logical constructions.
In real practical human activity, all three types of thinking are inextricably linked and complement each other.
In addition to the types of thinking that coincide with the phases of development of thinking in the process of ontogenesis, other types of it are also distinguished.
Theoretical thinking is the knowledge of general laws, rules, principles.
Practical thinking - thinking that is included directly in the practical activity of a person, associated with the need to transform reality, occurs, as a rule, in conditions of lack of time.
Intuitive thinking is thinking carried out in fact, at an unconscious level. It is characterized by high speed, reduced process, lack of clear division into stages.
Analytical (discursive) thinking is a process unfolded in time, logically consistent, and has clearly defined separate stages.
Convergent thinking ("convergent") is necessary to find the only correct solution. Algorithmic thinking, which is carried out through elementary operations, is close to this type.
Divergent (“divergent”) - generates creative, non-standard solutions, while the search goes in different directions. This type of thinking is also called creative or heuristic thinking.
Question number 9
Speech is a special form of communication between people. In the process of verbal interaction, people exchange thoughts and influence each other. Speech is the basis for the existence of consciousness. Being in an active state of consciousness, a person can determine with the help of speech everything that he is aware of. All mental processes are controlled by speech. Speech performs the following main functions: a) communicative - the transmission of certain information, thoughts, feelings; b) significative - a designation, a form of existence of thought, consciousness (a word denotes an object, action, state); c) the function of generalization - the inclusion in the meaning of a group of similar objects.
The communicative function of speech is divided into three aspects: informational, expressive and volitional. The informational aspect) is associated with the functions of designation and generalization and involves the ability to find a word that accurately expresses a thought. The expressive aspect, or expressive, helps to convey the speaker's feelings and attitude towards the subject of the message. The volitional aspect is aimed at subordinating the actions of another person to the plan of the speaker.
Speech communication is carried out through the language. Language is a means of communication between people. Speech and language are in a complex relationship. Speech ^ is a mental phenomenon, a subject of psychological study. Language is an objective phenomenon of the life of society, it is the same for the whole people. The language includes words with their meanings and syntax - a set of rules according to which sentences are built. Each word has a specific meaning. The meaning of a word is its objective content. A language message is built using certain techniques. In the spoken language, phonemes serve as such means, in the written language - graphemes. Words are built from sounds and graphic images. Language materializes in oral and written speech. A language that is not used in live speech communication, but is preserved in written sources, is called dead. A person's speech is always individual, subjective, reflects the psychological characteristics of the speaker. The speech of an individual person differs in pronunciation, the structure of phrases, and can deviate significantly from language standards. In communication, a person uses only an insignificant part of the linguistic wealth. Even in the language of great writers, there are between 10 and 20 thousand words, while the language includes several hundred thousand words.
Distinguish between internal and external speech. External speech has an external expression, accessible to the hearing or sight of others. There are three types of external speech: oral, dialogical; oral monologue; written.
Inner speech is a soundless speech process through which we think. Speech is a form of existence of thought, but speech and thinking are not identical phenomena. Thinking does not mean speaking out loud or to yourself. One thought can be expressed in different languages... Sometimes we experience significant difficulty trying to find words to express inner speech. In addition, if a person really understands a thought, it means that this understanding is expressed in him in some words.
Thus, language, speech are means of existence, transmission and assimilation of social experience, as well as tools, means of human intellectual activity. Speech makes it possible for a person to fix, reflect in the word the image of the external world, designate, consolidate it, make it the property of individual experience and intellectual baggage of a person. Speech is the elementary form of knowledge
Question number 10
memory is the processes of organizing and preserving past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness.
A variety of objects, phenomena, thoughts, feelings, other people, their appearance, relationships can act as objects of memory.
All types of memory are classified according to the following grounds.
1) figurative memory, i.e. memorization, preservation and reproduction of the perceived objects (its subspecies - visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory);
2) emotional memory - memory of feelings and emotional states experienced;
3) motor memory - memorization, preservation and reproduction of various movements and their systems. This type of memory is the basis for the formation of various motor skills and abilities;
4) verbal-logical - memorization, preservation and reproduction of thoughts, concepts.
2. According to the degree of volitional regulation of memory, voluntary and involuntary memory are distinguished. During the actualization of involuntary memory, a person remembers and reproduces objects not in accordance with his active desire and intentions, there is no goal to remember or reproduce anything. A person uses arbitrary memory intentionally, at his own discretion and active desire.
3. According to the duration of consolidation and preservation of the material, short-term, operational and long-term memory are distinguished:
1) short-term ensures the preservation and reproduction of the material a few seconds after its one-time or very short-term perception. At the same time, reproduction is characterized by very high accuracy, but fragility. Upper limit of existence (by duration) short-term memory... The volume of short-term memory is calculated by the famous formula of classical psychology 7 + 2, i.e. it can be in the range of 5-9 objects
2) long-term is characterized by the relative duration and strength of preservation of the perceived material. In the form of long-term memory, knowledge, individual experience of a person is accumulated.
century. Knowledge in long-term memory is stored in a more generalized,
systematized;
3) operational services directly performed by a person actions, operations.
There are various theoretical approaches to explaining the nature, origin of memory and its laws. One of the explanations for the nature of memory was undertaken within the framework of associationism, the scientific direction of psychology. Representatives of this trend consider the simultaneous appearance in consciousness necessary and sufficient for the formation of a connection between two impressions. They identified two types of associations - simple and complex. Simple ones, in turn, are divided into types of association: a) by contiguity (two impressions in time and space are connected); b) by similarity (phenomena that have similar features are linked); c) by contrast (opposite phenomena are connected). Complex, or semantic, associations connect part and whole, genus and species, causes and effects.
In memory, the main processes are distinguished: memorization, preservation, forgetting, reproduction. Memorization is associated with the accumulation of individual experience, it is selective in nature, determined by the goals and motives of human activity.
Memorization can be involuntary and voluntary. In the first case, a person does not set himself the goal of remembering something and does not make appropriate efforts, does not use special techniques for memorizing. In the second case, the goal is to remember the material. Memorization can be mechanical and semantic. Mechanical memorization is the establishment of contiguity associations, meaningful memorization is based on the establishment of semantic connections between the new and the known material. The main condition for rote memorization is repetition, meaning - understanding. It has been experimentally established that semantic memorization is 20 times more effective than mechanical memorization (memorizing 80 meaningless syllables requires 80 repetitions. Semantic memorization of a poem of 80 words - 8 repetitions).
Retention is the retention of what has been learned in memory. Physiologically, preservation is the maintenance of previously established traces and connections in the brain by reinforcing them. Many factors affect the preservation of memorized material: the strength and duration of retention in memory depend on the personality setting (remember for a short time or forever), on the understanding of the material, the frequency of reference to the material and its use in practice. Forgetting is a natural, complex and uneven process. German researcher G. Ebbinghaus in the XIX century. found that forgetting, like memorizing, is also selective in nature and the greatest loss of material occurs immediately after its perception, later forgetting is slower. So, an hour after memorizing meaningless syllables, forgetting reaches 56%, later the rate of forgetting slows down. The rate of forgetting also depends on the content of the material, its awareness. The more conscious the material is, the slower it is forgotten.
The phenomenon of reminiscence - improved delayed reproduction (not immediately after memorization, but on the second or third day) is associated with temporary forgetting, which may be due to negative induction and transcendental inhibition. Reminiscence is observed when memorizing a large volume of material and is more common in children and young people.
Reproduction is the process of updating the previously perceived and fixed material (object). Types of reproduction are recognition and recall. During reproduction, actualization is carried out without repeated perception; in recognition, it occurs during repeated perception. It was found that the process of reproduction in a group is more efficient. Recollection is a conscious reproduction associated with overcoming some difficulties that require volitional tension.
Concluding the review of memory processes, it is necessary to point out the individual characteristics of memory, or memory quality. Human memory can be assessed or described in terms of speed of memorization, strength of memorization and storage duration, fidelity of reproduction and readiness for urgent updating. In addition, the predominant type of memory (for example, visual, motor, emotional) can be indicated.
Question number 11
Creative activity is unthinkable without imagination. Imagination is a mental cognitive process in which the reflection of reality occurs in the form of creating images of a new person, previously not presented in the experience of a person.
Imagination is active and, passive, creative and re-creating. An active type of imagination is associated with the performance of some kind of activity, with the intention of a person to create something, to imagine. Passive imagination can arise and unintentionally, this mainly occurs when the consciousness is weakened, as a rule, in a half-asleep state, in a state of passion.
Depending on the degree of independence and originality of the rb-times of the imagination, it is subdivided into recreational and creative. A person uses the re-creating imagination, creating something new (subjectively new), relying on a verbal description, a graphic image - a map, a drawing. Creative imagination is the progression of the creation of new images without relying on a conventional image or verbal description. When creating new, original images, you can use the following techniques:
analogies - the creation of a new one by analogy with the already known;
substitutions - the replacement of some, elements, details of a particular image with others;
agglutination - combination in a new object of parts, details of another object;
dismemberment - the new is obtained as a result of the separation of the elements that make up any integral object;
combining - combining the original elements in accordance with some logical scheme;
exaggeration - exaggeration of some details, their presentation in a grotesque form.
Depending on the type of sensation underlying the images created by the imagination, visual, auditory, motor and mixed types of imagination are distinguished.
Question number 12
Attention is the focus and focus of consciousness on a specific object. The essence of this mental process is the organization of various forms of reflection (sensations, perception, memory, thinking, emotions and feelings). The physiological / basis of attention is the joint activity of the cerebral cortex and its subcortical formations. Of great importance for understanding the process of attention is the principle of diminutiveness put forward by A.A. Ukhtomsky. It has been established that there is always a dominant, dominant onag in the brain. excitement, which "attracts" to itself all the excitations entering the brain at this time, and due to this even more dominates over them. The dominant principle allows us to explain the fact that at the moment of concentration on an object or phenomenon, extraneous stimuli cannot divert attention and remain unnoticed.
The main qualities of attention, which characterize it as an independent mental process, include the following.
The intensity or intensity of attention is a quality that determines the effectiveness of perception, thinking and memory, the clarity of consciousness in general. Attention will be the more intense and tense, the greater the influence of distracting stimuli.
The amount of attention is a quality determined by the number of simultaneously reflected objects. The volume of what is reflected depends on the meaningfulness of the perceived objects and the possibility of their grouping into semantic blocks.
Concentration of attention - defines a high intensity of attention in the volume of one object.
The focus of attention determines the selective nature of the course of cognitive activity, the choice (voluntary or involuntary) of its objects.
Stability - means the duration of maintaining focus. Resilience is a characteristic of attention over time. This property of attention is determined by several factors, including it depends on the possibility of viewing an object from different angles. Stability of attention can be provided by volitional efforts of a person, which is characteristic of performing labor actions in a state of fatigue. However, with pronounced fatigue, volitional efforts turn out to be ineffective and the productivity of the activity steadily decreases.
Fluctuations of attention - this property manifests itself in a temporary change in the intensity of sensations. This property is a periodic short-term involuntary changes in the degree of intensity of attention. Fluctuations of attention can occur with different periods - from 2-3 to 12 seconds.
Switching attention - the rapid movement of attention associated with a consciously and deliberately set task. It can manifest itself in the transition from one object of activity to another object or from one operation to another.
Switching attention should be distinguished from distraction, since distraction is an involuntary deviation of attention from the main activity to foreign objects. The ability to resist the distracting influence of extraneous stimuli is called "noise immunity".
Distribution of attention is a quality that makes it possible to simultaneously perform several actions. The ability to distribute attention is determined by many factors, first of all, it depends on the nature of the combined activities, on their complexity, the degree of their automation. Distribution of attention is facilitated if one of the actions performed is familiar, automated.
According to the degree of human activity in the organization of cognitive activity, voluntary, involuntary and post-voluntary are distinguished.
Involuntary attention is concentration on an object associated with the characteristics of this object itself as a stimulus. The most significant of these characteristics is irritation that is quite strong in intensity - loud sounds, strong odors, bright light. Of particular importance is the contrast between stimuli, their novelty. A moving object involuntarily attracts attention. Involuntary attention is also associated with the interests of a person, depending on what place the object of attention occupies in the structure of human activity.
Arbitrary attention arises when a person sets himself certain goals and objectives. The degree of concentration and focus of attention in this case are associated not with the characteristics of the subject, but with the goals and objectives set by the person. Voluntary attention is associated with the act of a person's will, requires volitional effort.
Post-voluntary awareness arises on the basis of voluntary attention, which, due to the awakening of interest in the subject, no longer requires volitional efforts from a person. Initially, this type of attention is associated with the setting of goals and objectives, i.e. deliberately called. The most productive and intense mental activity of a person is associated with the post-voluntary type of attention.
Question number 13
The originality of emotions and feelings experienced by a person is determined by the needs, aspirations, intentions and characteristics of his character. The main components of the emotional sphere are: emotions, feelings, mood, affect, stress and frustration.
The concepts of "feelings" and "emotions" mean two different, albeit interrelated, manifestations of the emotional sphere. Emotion is considered to be a more-simple, direct experience at the moment.
satisfaction or dissatisfaction of needs (fear, anger, joy). Animals also have emotions.
Feeling is more complex than emotions, a constant, well-established experience of a person associated with his relationship to someone or_something. Feelings are expressed in emotions, but not continuously, and at the moment may not be expressed in any particular experience.
Common to emotions and feelings are the functions that they perform in the life and activities of a person. The following functions of emotions are distinguished.
1. Signal, or expressive - emotions carry out the transfer of information about the state of a person. The implementation of this function is associated with the fact that the e_science is accompanied by expressive movements - mimic, pantomimic, voice changes, vegetative changes (reddening-blanching of the face, interrupted breathing, change in pulse rate).
2.. Regulatory - persistent experiences direct human behavior, support him, makes him overcome obstacles encountered on the way.
3. Stimulating - emotions can push a person to a certain action in spite of a rational decision.
4. Activation function - emotions increase the level of excitation of the nervous system and the whole organism to mobilize forces for solving problems.
5. Function of heuristics - emotions accompany the creative process of creating something new and facilitate finding original solutions.
6. The function of emergency resolution of the situation - carried out with the help of affect, manifests itself in the form of flight or aggression.
Depending on which state - active or passive, they cause emotions, they increase or decrease the vital activity of a person, distinguish between sthenic (from the Greek "stenos" - strength) and asthenic ("asthenos" - weakness, powerlessness) emotions. Stenic_emotions increase activity, energy and cause lift, excitement, cheerfulness. These include joy, fighting excitement, anger, hatred. Asthenic emotions - sadness, melancholy, despondency, depression - reduce the activity, energy of a person, reduce the level of vital activity.
Identify ten basic emotions and describe them as follows.
1. Interest-excitement - emotion motivates learning, development of skills and creative aspirations. In the state of interest of the Person, attention, curiosity increases, and enthusiasm for the object of interest increases.
2. Joy is an active state characterized by a sense of confidence, self-worth and the feeling that we are loved.
3. Surprise - a fleeting emotion that directs all cognitive processes to the object that caused surprise.
4. Grief-suffering - a person experiencing this emotion becomes discouraged, feels loneliness, self-pity, lack of contact with people.
5. Anger - causes mobilization of strength, a feeling of strength, a sense of courage and self-confidence. Significant attention is paid to control over the expression of this emotion in the process of personality socialization.
6. Disgust - arises from the physical or psychological wear and tear of someone and / or something. It often occurs with pneumonia, in combination with which it can stimulate destructive (destructive) behavior.
7. Contempt - associated with a feeling of depersonalization of a person or a group of people, with a desire to feel superior. It is a cold emotion and can motivate a cold-blooded murder. Emotions of anger, contempt and disgust together form<враждебную триаду».
8. Fear - accompanied by uncertainty and apprehension. A strong fear can paralyze a person or, conversely, mobilize his strength. Fear can kill: there is the possibility of being scared to death.
9. Shame - motivates the desire to hide, disappear, can contribute to the emergence of a feeling of mediocrity.
10. Guilt - in contrast to shame (shame can appear due to any mistake) only when moral, ethical or religious norms are violated and only in a situation where a person feels personal responsibility.
Traditionally in psychology, the following types of feelings are distinguished:
1. Moral and moral feelings - they show a person's attitude to the behavior of other people and to his own. These feelings are due to a person's worldview - a system of views and beliefs, they are generated by human relationships and moral and ethical norms that govern these relationships. This type of feeling includes feelings of sympathy and antipathy, affection and respect, love and hatred, a sense of duty, patriotism, human conscience.
2. Intellectual feelings - arise in the process of mental activity and are associated with cognitive processes. These include curiosity, curiosity, joy, a sense of the new, confidence or doubts about the correctness of the problem being solved.
3. Aesthetic feelings - a sense of the beautiful and ugly, feelings of greatness or baseness, vulgarity, tragic or comic.
Question number 14
There are many types of emotional states, which correspond to the variety of emotions. Of these, the greatest influence on human behavior, his actions and work activity is exerted by: mood, passion, stress, frustration and affect
Mood is "a characteristic of a person's relatively stable emotional experiences, which for some time cover a person. Mood is caused by various events, circumstances, as well as physical well-being. One mood can persist for a long time, be sthenic and asthenic, joyful and sad, angry and The mood can be transferred from one person to another in the process of communication.As a rule, the mood reflects a person's holistic idea of their capabilities and prospects for a certain period of life.
Passion is a strong feeling that occupies a certain place in a person's life. The subject of passion can be a variety of areas of knowledge and human activity, certain things, another person.
The main sign of passion is its effective nature. Passion always prompts a person to active activity, on the basis of which this passion develops and is satisfied. Passion is also characterized by persistence, duration in time. Passion is an expression of the individual's selective attitude to the world.
Passion should be distinguished from passion. Hobby is characterized by changeability and the fact that it is not organically connected with the basic life attitudes of the individual. Hobbies are most often characteristic of impulsive, emotional people. Passion can turn into passion.
Emotional states also include stress. Stress is defined as an ironic state of high strength ^ which provides constant mobilization of the body to solve an important life task.
If such mobilization does not lead to the solution of the problem, and rejection of it is impossible, then distress arises - according to the definition of one of the leading authors of the theory of stress, the Canadian scientist G. Selye, “bad stress”. According to Selye, the main consequences of stress are neuroses and psychosomatic diseases (peptic ulcer, hypertension, strokes, heart attacks, oncological diseases).
1. stage of anxiety
2.stabilization phase
3.depletion phase
Frequently repeated states of frustration can fix some characteristic features in a person's personality - aggressiveness, envy, and anger. Others may, on the contrary, develop: lethargy, passivity, self-doubt, an inferiority complex, indifference, lack of initiative.
Question # 15
Stress by its content is a set of stereotypical, non-specific reactions of the body that prepare a person for physical activity, that is, for resistance, fight or flight. These reactions provide a conducive environment to combat the hazard.
It has been established that weak influences do not lead to stress; it develops when the requirements of the situation exceed the adaptive capabilities of the organism.
Both physical stimuli (for example, high air temperature, humidity, gas pollution, dustiness) and psychological factors can act as stress-causing factors. First of all, these include: the need to make particularly responsible decisions, activities in conditions of time pressure, the need for a sharp change in the strategy of behavior. It is customary to divide stress into the main ones: physiological (systemic) and mental. Mental stress, in turn, is conventionally divided into informational (arises in situations of significant information overload) and emotional_ (associated with situations of threat, danger, resentment).
The most destructive stressors for a person are prolonged mental stress, failure, fear, a sense of danger, unsatisfactory pace of career advancement, conflicts with loved ones and in teams.
Different people react to the same load in different ways.
their activity continues to grow up to a certain limit. This is the so-called lion stress. In other people, the effect is caused by strong stimuli (words, behavior of other people, some circumstances). a passive reaction is observed, the effectiveness of their activity decreases, nervous breakdowns are observed, depression is the so-called stress of a rabbit. In the dynamics of stress, the following phases are distinguished:
1. stage of anxiety
2.stabilization phase
3.depletion phase
Stress is an integral part of every person's life and cannot be avoided. It is important to use its stimulating, constructive influence and to form stress resistance in oneself.
Frustration is a state that occurs in a person in situations when he either objectively encounters insurmountable obstacles in the way of satisfying important needs for him.
This state is characterized by an internal conflict between the orientation of the personality and the objective possibilities that the personality has and with which it does not agree. Frustration manifests itself when the degree of dissatisfaction is higher than what a person can withdraw, that is, above the level of frustration of a given person, his life experience and experience of overcoming frustration states with a decline in FRUSTRation stability.
In some cases, when meeting even with insurmountable obstacles, a person can maintain an objective assessment of the current situation and make the right decision, that is, under the influence of strong stimuli, he does not experience a state of frustration. This state is referred to as tolerance, that is, tolerance, endurance in relation to frustrating situations. Tolerance shows a person's ability to cope with frustrating situations.
Frequently repeated states of frustration can fix some characteristic features in a person's personality - aggressiveness, envy, and anger. Others may, on the contrary, develop: lethargy, assivnoschts-disbelief in oneself, an inferiority complex, indifference, lack of initiative.
Question number 17
Affect in translation from Latin - strong emotional excitement, excitement. These are rapidly and violent emotional processes of an explosive nature with pronounced periods and vegetative manifestations, partially not controlled by consciousness. Affect is usually accompanied by motor overexcitation, but can, on the contrary, cause speech retardation and complete indifference. the situation usually bears an unexpected, acutely conflict character. It, as a rule, is accompanied by threats, violence, insults against the subject or his relatives. A person in such a situation experiences an urgent need to act.
The physiological feature of affect is the release of the subcortical centers from the restraining and regulatory influence of the cortex. The "dominance" of the subcortex is revealed in the brightness of the external manifestations of affect.
Individual psychological characteristics of the personality predisposing to affect have been established. Persons with an unbalanced type of nervous system, with a predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes, are more prone to affect. Individuals prone to affective reactions have emotional instability, increased sensitivity, vulnerability, resentment, a tendency to "get stuck" on traumatic facts, high, unstable self-esteem. The appearance of an affective reaction is also influenced by the age-related characteristics of a person, his temporary functional states (for example, fatigue, insomnia, post-traumatic mental disorders associated with a person's experience of an extreme situation)
Question # 18
All human actions can be divided into voluntary and involuntary. Involuntary actions are performed under the influence of an unconscious or insufficiently conscious impulse. Involuntary actions are impulsive and lack a clear plan. Arbitrary actions presuppose awareness of the goal, preliminary presentation of ways and means of achieving it. All voluntary actions performed consciously and with a purpose are named so because they are derived from the will.
Will is a mental process of conscious management of activities, consisting in overcoming difficulties and obstacles on the way to the goal.
Difficulties and obstacles on the way to achieving the goal are of two types - external and internal (external - these are the difficulties of the case itself, its complexity, all kinds of interference, resistance of other people, hard work. Obstacles can be moderate, large, maximum and insurmountable.
internal obstacles are objective, personal difficulties that interfere with the fulfillment of what was planned, when it is difficult for a person to force himself to work, to overcome fatigue, laziness, bad habits, desires, and attractions.
A list of situations in which the need for volitional efforts may arise:
1) lack of sufficient motivation for action (lack of “implementation motivation); 2) the choice of motives, types and goals of activity in their conflict (the struggle of motives, the presence of competing motives);
3) arbitrary regulation of external and internal actions and mental processes;
4), bringing the started to the final result;
Overcoming difficulties requires volitional efforts and the manifestation of volitional qualities of the individual. Volitional activity is a special state of neuropsychic tension, leading to the mobilization of the physical, intellectual and moral strength of a person.
Will encompasses the transition from thoughts and feelings to action. Will is the power of a person over himself, manifested in self-determination, self-regulation of his activities and all mental processes.
The volitional qualities include the following features:
a) activity and energy (decisiveness, courage, initiative and their opposites - cowardice, inertia, indecision);
b) organization (endurance, restraint, self-control, self-confidence, dedication); c) perseverance of character (endurance, patience, perseverance, courage, stubbornness). Volitional qualities determine the ability and willingness of a person to consciously regulate their activities related to overcoming difficulties and direct behavior in accordance with certain principles and objectives.
Question # 19
Among the basic concepts that are in the focus of attention and study in psychology are the concepts of "man", "individual", "personality", "individuality". A person in psychology is considered as a biopsychosocial being. Man as a biological being, as a representative of the species of people, is described by the concept of "individual". Man as a biological species is characterized by a special bodily organization, the essential features of which include: upright posture, the presence of hands adapted to work, a highly developed brain capable of reflecting the world in concepts and inferences, a special structure of the larynx, which makes it possible to articulate speech.
As a social being, a person is described by the concept of "personality". An individual is understood as a person as a specific person in the aggregate of his socially significant qualities, which are manifested and formed in the process of social interaction, that is, in the process of labor, communication, cognition. The concept of individuality reflects the unique combination of the properties of a given person, the unity of the physical and psychological characteristics of a person, which together define a unique
and the uniqueness of a person as a person.
The development of the human body as an individual is largely genetically programmed, determined by hereditary factors. The formation of a person as a personality occurs as he enters various types of activity, in the process of education and upbringing organized by society. Known to science cases of life of young children in animal communities (they are called "Mowgli", "children of the Jungle", "feral people") confirm the thesis of science that outside human society, the development of the human personality does not occur. The process of transformation of an individual into a personality is called socialization - the process of active assimilation and reproduction by a person of knowledge, skills, and skills necessary for him to live and work in society.
They are not born as a person, and a person can cease to be a person as a result of a severe mental illness (although at the same time he continues to exist as a natural being).
Question # 20
The structure of the personality is a form of organization of mental properties that are hierarchically interconnected and are in interdependence and interaction.
Each person is a personality that can be observed, evaluated, described. Describing this or that personality, giving it a characteristic, that is, naming its characteristic features or properties, we get a picture of a personality, or a psychological portrait of a personality.
There are various approaches to understanding the structure of personality, as an example, we can name three of them that have become widespread.
1. Psychoanalytic approach - identifies three components in the structure of personality: It, Ego, Super-I, Super-Ego. In the sphere of the unconscious, It Concentrated the basic instincts of a person. Supraconscious - Super-I personifies the norms, rules, moral commandments, mastered by a person in the process of education. This parental principle in the human personality / Ego is identified by psychoanalysts with the human consciousness, its actual state associated with the rational principle in the human personality. The sphere of the unconscious is guided by the principle of pleasure and actively strives for its realization, the sphere of the I is based on the principle of rationality. Conflicts constantly arise between them. It defines a person, according to the ideas of Freud, his essence.
2. Transactional analysis, the theory of which was developed by the American Scientist E. Berne, considers the structure of personality as the sum of three components (or states): Parent, Adult and Child. At each moment of time, one or another component is actualized and the personality, respectively, acts either in the role of a Parent, personifying the parental principle in a person (and then a person predominantly begins to patronize, force, control, punish), or in the role of an Adult, and in this case, a person in his behavior and actions are guided by reason, relies on experience, knowledge, information, or in the role of a Child who behaves capriciously, impulsively, not in accordance with the requirements of the situation. Each component of the personality performs a specific function and is valuable for the personality, for example; A parent is a restraining principle Adult) is a rational principle, actions from the standpoint of common sense. A child is a creative principle in a person, his spontaneity, liveliness.
3. The theory of features of G. Allport considers personality as a set of stable, unchanging characteristics. The author of the theory identifies the main features ("trides") and auxiliary ones, i.e. superficial, only outwardly shaping human behavior. While educating, we contribute to the manifestation of not individual traits, but their sum, complex. Therefore, it is very important, developing, for example, the skills of cultural behavior, to develop in a complex and basic moral qualities - humanity, altruism, a socially positive orientation towards the personality of another person.
4. The scheme proposed by Platonov has become widespread in Russian psychology. A distinctive feature of the approach proposed by the author is an indication of the dependence of the components of the structure on the conditions of their formation and the influence of factors of congenital and acquired. This version of the personality structure is called "functional-dynamic personality structure." Quite often and quite justifiably, the following components are distinguished in the structure of the personality: orientation, temperament, character and abilities.
Question number 21
The orientation of the personality is understood as a set of drives, desires, needs, motives, interests, life goals, ideals, beliefs that cause: the strategic activity of the individual. The dominant orientation determines all mental activity and personality behavior. So, for example, the dominance of the cognitive needs of the individual leads to the corresponding volitional and emotional mood, which activates the intellectual activity of a person.
The leading orientation of the personality is found in the thinking style of behavior, in the features of social interaction (communication and activity). The more developed and formed the orientation of the personality, the more it influences tactics, methods of behavior, and the way of life in general. The orientation of the personality is based on a stable system of motives of the needs of the individual that arises in the process of life and education of a person. Needs and motives play a special role in shaping the orientation of the personality.
The needs of the individual are the initial motivation for action. Everything that a person does, he does for the sake of satisfying his needs. A need expresses a person's connection with objects and circumstances vital to him. Needs are the experience of the state of need in objective conditions, objects, objects, without which the existence and development of living organisms is impossible. Needs act as sources of human activity, i.e. perform activation functions (cause human activity in some areas). In addition, they perform the functions of inducement - they are a stimulus that directs to eliminate the arisen need, pushes a living being to search for what he needs, but only motive can regulate and direct human behavior. A motive can be used to designate what a person acts for. It is a motivation for a certain course of action. Motives, as a rule, are called thoughts, aspirations and feelings of a person associated with the awareness of certain needs and prompting him to a particular activity.
Thus, the need is able to induce only undirected activity of the body and maintain it at a certain level until the need is satisfied. However, the need is able to regulate and direct the activity, to determine the nature of behavior only when it meets the object that corresponds to it, that is, when the need is “objectified”, its transformation into a motive. There are different classifications of needs. Some of them try to deduce all needs from one, leading (for example, in the theory of Freud, the main source of human activity is declared "libido" - sexual need embodied in the energy of sexual desire; in A. Adler's individual psychology, the leading desire of a person is considered to authorities). One of the first classifications of needs, which is still recognized today, is the classification of needs proposed by the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus. He divided all the needs (desires) of a person into three groups: I) natural and necessary (the need for food, sleep, rest); 2) natural, but not necessary (for example, sexual need); 3) not natural and unnecessary (the need for fame). The classification of needs proposed by the American humanist psychologist A. Maslow has become very famous and widespread. This is known as the hierarchical classification of needs, or Maslow's pyramid. The author of the theory of self-actualization in the hierarchical pyramid of needs identified five classorbs of needs:
1) ^ yui ^; jugic needs (for food, drink, sleep, rest, relaxation ^ activity, oxygen);
2) needs for safety (physical and psychological), comfort, order;
3) the need for affection, love, belonging to the group;
4) needs for self-respect, approval, gratitude, recognition, competence, achievement);
5) the need for self-actualization, self-realization.
A. Maslow called the first four classes of needs the needs of conservation, and only the fifth was attributed by him to the needs of development. A class of cognitive and aesthetic needs were also added to the original Maslow pyramid.They can also be attributed to the needs of the highest level.
Question number 22
Temperament is understood as a dynamic characteristic of a person's mental life and behavior. The properties of temperament are manifested in activity regardless of the content of the activity, its goals and the person's attitude to it.
Temperament is expressed in the following properties:
1) activity (the amount of human interaction with the environment, initiative, readiness to act);
2) features of motor skills and the pace of mental activity (tempo, rhythm, speed of movements, their total number, amplitude; speed of thought processes, speech rate, resourcefulness, speed, memory, speed of reproduction);
3) emotionality (impressionability, impulsivity, emotional excitability, the speed of emergence of emotions, their strength, modality (type) of dominant emotions);
4) sensibility (characterized by the least force of external influence, which is necessary for the emergence of any psychic reaction of a person);
5) anxiety (the degree of a person's predisposition to anxiety, a tendency to react emotionally in threatening
situations);
6) extraversion - introversion (in the case of the predominance of extraversion, there is an increased dependence on the external world, human reactions arise in response to influences coming from the outside; with the predominance of introversion, the individual turns inward, the dependence of mental reactions on images, ideas, thoughts associated with the past and future of man)
Question number 23
Character is an individual combination of stable mental characteristics that limit the post-emotional response and behavior typical for a given subject in typical life conditions and circumstances.
Character is a way of expressing a person's own convictions, realizing his position, motives for action. The character as a set of the most pronounced and stable personality traits is systematically manifested in the actions and deeds of a person. The character can be seen as a subordinate substructure of the personality. And therefore we can talk about a good person (as a person with a positive orientation) with a bad character. The more mature, developed a person is, the more he owns his character and is able to control it.
The individual traits of character are interconnected, dependent on each other and form an organization, which is commonly called the structure of character. A number of regularities are inherent in character as an integral education. The main ones include:
1. Strength of character - is determined by the degree of resistance to external, unfavorable circumstances,
2. Balance-character - the ratio of restraint and activity, evenness of behavior.
4. Integrity - the unity of a person's mental make-up, the consistency of his relationship to various aspects of reality, the absence of contradictions in aspirations.
5. Certainty of character - is expressed in a sequence of behavior that corresponds to the prevailing beliefs, the main orientation of the personality.
b. The plasticity of character-exists along with such a property as stability, determines the possibility of its change, is the main condition for its development and upbringing.
Question number 24
At present, the classification of characters constructed by A.E. Lichko. The classification developed by him is based on the idea of character accentuations. Accentuation of character is understood as excessive sharpening, strengthening of its individual features. Such an increase leads to selective human vulnerability in certain situations. In the classification of A.E. There are 11 personality types. This classification has been developed for adolescents.
Accentuations of character are extremely common in developed countries: they are found in about half of their population. Accentuations of character are considered as an extreme version of the norm. They can be hidden or explicit. Latent accentuation is found in a critical situation, when increased demands reveal it. The nature of accentuations is not fully understood. There are reasons to assume the presence of biologically determined hereditary prerequisites, on the other hand, and the wrong style of upbringing can lead to the formation of accentuations.
Question number 25
Abilities in psychology are understood as a set of rather persistent, but at the same time changeable, individual psychological characteristics of a person, which determines the success of teaching this activity, the effectiveness of its implementation and improvement in it. The signs of abilities include the following their most important characteristics;
1. Abilities are individual psychological characteristics of a person that distinguish one person from another, that is, they are the basis of a person's individuality (along with the properties of his temperament).
2. They condition the possibility of success in a certain activity, are interdependent with it, ie. not only determine its success and are manifested precisely in the activity for the implementation of which the abilities of a given type are required and in which they are also formed.
3. Abilities are not limited to specific knowledge, individual skills and abilities, but nevertheless are associated with knowledge, skills, abilities. This connection is expressed, first of all, in the speed of mastering knowledge, acquiring skills, in the speed of their assimilation.
The most famous classification of abilities into general and special. General abilities are required for a wide range of activities (for example, the ability to work, to speak, to learn). Special abilities are required for a narrow range of activities (narpimer, musical, artistic ability, scientific ability, athletic ability).
Abilities have both quantitative and qualitative aspects. The qualitative aspect of abilities reflects what kind of activity a person is most capable of. There are several levels of development of abilities: giftedness, talent and genius. Giftedness is a combination of several abilities that determine special achievements in any kind of activity, distinguish him from other people and distinguish him from them. It should be noted that the concept of giftedness is used most often in relation to children.
Talent is a combination of abilities that allows you to obtain a product of activity that is distinguished by originality and novelty, high perfection and social significance. Talent is, first of all, a combination of abilities, their aggregates. Taken separately, an isolated ability cannot be equated with human talent, even if it reaches a very high level of development. An example would be the phenomenal memory of a person. Memory must certainly be combined with deep interests of the individual, strong will, imagination, and an expressed need for creativity.
Genius is the highest stage in the development of talent, which makes it possible to carry out fundamental words in a particular sphere of creativity, to create an era.
26. Concept, structure and psychological characteristics
identity of the offender
The problem of the personality of a criminal is studied both by representatives of legal sciences (criminal law, criminology, forensic science) and by legal psychologists.
The term “personality of the criminal” is used in various meanings: the personality of the suspect, the personality of the accused, the personality of the accused, the personality of the convicted person, the personality of the person serving a sentence. But in accordance with the law, no one can be declared a criminal otherwise than by a court verdict. In this context, the concept of “the identity of the offender” is applicable only to the person convicted of a specific crime. Therefore, it is assumed that these concepts are differentiated.
In most cases, the phrase "personality of the criminal" is given a special legal meaning. In the Criminal Code, this meaning is contained in the definition of the subject of the crime. The subject of a crime is a sane natural person who has reached the age established by law. But the psychological aspect of this concept, which determines the meaning of individual personality traits in the cause-and-effect relationships of crime mechanisms, remains undisclosed.
Speaking about the personality of the criminal, it must be remembered that this concept is based on the general doctrine of personality, and is an integral part of it.
The following definition of the identity of the offender can be formulated: identity of the offender- this is the personality of a person who has committed a crime due to his inherent psychological characteristics, which manifested themselves in a certain situation. Thus, legal psychology considers not only the features of the human activity of a specific individual who committed a crime, external circumstances that play a decisive role in the commission of a crime, but also the reasons for such behavior.
Under the psychological characteristics of the personality of the offender, in particular, is understood a relatively stable set of personal and individual qualities that determine the typical forms of behavior.
A.R. Ratinov identifies a number of features that distinguish the personality of a person who has committed a crime from the personality of a law-abiding citizen:
The difference in the value-normative system, i.e. in the level of development of legal consciousness, in relation to various legal institutions. Thus, the maximum solidarity with the criminal law and the practice of its application among law-abiding citizens is expressed to a large extent less than among criminals, although their legal awareness is approximately the same, and in part (knowledge of the articles of the Criminal Code) among criminals is higher. The degree of assimilation and acceptance of legal values among criminals is lower than among law-abiding citizens. The main deterrent to antisocial behavior in a criminal is the onset of undesirable consequences. For a law-abiding citizen, this is agreement with the established norms and rules for their observance. However, this does not apply in any way to persons who have committed a crime through negligence. Their value-normative system is not violated, and the crime was committed precisely out of imprudence and imprudence.
Differences in evaluative attitudes towards law enforcement agencies and their activities. Criminals view the punitive practice as excessively harsh, especially for those types of crimes for which they themselves have been convicted. They are wary and distrustful of the judiciary. The most skeptical about law enforcement agencies are selfish criminals, the most negative and hostile are selfish and violent. Law-abiding citizens treat law enforcement officers as protectors.
Criminals are distinguished by poor social adaptability, general dissatisfaction with their position in society. They have such a trait as impulsiveness, which manifests itself in reduced self-control of their behavior, rash actions, emotional immaturity, and infantilism. However, for example, self-serving and reckless criminals lack poor social adaptability or impulsivity. This characteristic is more suitable for violent and selfish-violent criminals.
Moral and legal norms do not have a significant impact on their behavior. Such people usually either do not understand what society requires of them, or understand, but do not want to fulfill these requirements. In connection with the violation or deformation of regulatory control, they assess the social situation not from the standpoint of moral and legal requirements, but based on the conditions of the environment in which their personalities were formed or in which they were for a long time (for example, a specific subculture) This position does not apply in any way to careless crimes.
Communication disorders. Criminals cannot establish contacts with others, they do not know how to take the point of view of another person, to look at themselves from the outside. All taken together forms such traits as self-absorption, isolation, isolation, aggressiveness, suspicion. As a result, the legal assessment of the situation becomes even more difficult, the behavior is governed by affective attitudes. This characteristic is more suitable for violent criminals and does not at all fit the psychological characteristics of mercenary and reckless criminals.
Thus, the personality of a criminal differs from the personality of a law-abiding citizen in the negative content of the value-normative system and stable psychological characteristics, the combination of which has criminogenic significance and is specific specifically for criminals. This specificity of their moral and psychological appearance is one of the factors in their commission of crimes.
However, if we look at these differences again, we will see that none of them is characteristic of persons who have committed reckless crimes. They have no changes in the content of the value-normative system, and in social adaptability, and in the perception of moral and legal norms, and in establishing contacts with others - here the question arises of the possibility of applying the term “criminal personality” to this category of people. They have only one thing in common with criminals - violation of the criminal law. And this question currently remains open, although psychologists and lawyers have identified certain features in their personality that can affect their behavior in a certain situation.
The following elements are included in the psychological structure of the criminal's personality:
Properties of the need-motivational sphere (needs, interests, stable motives, etc.);
Properties of the value-normative sphere (views, beliefs, value orientations, attitudes, personality positions, etc.);
Intellectual properties (level of mental development, peculiarities of thinking);
Properties representing experience significant in criminal behavior (knowledge, skills, abilities, abilities);
Emotional properties (stable formations that provide a qualitative and quantitative level of behavior and activity typical for a given person - for example, affectivity, irascibility).
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
FEDERAL State BUDGETARY educational institution of higher professional education "Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics and Informatics (MESI)"
Minsk branch
Department of Economics
Test
in the discipline "Organizational behavior"
Topic: Psychological personality traits
Student A.V. Khnykov
Head of Art. teacher Tishchenko L.I.
Introduction
1 The concept of temperament
2 General concept of character
Incompatibility of psychological characteristics of individuals. Interpersonal conflicts
Conclusion
Introduction
It is known that the problems of accidents and injuries cannot be solved only by engineering methods, since the cause of the danger can be:
Low level of professional training;
Lack of upbringing;
Undemanding compliance with safety rules;
Admission to hazardous types of work for persons with increased injuries;
Staying people in a state of fatigue, intoxication or drug exposure.
Statistics show that about 60-90% of injuries at home and at work occur through the fault of the victims themselves. Therefore, the study of such mental qualities of a person as emotionality, temperament, will, character, intellectuality and morality, will allow to study the mental state in the process of activity and reduce the risk of exposure to dangerous factors.
Labor psychology arose in the process of studying the correspondence of professional skills to the requirements of the workplace and was based on the principles and methods of individual psychology.
Psychological personality traits
Psychological personality traits are the main prerequisites for success in a particular type of professional activity. Incorrect vocational guidance, the choice of an individual's profession that does not correspond to the type of temperament inevitably leads to failure in this type of professional activity, disappointment in it. At the same time, identifying and taking into account psychological characteristics can provide a person with a favorite job, contribute to the achievement of the highest levels of professional skill. Among the psychological characteristics that determine the success of professional activity, it is necessary to single out, first of all, the personality temperament.
1 The concept of temperament
Temperament (from Lat. - the proper ratio of parts, proportionality) are individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of his mental activity and behavior. There are two main indicators of the dynamics of mental manifestations and behavior: activity and emotionality. The activity of behavior characterizes the degree of energy, impetuosity, speed and, conversely, slowness, inertia, and emotionality - the features of the flow of emotions, feelings, moods and their quality: sign (positive, negative) and modality (joy, grief, fear, sadness, anger, fun, etc.).
There are three main systems of explanations for the essence of temperament and its organic basis. The first (humoral) connected the state of the body with the ratio of various juices (liquids) in it, in connection with which four types of temperament were distinguished: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic (Hippocrates, Galen, etc.). This terminology later became widely used.
The second (constitutional) is based on differences in the constitution of the body - its physical structure, the ratio of its individual parts, various tissues (Kretschmer, Sheldon, etc.). The third connects the types of temperament with the activity of the central nervous system (I.P. Pavlov).
I.P. Pavlov discovered three properties of the processes of excitation and inhibition: a) the strength of the processes; b) their balance; c) their mobility. Thus, temperament is a manifestation of the type of the nervous system in the activity and behavior of a person:
strong, balanced, mobile type ("live") - sanguine temperament (from Latin - "blood");
strong, balanced, inert ("calm") - phlegmatic temperament (from Latin - "phlegm");
strong, unbalanced, with a predominance of excitement ("unrestrained") - choleric temperament (from the Greek - "red-yellow bile");
weak - melancholic temperament (from the Greek - "black bile").
The type of the nervous system is a natural, innate property of the nervous system, which, however, can change somewhat under the influence of the conditions of life and activity.
B.M. Teplova and V.D. Nebylitsin showed that the structure of the basic properties of the nervous system is much more complex, and the number of combinations is much larger than previously thought. Nevertheless, these four types of temperament, as the most generalized, can be used to study individuality.
Differences in temperament are not differences in the level of capabilities of the psyche, but in the originality of its manifestations. Features of temperament determine the ways and means of work, but not the level of achievement. In turn, the mental and volitional capabilities of a person create conditions for compensating for deficiencies in temperament. At the same time, temperament determines the individual style of activity.
To refer a person to a certain type of temperament, one should make sure of one or another severity in him, first of all, of such traits: activity, emotionality, and motor skills. In upbringing, it is necessary to promote the development of the positive aspects of each temperament and at the same time help to get rid of those negative aspects that may be associated with this temperament. (Table 1)
Table 1. Psychological characteristics of types of temperament
Type of temperamentPsychological characteristics stiffness, decreased emotional excitability, slow response rate, introversion Melancholic Characterized by increased sensitivity, low reactivity and low activity, decreased emotional excitability, introversion
In their pure form, these four types of temperament are extremely rare, since various properties of the human nervous system in their various combinations determine a large number of intermediate types. Thus, when analyzing individual psychological characteristics of a personality, it is required to establish the degree of predominance of certain characteristics of the traditionally distinguished four types of temperament.
2 General concept of character
Literally translated from Greek, character means chasing, imprint. In psychology, character is understood as a set of individually unique mental properties that are manifested in a person in typical conditions and are expressed in his inherent ways of acting in such conditions.
Character is an individual combination of essential personality traits that express a person's attitude to reality and are manifested in his behavior, in his actions.
Character is interconnected with other aspects of the personality, in particular with temperament and abilities. The character, like the temperament, is quite stable and unchangeable. Temperament on the form of manifestation of character, in a peculiar way coloring one or another of its features. So, persistence in a choleric person is expressed in vigorous activity, in a phlegmatic person - in concentrated thinking. The choleric person works energetically, passionately, the phlegmatic person works methodically, slowly. On the other hand, the temperament itself is rebuilt under the influence of character: a person with a strong character can suppress some of the negative aspects of his temperament, control its manifestations. Ability is inextricably linked with character.
In communicating with people, a person's character manifests itself in a demeanor, in ways of responding to the actions and deeds of people. The manner of communication can be more or less delicate, tactful or unceremonious, polite or rude. Character, in contrast to temperament, is determined not so much by the properties of the nervous system as by the culture of a person, his upbringing.
There is a division of human personality traits into motivational and instrumental. Motivational motivates, direct the activity, support it, and instrumental ones give it a certain style. Character can be attributed to the number of instrumental personality traits. It is no longer the content that depends on it, but the manner in which the activity is performed. True, as has been said, character can also be manifested in the choice of the goal of action. However, when the goal is determined, the character appears more in its instrumental role, i.e. as a means of achieving the set goal.
Let's list the main personality traits that are part of a person's character. First, these are the personality traits that determine a person's actions in choosing the goals of activity (more or less difficult). Here, as certain characterological traits, rationality, prudence or qualities opposite to them may appear. Secondly, character structures include traits that relate to actions aimed at achieving the set goals: persistence, dedication, consistency, and others, as well as alternatives to them (as evidence of a lack of character). In this regard, character comes close not only to temperament, but also to the will of a person. Thirdly, the composition of the character includes purely instrumental traits directly related to temperament: extraversion - introversion, calmness - anxiety, restraint - impulsivity, switchability - rigidity, etc. a peculiar combination of all these character traits in one person makes it possible to attribute him to a certain type ... In the next section, we'll look at a typology of characters.
Psychological compatibility of individuals in communication and joint activities
psychological temperament
Interpersonal relationships are expressed in the compatibility of people.
Compatibility is the optimal combination of the qualities of people in the process of communication, contributing to the success of the implementation of joint actions. It is customary to distinguish four types of compatibility: physical, psychophysiological, socio-psychological and socio-ideological.
Physical compatibility is expressed in a harmonious combination of physical qualities of two or more people performing a joint action (compatibility in strength, endurance, etc.). For example, when manning the crews of rowing ships (kayaks, canoes, academic boats), athletes are selected who are equal in physical data. Another example: in some sports there is a division of athletes into weight categories. This is done in order to equalize, combine the anatomical prerequisites on the basis of which physical properties develop. And they can be different with comparatively the same body weight. It depends on how trained you are. In the course of a sports competition, there is a competition not of body weights, but of those physical properties that the athlete has achieved by training at a given weight.
The psychophysiological compatibility is based on the features of the analyzer systems, as well as the properties of temperament. This kind of compatibility presupposes the relationship of people in the course of their joint action, in which the sensitivity within the limits of a particular analytical system is decisive. In this respect, the situation in Leo Tolstoy's story "The Blind and the Deaf" is indicative. The attack on someone else's sowing of peas, undertaken by two characters in the story, ended in vain, since one did not hear, and the other did not see, and the signals of each of them did not reach the other. They turned out to be physiologically incompatible. Two female supervisors at a weaving mill who work together and differ in visual acuity and color sensitivity are incompatible. Their labor productivity will be low.
Socio-psychological compatibility presupposes the relationship of people with such personal characteristics that contribute to the successful fulfillment of social roles. In this case, the similarity of characters, abilities is not necessary, but their harmony is obligatory. As life practice shows, contacts are established faster and are stronger in people with character traits that complement one another: one is cocky, decisive, the other is calm, reasonable, unhurried. One is more capable of acquiring knowledge, the other is more capable of acquiring motor skills. This does not mean that in any cases only people with opposite traits, with dissimilar abilities and other properties are compatible. Compatibility is possible with similar temperaments, but the likelihood of the collapse of the community in this case is great.
Socio-ideological compatibility presupposes common ideological views, similarity of social attitudes and values.
Ideological kinship, striving for the same moral and aesthetic values brings people closer together. Compatibility on a socio-ideological basis can be considered a higher level in comparison with compatibility on other bases. Ideological similarity, the coincidence of social attitudes, as it were, overlaps and integrates all other bases. Physical, psychophysiological and socio-psychological factors, if they run counter to the socio-ideological, can be muted, and incompatibility based on these parameters will not manifest itself. This is due to the fact that a group or collective effort is aimed at solving not private, albeit group, but large-scale tasks facing large communities.
Incompatibility of psychological characteristics of individuals. Interpersonal conflicts
Individuals differ significantly in their psychological characteristics. These differences can often complicate relationships between people, lead to conflicts.
A conflict is a contradiction that arises between people in connection with the solution of certain issues of social and personal life.
Among the many causes of conflict, a certain place is occupied by incompatibility in physical, psychophysiological, socio-psychological and socio-ideological terms.
Contradictions in interpersonal relationships do not always lead to conflicts: many of them are resolved peacefully. Others cause confrontation and are resolved in it.
In groups, collectives, already formed and well-established, contradictions arise less often than in communities, the life of which is short. This is due to the fact that in long-standing communities, under the influence of dropout and mutual recognition, a level of compatibility is achieved, at which contradictions are not resolved in a conflict situation. In groups and collectives that are in the stage of formation and development, contradictions often end in conflicts. The reasons for this may be psychophysiological and socio-psychological incompatibilities. And more specifically: the appearance in these communities of persons with difficult characters - arrogant capricious, with exaggerated self-esteem and pretensions, envious gossips. Such people are capable of creating an atmosphere of bullying, hooking. They are compatible only with those who fulfill their whims, contribute to the realization of their insidious plans.
In a conflict situation, business and personal relationships are so confusing that they are difficult to understand. Therefore, a way out of this situation is sometimes found along the path of administration.
In personal relationships, incompatibility is rarely the cause of conflict. Rather, incompatibility precludes relationships on a personal basis. The point is, personal relationships are optional. Therefore, as soon as incompatibility is indicated and this becomes obvious, people part and the relationship ends.
Conclusion
No two people are exactly alike. This is true for both physical and psychological characteristics. Some people are calm, others are quick-tempered, some are able to work long and hard to achieve a result, others put all their strength into one "jerk". Psychological differences between people are objective - they are explained by the physiological characteristics of the functioning of the nervous system. The character of the individual, his success or failure in specific professional activities, the style of interpersonal communication, and interaction with other people in the professional and personal spheres largely depend on these features (although not completely - the most important role is played by the upbringing of the personality).
It should be noted that differences in psychological characteristics are not differences in the level of capabilities, but in the originality of their manifestations. Psychological characteristics determine the ways and means of work, but not the level of achievement. In turn, a person's mental capabilities create conditions for compensating for psychological deficiencies.
Summing up, we can say that knowledge of the psychological characteristics of a person, understanding their nature can provide correct career guidance, effective selection of personnel for a specific type of professional activity, and, if necessary, the development of measures for psychological correction of individual personality traits. Thus, such knowledge is indispensable for teachers, educators, personnel service workers, managers of various levels.
Bibliography
1.Organizational behavior of teaching materials 2008.pdf
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