Conditional signs There are contour, linear and boring.

• Contour (square) signs shown, for example, lakes;
• Linear signs - Rivers, roads, canals.
• In bulk signs Plans noted, for example, wells, Rodniki, and on geographic maps - settlements, volcanoes, waterfalls.

Fig. 1. Examples of bore-scale, linear and area conventional signs

Fig. Main conditional signs

Fig. Conditional marks of terrain

Isolastic

There is a separate category of conditional signs - Isolastic, i.e. lines connecting points with the same values \u200b\u200bof the depicted phenomena (Fig. 2). Equal atmospheric pressure lines are called fromobami, line of equal air temperature - isothermami, lines of equal heights of the earth's surface - inhappiness or horizontal.

Fig. 2. Examples of isolated

Methods of mapping

For the image of geographical phenomena on maps apply various methods. Method of Area Show areas of dissemination of natural or social phenomena, such as animals, plants, some minerals. Move traffic signs Used to show sea flows, winds, transport streams. Qualitative background Show, for example, states on the political map, and quantitative background - division of the territory according to any quantitative indicator (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Cartographic methods: A - method of ranges; b - motion signs; in - a method of high-quality background; M - Quantitative Background - Point Signs

To show the average phenomenon on any territory, it is most advisable to use the principle of equal intervals. One of the ways to obtain an interval is dividing the difference between the largest and most small indicator for five. For example, if the largest indicator is 100, the smallest - 25, the difference between them is 75, its 1/5 -15, then the intervals will be: 25-40, 40-55, 55-70, 70-85 and 85-100 . When you show these intervals on the map, a bright background or rare hatching depicts a smaller intensity of the phenomenon, darker tones and thick hatching - large. This method of cartographic image is called cartographer (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Examples of the cartogram and cardage

To method cartiragram Resort to show the total amount of the phenomenon at any territory, such as the production of electricity, the number of school students, freshwater reserves, the degree of deposit of the Earth, etc. Camera Call a simplified map that does not have a degree network.

Relief image on plans and maps

On the maps and plans, the relief is shown using horizontals and elevation marks.

HorizontalAs you already know, these are lines on a plan or a map connecting the points of the earth's surface that have the same height above the ocean level (absolute height) or above the level adopted per point of reference (relative height).

Fig. 5. Image of relief horizontals

In order to show the hill on the plan, you need to define it relative heightwhich shows how much the distance vertically one point of the earth's surface is above another (Fig. 7).

Fig. 6. Image of a hill on the plane

Fig. 7. Definition of relative height

Relative height can be determined using a level. Level (from FR. niveau. - Level, level) - a device for determining the difference in heights between multiple points. The device is usually installed on a tripod (tripod), equipped with a visual pipe adapted to rotate in a horizontal plane and a sensitive level.

Spend leveling a hill - It means to make measurements of the western, southern, eastern and northern slopes from the soles to the top with the help of a level and knock the pegs in those places where the level was installed (Fig. 8). Thus, four kids will be driven by the hill sole, four - at an altitude of 1 m from the ground, if the height of the level is 1 m, and so on. The last peg is driven on the top of the hill. After that, the position of all pegs are applied to the area of \u200b\u200bterrain and the smooth line is combined first all points having a relative height of 1 m, then 2 m, etc.

Fig. 8. Unregister hill

Please note: if the slope is cool, the horizontal on the plan will be close to each other, if gently - far from each other.

Little dashes carried out perpendicular to horizontals - it is Bergshtri. They show, in which direction the slope is down.

The horizontals on the plans are depicted not only the hill, but also depressions. At the same time, the Bergshtrichy is drawn to the inner side (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. Image of horizontals of various form of relief

Cool slopes of cliffs or ravines on the maps are denoted by small teeth.

The height of the point above the middle level of the ocean is called absolute height. In Russia, all absolute heights are calculated from the level of the Baltic Sea. Thus, the territory of St. Petersburg is above the water level in the Baltic Sea, on average by 3 m, the territory of Moscow is 120 m, and the city of Astrakhan is below this level by 26 m. The heights of the heights on geographic maps indicate the absolute height of points.

On the physical Mail Relief is depicted using layer-by-layer color, i.e., the color of different intensity. For example, plots having a height from 0 to 200 m are painted in green. At the bottom of the card placed a table, from which it can be seen which color what is the height corresponds to. This table is called scale altitude.

Conditional signs of topographic maps give full information about the terrain. They are generally accepted and used for topographic maps and plans. Topographic cards are important material not only for tourists, but also for geodesic organizations, for the authorities that are involved in planning the terrain and the transfer of the boundaries of the plots.

Knowledge of conditional signs help not only read the card correctly, but also make detailed location plans taking into account the new objects that have appeared.

Topographic maps are a variety of geographical. They carry out detailed information about the plan of the area, indicating the location of various technical and natural objects relative to each other.

Topographic maps differ along the scale of execution. All of them are less or more detailed information about the terrain.

The scale of the card is denoted by side or from the bottom of the card. It shows the size ratio: marked on the map to natural. Thus, than the denominator is more, the material is less detailed. Suppose Map 1:10 000 will have 1 centimeter 100 meters. To find out the distance in meters between the objects, the segment between the two items is measured using the ruler and is multiplied by the second indicator.

1. The most detailed is the topographic area of \u200b\u200bthe area, its scale is 1: 5,000 inclusive. It is not considered a card and is not so accurate, since it does not take into account the status that the earth is round. It somewhat distorts his informativeness, nevertheless, the plan is indispensable in the image of cultural and household and economic facilities. In addition, the plan can also show micro-objects that are difficult to find on the map (for example, vegetation and soils, the contours of which are too small for the image in other materials).
2. Topographic maps Scale 1:10 000 and 1:25 000 are considered to be among the cards as detailed as possible. They are used for household needs. They depict settlements, industrial facilities and agricultural facilities, roads, hydrographic network, swamps, fences, borders, etc. Such cards are most often used to obtain information about objects on the ground, which does not have a significant wooded cover. The most reliably in them are household facilities.
3. Cards with scale 1: 50 000 and 1: 100,000 less detailed. They schematically depict the contours of forests and other major objects, the image of which does not require great detail. Such cards are convenient to use for air navigation, making the routes of roads and so on.
4. Less detailed maps are used for military purposes to fulfill the tasks of planning various operations.
5. Maps with a scale of up to 1: 1 000 000 allow you to correctly evaluate the overall picture of the area.

Deciding with the task, the choice of material seems to be an absolutely difficult task. Depending on how much detailed information about the location is needed, the desired scale of the card is selected.

Working with the topographic map requires a clear knowledge of the schematic designation of the depicted objects.

Types of conditional signs:

• area (large-scale) - for large objects (forest, meadow, lake), their size is easy to measure on the map, to correlate with the scale and get the necessary information about depth, extension, area;
• linear - for extended geographical objects, the width of which can not be indicated, are applied in the form of a line corresponding to the scale to properly display the length of the object (road, power band);
• maintenance - they enjoy to designate strategically important objects, without which the card will be incomplete, but in a fairly conditional size (bridge, well, separate tree);
• explanatory - characterizing the object, say, the depth of the river, the height of the slope, the tree, which indicates the type of forest;
• pictures of landscape components: relief, rocks and stones, hydrographic objects, vegetation, artificial structures;
• special - applied to maps for individual industries (meteorological, military signs).

The designations of topographic maps in certain cases, especially this concerns certain groups of objects, allow some conventions:

• the main information that the location of the settlement is caring is the density of the development and placement of the boundaries of the object, for this it is not necessary to celebrate each building, it can be limited to the main streets, cross-stakes and important buildings;
• the conventions of the group of homogeneous objects allow the image of only extremes;
• when the road line is drawn, it is necessary to designate their middle, which must comply with the situation on the ground, and the width of the message object itself should not be displayed;
• strategically important objects, such as factories and plants, are denoted where the main building or factory pipe is located.

Due to the proper application of signs on the map, you can get a detailed idea of \u200b\u200bthe interpordability of objects on the ground, about the distance between them, about their heights, depths and other important information.

The card must be objective and this requirement includes the following provisions:

• properly selected standard conventional signs, if this is a special card, the notation should also be well known in a particular area;
• the correct image of the barbecue elements;
• one card must be compiled in one image style;
• microstects must also be designated exactly if there is a certain number of such objects of the same size on the ground, they must be designated on the map all the same sign;
• the color indicators of the elements of the relief forms must be supplemented correctly - height and lowlands are often depicted with paints, there should be a scale next to the map, which shows which altitude on the ground is the one or another color.

The conventional signs of topographic maps and plans are applied in accordance with the Unified Rules.

So:

1. Object dimensions are displayed in millimeters. These signatures are customary to have the left of the conditional signs. With respect to one object, there are two numeric indicators denoting height and width. In the case of the coincidence of these parameters, one signature is allowed. For round objects, their diameter is denoted for signs in the form of a star - the diameter of the described circle. For an equilateral triangle, its height parameter is given.
2. The thickness of the lines must match the scale of the card. The main objects of plans and detailed maps (plants, mills, bridges, gateways) are applied with lines 0.2-0.25 mm, the same designations on small-scale cards from 1:50,000 - lines of 0.2 mm. Lines denoting secondary signs have a thickness of 0.08-0.1 mm. On plans and large-scale cards allowed an increase in signs by one third.
3. The symbol of topographic maps should be clear and readable, the gaps between inscriptions must be at least 0.2-0.3 mm. Strategically important objects can be somewhat increased in size.

Separate requirements are nominated to the color scheme.

Thus, the background color should provide good readability, and the conditional signs are indicated by the following paints:

• green - designations of glaciers, eternal snow, swamp, salt marshes, crossing coordinate lines and hydrography;
• brown - form of relief;
• blue - water objects;
• pink - Arrangement Highway Lights;
• red or brown - some marks of vegetation;
• black - hatching and all signs.

1. Objects labeled with residential conventional signs on topographic maps and plans must comply with the location position. To do this, they need to be placed on a specific rules.

The location in the area corresponds to:

• the center of the object of objects of the right form (round, square, triangular) on the plan;
• middle of the base of the symbol - for promising mappings of objects (lighthouses, rocks);
• the vertices of the angle of designation are for icons with element of straight corners (wood, pillar);
• the middle of the bottom line of the sign is for designations in the form of a combination of figures (tower, chapel, towers).

Knowledge of the right placement and application of signs will help correctly create a topographic map or area plan, making them understandable to other users.

The symbol of the conditional signs of groups of objects should occur according to the rules below.

1. Geodesic items. These objects must be indicated as detailed as possible. The points of the centers of the points is applied to the centimeter. If the item is on the sublime area, it is necessary to note the height of the Booga or Kurgan. When applying the boundaries of the intersals, which are marked with pillars and numbered, the numbering should be displayed on the map.
2. Buildings and their parts. Building contours need to be applied to the map in accordance with the layout of the structure and size. The most detailed depicting multi-storey and historically important buildings. Floors is denoted from two floors. If the building has an indicative tower, it is also necessary to display it on the map.

Minor buildings, such as pavilions, cellar, elements of buildings, are displayed at the request of the customer and only on detailed maps. The numbering of buildings is reproduced only on large maps. In addition, letters can be designated materials from which the building is built, its purpose, fire resistance.

The conventional signs are made to allocate clad or dilapidated buildings, cultural and religious buildings. Objects on the map must be accommodated as in reality.

In general, the details and details of the description of the characteristics depends on the purpose of the map compilation and stipulates the customer and the performer.

1. Industrial facilities. Floors in buildings role does not play. More important objects are administrative structures and pipes. For pipes more than 50 meters it is necessary to sign their actual height.

At enterprises having mines and leading mineral mining, it is customary to designate objects placed on the surface. The display of underground paths is carried out in coordination with the customer with an indication of the working and non-working branch. For quarries necessarily numerical designation of their depth.

1. Railways are shown with the designation of their rut width. On maps need to be denoted and inactive roads. For electrified roads and tram tracks, the power line should be displayed.

The map shows the designation of roads, embankments and their height, slopes, tunnels and their characteristics. Be sure to apply deadlocks, rotary circles and endings.

The roads are denoted by a certain sign that depends on the coating. The driving part must be highlighted by the line.

1. Hydrographic objects are customary to divide into three groups:

• constant;
• indefinitely - the existing all the time, but the outlines of which are often changing;
• non-permanent - changing depending on the season, but with a pronounced source and direction of the bed.

Permanent reservoirs are depicted with solid lines, the remaining - barcode.

1. Relief. When the terrain image is used, horizontal or contour lines are used, indicating the heights of individual ledges. Moreover, lowlands and elevations are depicted seemingly using strokes: if they go outside, the elevation is depicted if inside is a vpina, beam or lowland. In addition, if the contour lines are close to each other, the slope is considered steep if there is plenty.

A good topographic card must be extremely accurate, objective, complete, reliable and clearly indicate the contours of objects. When drawing up a map, it is necessary to take into account the requirements of the customer.

Depending on the purposes for which the topographic map is intended, some simplifications or insignificant distortions of secondary objects are allowed, but general requirements must be observed.

Municipal budgetary institutional education

"Center for Children and Youth Tourism

And excursions "Bryansk

Abstract Classes on the topic:

Developed:teacher d / o

Statsishina N.V.

g. Bryansk - 2014

Plan - Abstract

classes on the topic

"Conditional signs of topographic maps."

Objective:Give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe conditional signs of topographic maps.

Tasks lessons:

Acquainted with the concept of conventional signs and its varieties;

Attract the circle to systematic sports;

Develop the skills of collective work and jointly find solutions;

Continue to promote the development of logical thinking, memory and

attention of students;

Equipment:1. Posters with conditional signs.

2. Cards with test tasks.

Type of classes:Studying a new material.

Literature:1. Aleshin V.M. "Tourist topography" - ProfiSdat, 1987

2. Aleshin V.M., Silvernikov A.V., "Tourist Topography" - ProfiSdat, 1985

3. Vlasov A, NGOR A. - "Tourism" (educational and methodological manual), M., Higher

school, 1977

4. Voronov A. - "Tourist Directory on Topography" - Krasnodar., KN.IZD-WA, 1973

6. Kubrin A., "Topography for all" - M., Subraz, 1976

Plan lesson

Preparatory part. (3)

Explanation of a new topic: (45)

Appearance new information.

3. Fastening the studied material. (eight)

4. Summing up the lessons. (2)

5. Organizational moment. (2)

Travel course.

1. Preparatory part:

Students occupy spaces for the parties, prepare written supplies

The teacher announces the topic, goals and objectives of classes, explains the requirements and plan of classes, conducts an inspection of those present.

Note

on the readiness of K.

classes, form

clothes involved.

2. Explanation of a new topic:

Statement of new information:

Today at the lesson we will look at the new topic:

"Conditional signs of topographic maps."

A lot of titles printed on the map, printed by ordinary words, there are numbers, lines and many icons of different colors, sizes and shapes. it topographic conventional signswhich are marked local objects on the map.

What are the conditional signs?

Conditional signs are symbols with which the actual locality is depicted on the map.

Topographers have come up with special conditional signs so that they are likely to look like the local items themselves, and in size corresponded to them on the map scale. So, for example, the forest on topographic maps is depicted in green (after all, he is actually green); Houses and other buildings are depicted by rectangles, because if you look at the top, they really almost always have the form of rectangles; Rivers, streams, lakes are depicted in blue, as water, reflecting the sky, also seems to us blue. But you can not always be exactly in shape, color and size to depict each local subject on the map. Take, for example, a highway, the width of which is 20 m. On a hundred thousand card (in 1 mm 100 m), such a way would have to be portrayed with a line with a thickness of one fifth of a millimeter, and on the map scale 1: 200000 this line would have to do yet Thinnish - 0.1 mm. Small in size, but important local items are depicted on topographic maps by special borrowed signs, that is, such signs that do not correspond to the real size of local items, reduced accordingly, the scale of a particular map. For example, a small spring on the banks of the river is depicted on a blue circle with a large diameter; In addition, the highways and other major roads are on the maps color so that they, as they say, threw into each other, who took the topographic map. For example, asphalt highway on the map is depicted by a bright red line.

The conventional signs used in the preparation of sports cards for sports orienteering competitions are somewhat different from topographic. Their main appointment is to give an athlete that information about the locality that is necessary for him when choosing a way of movement. These are signs showing the patency of the forest, swamps, paths, etc. So, for the convenience of reading on the running on a sports card, unlike topographic, not a forest, but an open space - fields, meadows, glades in the forest. All topographic conventional signs can be divided into four types:

1) Linear- These are the roads, links, lines of power lines, streams, rivers, etc. That is, these are the signs of such local items that themselves have the form of long lines;

Write the topic on the board.

Interesting write a new topic in the notebook.

2) Figure- these are signs of towers, bridges, churches, ferries, power plants, individual buildings, etc.;

3) Area -these are signs of forests, marshes, settlements, pasached, meadows - that is, local items occupying significant areas of the Earth's surface. Square signs consist of two

elements: circuit and sign filling out;

4) explanatory- These are signs of the characteristics of the forest, the names of settlements, railway stations, rivers, lakes, mountains, etc.,

this is a highway width, length, width and lifting capacity of bridges, depth of brodes on rivers and the like.

Almost all linear and curly signs are boring, and the area, as a rule, exactly correspond to the true size of local items. Signs are easier to study and memorize, getting acquainted with them in groups that are formed by the type of local items:

group number 1 - roads and road structures;

group number 2 - settlements, buildings;

group number 3 - Hydroset (i.e. water on earth);

group number 4 - vegetation;

group number 5 - relief;

group number 6 - Explanatory and special tourist signs.

Group number 1. Roads and road facilities

This group includes eleven most important topographic signs.

All roads can be divided into three main types: railways for the movement of trains, road roads and dirt roads.

Highway called roads having solid artificialcoating - stone (cobblestone, paving), asphalt or concrete. The highway sign is boring. Every sign of the SCOseine roads on the map gives an additional sign- alphanume digital characteristic consisting of three elements: numbers, another digit in brackets and letters. The first digit indicates the width of the highway in meters (that is, asphalted, takesby a stone or coated part of the Highway Piece), and in bracketsdigital is given, denoting the width of the entire Highway canvas in meters, that is, along with the sideburns. The letter is indicated by the material that covered the highway: if it is asphalt, then the letter "A" is put if concrete is the letter "b", and if the highway is covered byskier or a parallery (i.e. stone), then the letter "K".

Next type of road - soil,earth roads that do not have artificial coverage. All primer roads are divided into three types: simple dirt roads (they are called still wildlife), country roads and so

called improved ground roads (abbreviated-use). The improved dust road is also an earth's road, but having a slightly convex form for better water flow, cuvettes on the sidelines and gravel or crumbling, the rammed roller.

Nobody lays down the trails, they arise with themselvesfight from constant walking of people. In densely populated areararely in the same direction can go once a whole networkpaths that are closed, then again dissate. Such methe tracks of the paths are unable to portray on the map, so the groupthe trope is shown by one conditional path in the appropriate. Only long enough lengthy and constantly existing (they are sometimes called "centuries") trails are appliedon maps of large scale. Conditional sign of the trail almost suchas well as a simple dirt road - thin black intermittentstrike line, but each barcodeit has a smaller length.

Railways earlier from they were brought in two thin blackparallel lines lumen between which was filled byalternate black and white shashchops. Now signit is solidthick black line. Two Co.rotch stroke across the signthe bottom road designate that shehe has two gauges. If the river is alone, that is put one touch. If the transverse stroke has anotherrotchy stroke, parallel railway sign,then it knows cheat that the road is electrified.

At the sign of the railway station, the black rectangles inside the white rectangle is put on the side of the railway, where the station building is located (a presidential structure).

Bridges. On simple dirt roads, as a rule,build wooden bridges, on highways, improved dirt roads and on important settlers bridges are most often concrete (stone). On the railways Large bridges through large rivers are always metallic, and through small rivers - concrete. Topographic signs of bridges are figured and boring signs.
Where the map of the bridge is placed on the map, road signs and rivers are broken (Fig. 37). An explanatory sign of the bridges is the alphanumeric characteristic of the bridge. For example: dz \u003d
(24 - 5) / 10. Here the letter "D" means the material from which the bridge was built - a tree (if the concrete bridge is put the letter

"TO"). The coefficient 3 is the height of the bridge over the surface of the water in the river. In the numerator, the first figure, 24, - the length of the bridge in meters, the second digit, 5, is its width in meters. In the denominator, the number 10 shows the carrying capacity of the bridge in tons, that is, for what maximum weight of the car designed bridge whendesign.

On pedestrian trails, bridges are often made, but very small - only for a pedestrian. Such bridges (residents often refer them to putting them, then lavami) sometimes constitute just two logs laid over the river from the shore to the shore. The topographic sign of the pedestrian bridge is very simple.

Very often the roads intersect in small dry

oversways, hollows, for which streams flow only in the spring when snow melts. During the construction of the road across the ravine, mound is made under which a concrete pipe is stacked for

The engaged writes themselves in the notebook.

Conditional signs sketch in notebooks

highway

Simple dirt road

Country road

Improved primer road

Railway

Bridge

Pedestrian bridge

water drain. Such pipes have their own topographic sign.

Group number 2. Settlements, individual buildings

Vehi group fifteen major topographic signs. Morself settlements - villages, aules, farms, towns, cities - complex education, consisting of various buildings and structures. Therefore, there is no simple topographic sign of the settlement - it consists of topographic signs of various local items that make up what is called the village.

Separate residential and non-residential buildingspictures are depicted with a bumped black rectangle. If the structure is very large in area, and the map is large-scale, the structure is depicted by a black figure similar to the form and dimensions (on the map scale) in the structure itself. That is, this is already a scale sign. Often, at some distance from the village or village there is a residential building with its garden, a garden, household buildings.

For such a separate yard, or a farm, there is a special topographic sign.

In settlements, distortions are distinguished with the predominance of wooden (not fire resistant) and stone (fire-resistant) buildings. Topographic sign quarter of the settlementlimited to thin black lines. Inside it is given a background either yellow (if wooden structures are dominated in the quarter), or orange color (if stone fire-resistant structures are dominated in the quarter). On the background there are black rectangles - the first-scale signs of individual houses, buildings, or large-scale signs of individual major structure. Near the signs of some buildings, their characteristics are given. For example: "Shk." - school, "sick." - Hospital, "El-Art." - Power station, "San" - sanatorium.

Topographic sign of the fence (fencing) - the thinnest black line on the map. Such a sign is often found on the maps in the form of a broken closed line, which means some kind of fenced with the territory.

If an industrial enterprise is depicted in a small-scale map, then it is necessary to apply a borough-scale sign of the plant (factory) with a pipe (there is a high pipe, which can serve as a reference point, visible at a fairly large distance) or without a pipe. Near the sign is given a reduced explanatory sign, which characterizes the type of production produced by the enterprise. For example: "Kirp" - a brick factory, "Muk." - Mukomol Factory, "Boom." -Bomaging factory, "Sah." - Sakharozavory, etc.

If an industrial enterprise occupies a large area, the usual large-scale signs showing all or almost all buildings and structures on its territory: fence, plant management, workshop, warehouses, etc., while stricken half-alone

diagonal a bore plant sign.

pipe under road

Individual buildings

Farm

Urban development

Plants and factories

Inside the settlement may bechurch, monument or monument, cemetery . The cemetery can be small and large, with trees and without trees. Poketo the image of the cemetery is used as large-scale, soand a bump mark. In the campaigns and travel you can meeteven in the deaf forest, a separate courtyard where he lives

forester and his family. House Lesnikit has its own topographic sign - the usual non-scale sign of a separate structure with the inscription "Lesn.".

Important benchmarks can serve as various visible from afar buildings Ba.type- Water towers, fire tower, silage towers. They are denoted by one borough-based sign, next to which the explanation is often given, what is the tower.

Good guidelines are also high, most often on the tops of the hills of wooden rigs with an observation platform at the very top where the staircase leads. These are the so-called points of triangulation(they are briefly called triguks). Next to the sign of trigopunct on the map always stands for a number that denotes the height of the base of the tower over the level of the Baltic Sea in meters and centimeters.

A sign that resembles bricks laid on each other - peat,that is, a place where peat is extracted.

And the last of this group is very important local items, the topographic signs of which you need to know are lines of communication and power lines (LEP).

Links Denote on all maps, regardless of the nature of the communication, a thin black line with black dots on it. The link line is drawn on the map as it goes on the ground itself.

Power lines (LEP) are on wooden pillars or on metal and concrete supports. The LAP Sign is 2T from a thin black line, on which, with an interval of one centimeter, there are points or races with arrows.

If the LPP is laid on wooden poles, then points are set, if there are short thickened thickens on metal or concrete supports.

Group number 3. Hydrography

In this group, 8 main signs you need to know.

In pedestrian travel, tourists are constantly "communicating" with the surface waters of the Earth - they put the camp on the banks of the rivers and lakes, lay the routes along the rivers, go to the wobble, overcome the swamps, ditch, use the springs to cook food on the fire.

One of the main topographic signs of this group - river sign- It can be large-scale and leanable (in the width of the river). The sign is wide, a large river consists of two elements - the contour of the coastline of the river (as well as the coastline of the islands, if any), which is drawn by a thin blue line, and the filling sign - a blue background depicting the surface of the river, that is, the space busy water.

Church

monument

house Lesnik

tower

trigopuncture

peatwork

Communication line

Power lines

Big River

Embossed sign small Riveror the stream is a simple thin blue line, which, however, is gradually thickened from the source to the mouth.

There are streams that "live" only in spring and early summer, and then water disappears in them. it pereshoning streams and rivers.The sign of such streams and rivers - a thin blue, but not solid, and an intermittent line

The information where the river flows and what is the speed of the flow, will also give a topographic map by an explanatory sign of hydrography - a black arrow showing the direction of the river flow, and the numbers put in the middle of the arrow and show the flow rate in meters per second.

Sea, lake, pondit is also depicted: the thin blue line shows the contours of the shores, and the water mirror is a blue background.

In the densely populated locacy, the wells located in the settlements are shown only on very large-scale maps (on the plans of the area). Sign well- Blue circle with a blue dot in the center.

Water sources(Spring, keys) are also shown on topographic maps only when they do not dry and significant in terms of water. Source sign (spring) - blue circle. If a constant stream follows from the spring, then it is shown by the corresponding sign. If the water is soon again goes to the ground, the sign of the stream is not shown.

Swampthere are two types: passable and difficult (or even completely impassable), through which it is dangerous and better to go around. Accordingly, there are two signs of the marshes: short blue horizontal strokes grouped in the form of rhombuses of irregular shape - this is a passing swamp, but solid horizontal blue strokes - the swamp is impassable. The borders of the marshes are contoured by a black dashed line.

And the last sign of this group is ditch, signs that are thin blue lines. This sign is similar to the sign of an ordinary stream, but in shape it differs sharply from it: the line of the stream is always smooth-winding, and the databases of the lines are broken with long smooth sections.

Group number 4. Vegetation

VEU Group includes 15 topographic signs, most of which are square and, therefore, large-scale signs.

The first sign is borders of landthat is, areas occupied by one or another natural or artificial vegetation. In any forest there is a pubescence, the field, the meadow, the swamp - the edge. These are their borders that are shown on the top-shocks in the shallow dotted line of black. But the boundaries of the land are not always shown by the dotted line: if directly by the edge of the forest or on the edge of the pashnya, the meadows goes the road, then the sign of this road replaces the sign of the borders, that is, the road itself is already delivering the forest from the field, the field from the meadow, the meadow from the IT swamp. d. If the garden or cemetery is fenced with a fence, then the fence is the border.

When carried out borders of landa dotted line (or some other sign) - that is, their contours are given, on both sides of the border, the fill sign is given - the background and other badges that show exactly what the contour is busy, what kind of vegetation is.

Sign the woods- green background. If the forest is old (as they say - ripe), then the background is made dark green, and if the forest is young (forest pigs) - lightlo green. Also depicted andparks in populated areas.
It is important to know not only the fact that it is a forest, but what is it - what about it about itthe trees breed are growing as thick they grow.
For this there are special explanatory signs
- characteristics standing. These signs are presentan images of small trees,signatures and numbers near them. If in this forest(or part of the forest) coniferous trees predominate,little Christmas trees are drawn on a green background, and if deciduous breeds prevail - small birchs, who have the right sidethe crown is done shrivered. If the forest is mixed - the Christmas tree andbirch. Abbreviated signature from the left signs indicate which breeds needlelady and deciduous trees are dominated here.

The fraction of the right of these icons means the following: In the fractional numerator, the average height of trees in this forest is given in meters, in the denominator - the average thickness of the stem at the human head level in meters, and the ratio behind the fraction is the average distance between the trees (i.e. the woods).

In the forests are found statement- Long forest corridors. Such requests are cut (scattered) specifically and so that the forest is better ventilated and illuminated by the sun. Most often, the prospects are made mutually perpendicular: some go from the north to south, others cross them from the west to the East. There are different widths: from 2-3 to 10-12 m, and sometimes there are very wide - up to 50 or more meters. Such large requests are made for laying through the forests of gas pipelines, oil pipelines, highways and railways, high-voltage power lines.

The forests are divided into quarters, and each forest quarter has its own number. At the crossroads of the request, quarterly pillars are, on the edges of which paint are written these numbers. The road is not for each promist, there are very much overgrown requests, according to which it is even more difficult to make it difficult than right through the forest. But the topographic sign of the requests exactly corresponds to the sign of a simple dirt road - a thin black stroke line. There is also a digit, showing her width in meters.

For young swordsforests In addition to the light green background, an additional filling sign is used: on the background rows are small black circles, but their ranks are located under 45 ° to the map frames .

Fruit Gardensthey are also depicted with a green background with rows of small black circles, but here rows go under 90 ° to card frames.

Forest cuttingshows on a white background. Filling out cutting contour sign are black vertical strokes with a short black horizontal stroke in the lower end.

Sign raddhellesyaalso, as a rule, is located on a white background in the form of black circles with a tail at the bottom that is always directed to the east.

On large-scale topographic maps are shown separate groupssustainersin the form of a black mug with three thickened black dots at the outer edge. This is a misfortune sign. If shrubs occupy significant areas of the territory on the terrain, they are already shown in the contour (dotted line), which inside is filled with a light green background, and the circle with three dots is scattered in an arbitrary order.

Narrow stripes of forestdepicted on maps without a green background in the form of a chain of black circles. This is a bomber sign of the forest bel. If the forest strip is quite wide for a given scale of the card, then it is depicted by the usual sign of the forest. There are also narrow stripes of shrubs ( hedge). They are depicted by a bump mark with a chain of small black circles alternating with thickened points.

Along roads, specially planted trees are often found, forming a green corridor along the road (Alley). This shuds, which are shown on the maps with small black circles on the sides of the road.

Detached trees(not in the forest, but in the field), if they are large and have landmarks (that is, they are clearly visible from all sides at a fairly large distance), are also indicated on topographic maps with their boron sign .

Lugathey have their own sign: inside the circuit, bounding meadow, small black quotes are put in checkers. Meadows can occupy very large spaces, can reach narrow ribbons in the floodplain of rivers. Little glades in the forest are also a meadow. The sign of the swamps is almost always combined with the sign of the meadow, because such a swamp is always covered with grass.

At the edges of the villages are located garden.The back of the garden in the recent past has undergone a major change: the old sign was a slanting hatching with solid and stroke lines of black color, which are in one, then in the other direction. New sign Garden - gray background.

Last sign of this group, sign pashnya,

it white background In a black dotted circuit.

Group number 5. Relief

The surface of our planet is very rarely smooth. On any plain there are always at least small elevations and lowering: hills , kurgans, depressions, ravines, pits, cliffs on the banks of the rivers. All this together is taken is a relief of this area. Relief is a combination of irregularities of the earth's surface. All irregularities are easy to divide into two types - bulges and concave. The bulges are considered positive forms, and concavity - negative form of relief. The positive formas of relief include: mountain, hill (borgorm), ridge, elevation, mound, dune sandy rolling hill); To negative - brand, lowland, valley, gorge, ravine, beam, promin, pit. Forms: relief always alternate in space: every positive shape smoothly or sharply goes into a negative, and negative sharply or smoothly goes into the adjacent positive.

It is customary to share plain terrain by the nature of the relief for three type:weakly intended, medium-spent and severeterrain. The degree of intersection depends on the frequency of the alternation of convexities and concreteness (raises and descents) and from their height and steepness: where the relief is stronger than the "stencil", that is, where more often there are ravines, hills, hollows, wins and where they are especially high (deep) and the slopes of them are cooler, - there is a terrain that is considered a strongest.

Each form of relief has three parts (element): a vertex or gold (in positive forms), the bottom (at negative), the sole (in positive), the edge or brocci (in negative) and the slopes or walls in those and others.

Slopes - Common element and negative, and positive relief forms. They are steep, incisive (sharp) and gentle (smooth). Depending on which in this area the slopes are dominated by elevations and lowlands, we say: here is a soft and smooth relief or - here a sharp, hard relief.

There are two main ways to transfer relief shapes on maps: smooth, soft forms are depicted by so-called horizontal - thin lines of brown, and harsh, hard forms - a special line with the tooth. These teeth, like all triangles, have bases and vertices. Where the vertices of the teeth are directed, there the slope is lowered - it goes down with an almost rigor. In order for the map to be easily distinguished by a cloudless slope from artificial breaks, gear lines of cliffs make two colors - brown (natural cliffs on river valleys, ravines, etc.) and black (artificial embankment, dams, courses slopes, etc. .). Near the cliffs signs is the digit, showing the length of the cliff in meters.

Pits and Kurgans may be naturalmi and artificial. They can bevery deep (high), but small in the area, and then they have todepict on the mapssigns. If they have a significantsizes in area, then show themlarge signs (Fig. 74). The figure, standing next to the sign of Kurgan and Pit, also denotes their depth and height.

Mattles and recessesalong the road are also depicted on the cards of the gear line, but already black, as they are artificial structures. Where the cloves are directed by their sharp ends to the side of the railway canvas or the highway, the road goes along the embankment, and where they are directed on the contrary, to the roadside of the roads, - by excavation. The numbers indicate the greatest height of these slopes.

At the sign career,as a rule, the cards are given a reduced signature specifying that it is in this career that is mined.

More complex rigid form of relief are ostragi, which are formed in loose sedimentary rocks under the action of the blurring of the soil in the flows of rainwater and at the snowdown. The ravines are the phenomenon of "alive", they are born, grow and gradually die. While the ravine "young" (it is called compensation)he has a very cool slopes, but gradually they are creepy - they are paid, overgrown with turf, bushes, the ravine ceases to grow and turns into beam (woundswell, hollow).The ravine has a vertex, bottom and mouth. From one ravine in parties can move side arms with their vertices - theircall screwdrivers ravine. But the holes in turn canmultiply, forming intricate branching.

Small river

Slow river

Sea, lake

well

spring, Key

statement

Orchard

cutting park Strolle

shrub

Clip

Luga

Relief rigid form

Pits and Kurgans

Mattles and recesses

Career

Two typical representatives of soft forms of relief - antipodes hill(Budgorm) and cobbin(Wpadina). You won't show them to the toothed line on the map, as they have a german slopes, smooth.

If it is horizontally to "cut", cut down a hill shape to smooth "slices", then the entire slope of the hill is glad by several closed lines of "cuts" - horizontals. And if then draw these lines on paper, then the figure, which gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe relief (Fig. 78). Just need short strokes on horizontals to show, in which direction the slopes go down, since exactly the same figure will turn out if they cut off with horizontal planes and the hollow. Such strokes showing the direction down from the horizontal are called bergshiths or slut indicators (in German "Berg" - Mountain).

This method of images of soft relief shapes on the maps and onthere is a way of horizontal. For the beginning of the secant relief hornsthe planes are adopted by the plane of the Baltic Sea level.The next securing plane is carried out, for example, 10 m abovethe level of the Baltic Sea, after another 10 m in height - the second secant plane, then, above 10 m, is the third (already at the height30 m above sea level), etc. This distance (h.) Between the secting relief planes is called the height of the relief section and it happens different: 2.5 m, 5 m, 10 m, 20 m, etc.

Each securing plane will give on the map a closed line of the cross section of the relief - horizontal, and all together they will give a full drawing of horizontals - the overall picture of the terrain. But since horizontals on the map will be very much, so that they will not get confused in order to be easier to distinguish them and trace, they decided some of the horizontals to allocate a little - each fifth to do it thoroughly. Then horizontal on the map, as they say, read better. Thus, with the height of the section, for example, 5 m thickened horizontal will be a horizontal, located 25 m above the level of the Baltic Sea; Next thickened - 50 m above sea level, etc.

In addition, on some horizontals, numbers are put at convenient places with brown color, which denote the height of this horizontal in meters above sea level, or, as they are taken in the topography, call this value, the horizontal mark. The number of the mark of one or another horizontal in addition to Bergshtriham helps to understand what way the slope goes down: where this figure has a bottom, there and the slope falls, and where the top goes there. Marks, moreover, put on the tops of the mountains, hills. The side of the hill, which is steeper, on the map shows horizontals, located close to each other, and the other, the canopy side of the hill, on the contrary, is depicted sparse horizontals.

Between the vertices of two neighboring hills having a common sole, there is always a decrease. Such a decrease is called a saddle. And under the saddle on
the slopes of the hills most often occurring prominses and ravines - the rigid form of relief is always difficult to combine with
soft.

Group number 6. Special signs

Signatures of the names on the maps are trying to place so that they do not cover important items, and, at the same time, still have to do, for example, a rupture in the signs of the road network where the signature of the settlement or the name of some other is superimposed on the road Local subject.

The signatures of the names of settlements are always made horizontal (the direction of the West - East) with different fonts - some points of the letter of the lettering elder and higher than the growth, others have a slight tilt. Through such a difference, the Card font reported certain information: approximate
the number of residents in the village. Where more residents, there and signature greasy. Under each name of the settlement, there are numbers that indicate the number of buildings (courtyards) in this village or village. Next to these numbers in some things are the letters

"SS" denoting that there is a rural council in this settlement, that is, the local authority.

On its homemade maps and schemes, tourists often introduce special conventional signs showing the route traveled by the tourist group and its direction, routes of crossings, place of overnight stays and a day, a day of day prival for lunch, attractions on the route.

3. Fastening the material studied.

1. What are the conditional signs?

2. How many groups can you divide the topographic conventional signs?

3. List these groups?

4. List what applies to linear?

5. List what refers to the area species?

6. How many groups are separated by topographic signs?

4. Summing up the lessons.

The teacher makes conclusions, an assessment of the activities of those involved, gives the installation to the next lesson.

5. Organizational moment.

The teacher tells further plans for the upcoming week.

All objects on the ground, the situation and characteristic form of relief are displayed on topographic plans with conventional signs.

Legend on top photography

The main four types that are subdivided by conditional signs:

1. Explanatory signatures.
2. Linear conditional signs.
3. Area (contour).
4. Maintenance.

Explanatory signatures are used to indicate the additional characteristics of the depicted objects: the river sign the flow rate and its direction, at the bridge - the width, length and its carrying capacity, the road is the nature of the coating and the width of the carriageway itself, etc.

Linear conditional signs (designations) serve to display linear objects: LPP, roads, product pipelines (oil, gas), communication lines, etc. The width is shown on the topoplane of linear objects - boring.

Contour or area symbols depict those objects that can be displayed in accordance with the map scale and occupy the specific area. The contour is drawn by a thin solid line, intermittent or depicted as a point dotted. Educated contour fill with symbols (meadow vegetation, wood, garden, garden, shrub thickets, etc.).

To display objects that cannot be expressed on the map scale, use the bore-based conditional signs, while the location of such a bump object is determined by its characteristic point. For example: the center of the geodesic point, the base of the kilometer pillar, the centers of radio, TVs, pipes of factories and plants.

In the topography, the displayed objects are customary to be divided into eight main segments (classes):

1. Relief
2. Mathematical foundation
3. Soils and vegetation
4. Hydrography
5. Road network
6. Industrial enterprises
7. Settlements,
8. Signatures and borders.

Collectons of conditional signs for maps and topographic plans of various scales are created in accordance with such division on objects. Approved state. By organs, they are united for all topographic plans and are required when drawing any top-to-top shooting (top photography).

Frequently encountered conditional signs on the top photography:

Points of state. Geodesic network and thickening points

- Land use borders and taps with land signs at turn points

- Buildings. Figures indicate the number. Explanatory signatures are given to indicate the fire resistance of the building (W - residential neo-heating (Wooden), N - non-residential neudesome, KN - Stone non-residential, KZh - Stone residential (usually brick), SMZH and CMN - Mixed residential and mixed non-residential - Wooden buildings with fine facing Brick or with floors built from different materials (the first floor is brick, second wooden)). The dotted line displays the building.

- Sucks. Used to display ravines, highlights of roads and other artificial and natural shapes of relief with sharp height differences

- Poles of LPP and communication lines. The conventions repeat the shape of the pillary cross section. Round or square. Reinforced concrete pillars in the center of the conventional sign point. One arrow in the direction of electrical conductors - low-voltage, two - high-voltage (6kv and above)

- Underground and overhead communications. Underground - dotted line, overhead - solid. Letters indicate the type of communications. K - sewage, G - GAZ, N - oil pipeline, in - water pipe, T - Heat industry. Additional explanations are also given: the number of wires for cables, the pressure of the gas pipeline, the material of the pipes, their thickness, etc.

- various square objects with explanatory signatures. Desert, Pashnya, construction site, etc.

- Railways

- Car roads. Letters indicate the coating material. A - asphalt, sh - rubble, C - cement or concrete slabs. On ground roads, the material is not indicated, and one of the sides is depicted by dotted line.

- Wells and wells

- Bridges across rivers and streams

- horizontal. Serve to display the terrain. They are lines formed during the cross section of the earth's surface with parallel planes through the same height change intervals.

- Heights of characteristic points of terrain. As a rule, in the Baltic height system.

- Various wood vegetation. The prevailing breed of wood vegetation is indicated, the average height of trees, their thickness and the distance between the trees (density)

- detached trees

- Shrubs

- Various meadow vegetation

- Writing with reed vegetation

- Fences. Fences Stone and reinforced concrete, wooden, stakenat, Rabitz Mesh, etc.

Frequently used cuts on the top cover:

Buildings:

N is a non-residential structure.

Well - residential.

KN - Stone non-residential

Kzh - stone residential

P. - Building

Found. - Fundam

CMN - mixed non-residential

SMG - mixed residential

M. - Metallic

elaborate. - Destroyed (or collapsed)

gar. - Garage

T. - toilet.

Communication lines:

3p. - Three Wires on LEP Post

1KAB. - one cable on the post

b / PR - without wires

tr. - Transformer

To - sewage

CL. - Sewelation of Livnevaya

T - Heatwork

N - oil pipeline

cab. - Cable

V - communication lines. Number of cables, such as 4V - four cables

n.D. - Low pressure

s.D. - average pressure

v.D. - High pressure

art. - Steel

chug. - cast iron

beth. - Concrete

Area conditional signs:

p. pl. - Construction site

og. - Obrica

empty - Dust

Roads:

A - asphalt

Shch - rubble

C - cement, concrete slabs

D - Wooden coating. Practically does not occur.

dor. zn. - Road sign

dor. decree. - Road sign

Water objects:

K - Kojmovets

sC. - Squabina

aRT.SKV. - artesian well

inquish. - Vodkchka

bass. - Pool

vDH. - reservoir

clay. - Clay

The symbols may differ on the plans of various scales, so it is necessary to use conditional signs to read the topoplane for the appropriate scale.

How to read conditional signs on topographic shooting

Consider how to correctly understand what we see on topographic shooting on a specific example and what will help us .

Below is a topographic closure of 1: 500 private house with a land plot and adjacent territory.

In the upper left corner, we see the arrow with which it is clear how the topographic is oriented towards the north. On topographic shooting, this direction may not be specified, since by default the plan should be oriented to the top to the north.

The nature of the relief on the territory of the shooting: the plot is smooth with a slight decrease in the south side. The difference between heights from the north to the south is approximately 1 meter. Height of Samoa southern Points 155.71 meters, and the northernmost 156.88 meters. To display the relief, the heights covering the entire area of \u200b\u200bthe top photography and two horizontals are used. Top thin with a 186.5 meter marker (not signed on the top photography) and the south-thickened south of 156 meters. Any point lying on the 156th horizontal mark will be exactly 156 meters above sea level.

Four identical crosses located through the same distance in the shape of a square are visible on the top selection. This is a coordinate grid. They serve to graphically determine the coordinates of any point on the top cover.

Next, we describe what we see from the north to south. In the upper part of the topoplane, two parallel dotted lines with the inscription between them "Valentinovskaya st." And two letters "A". This means that we see the street with the name Valentinovskaya, the driving part of which is covered with asphalt, without a border (as it is dotted lines. With a curler, a solid, indicating the height of the border or two marks: top and bottom of curb stone).

We describe the space between the expensive and fence of the plot:

1. It passes the horizontal. The relief decreases towards the site.
2. In the center of this part of the top segment there is a concrete pillar of the power line, which departs cables with wires in the directions specified by the arrows. Cable voltage 0.4kV. Also on the post hanging the lamp of street lighting.
3. To the left of the pillar we see four wood of broadcast rocks (it can be oak, maple, linden, ash, etc.)
4. Below the post, parallel to the road with a branch towards the house, an underground gas pipeline was laid (yellow dotted line with the letter d). Pressure, material and diameter of the pipe on the top cover is not specified. These characteristics are specified after agreement with gas economy.
5. Top Shorts found on this section parallel cut are a conventional sign of herbal vegetation (disintegration)

Go to the site itself.

The facade of the site is fenced with a metal fence with a height of more than 1 meter with a gate and a gate. The facade of the left (or right, if you look from the side of the street to the site) exactly the same. The facade of the right area is fenced with a wooden fence on a stone, concrete or brick foundation.

Vegetation on the plot: lawn grass with separate pines (4pcs) and fruit trees (also 4 pcs.).

On the site there is a concrete pillar with a power cable from the post on the street to the house on the plot. From the route of the gas pipeline, there is a subterranean gas to the house. The underground water supply is connected to the house from the side of the neighboring site. The fencing of the Western and southern part of the site is made of chain grid, oriental - from a metal fence with a height of more than 1 meter. In the southwestern part of the site, part of the fences of the neighboring sites from the chain grid and a solid wooden fence are visible.

Buildings on the plot: in the upper (northern) part of the site is located a residential one-storey wooden house. 8 This is the house number on Valentinovskaya Street. The floor mark in the house is 156.55 meters. In the eastern part to the house, a terrace with a wooden closed porch is attached. In the western part, there is a destroyed extension to the house. Next to the northeastern corner of the house there is a well. In the southern part of the site there are three wooden non-residential buildings. One of them is attached canopy on the pillars.

Vegetation in neighboring areas: on the site, located east - Wood vegetation, west - herbal.

On the plot of south of the residential one-storey wooden house is visible.

So this way Help to get a fairly large amount of information about the territory on which topographic survey was conducted.

And finally, here's what this topography, applied to aerial photographs:

People who do not have special education in the field of geodesy or cartography can be incomprehensible with crosses on maps and topographic plans. What is this conditional sign?

This is the so-called coordinate grid, the intersection of integer or accurate coordinate values. The coordinates used on the maps and topoplas may be geographical and rectangular. Geographic coordinates are latitude and longitude, rectangular - these are distances from the conditional origin of the coordinates in meters. For example, state cadastral records are conducted in rectangular coordinates and for each region used its own system of rectangular coordinates, characterized by the conditional principle in different areas of Russia (the Moscow region coordinate system is adopted). For cards to large areas, geographical coordinates are usually used (latitude and longitude that you could also see in GPS navigators).

Topographic shooting or topography is performed in a rectangular coordinate system and crosses that we see on such a topoplane are places of intersection of round coordinate values. If there are two top photographs of the neighboring sites in one coordinate system, they can be combined on these crosses and get topographic surveys at once to two sections at which you can get more complete information about the adjacent territory.

Distance between crosses on the top photography

In accordance with the norms and rules, are always located at a distance of 10 cm from each other and form the right squares. Having measured this distance on a paper version of the top segment, it is possible to determine whether the zoom of the top segment is met when printing or photocopying the source material. This distance should always be equal to 10 centimeters between adjacent crosses. If it is significantly different, but not by a number of times, it is impossible to use such material, as it does not correspond to the stated top segment.

If the distance between the crosses differs at times from 10 cm. Most likely, such a top cover was printed for some kind of tasks that do not comply with the initial scale. For example: if the distance between crosses on the top photography 1: 500 Scale - 5cm, which means it was printed on a scale of 1: 1000, distorting all the conditional signs, but at the same time having reduced the size of the printed material that can be used as a review plan.

Knowing the top segment, you can determine how much the distance in meters on the ground corresponds to the distance between the adjacent crosses on the top selection. So for the most frequently used scale of the top segment 1: 500, the distance between the crosses corresponds to 50 meters, for a scale of 1: 1000 - 100 meters, 1: 2000 - 200 meters, etc. This can be calculated, knowing that between crosses on the top photography 10 cm, and the location in one centimeter of the top photography in meters is obtained by the division of the valve valve to 100.

Calculate the scale of the top segment in the crosses (coordinate grid) in the event that the rectangular coordinates of the adjacent crosses are indicated. For calculation, the coordinate difference is necessary for one of the axes of the neighboring crosses to multiply by 10. On the example of topographic survey, we in this case, we will, in this case, we obtain: (2246600 - 2246550) * 10 \u003d 500 ---\u003e The scale of this shooting 1: 500 or in one Santimeter 5 meters. Also calculate the scale, if it is not specified on the top selection, you can at a well-known area on the ground. For example, at a well-known length of the fence or length of one of the sides of the house. For this, a well-known length on the ground in meters is divided by the measured distance of this length on the top selection in centimeters and multiply by 100. Example: the length of the house wall is 9 meters, this distance measured by the line on the top selection is 1.8 cm. (9 / 1.8) * 100 \u003d 500. Top segment - 1: 500. If the distance measured on the top selection will be 0.9 cm, then the scale is 1: 1000 ((9 / 0.9) * 100 \u003d 1000)

Application of crosses on the top photography

The size crosses on the top photography Must be 1cm x 1cm. If the crosses do not correspond to these sizes, then most likely the distance between them is not respected and the scale of the top segment is distorted. As it was already written, in the crosses, in the case of topographicing in one coordinate system, you can combine topographic surveys of neighboring territories. Use crosses on top photography designers to bind objects under construction. For example, for the removal of the buildings of the buildings, the exact distances on the coordinate axes to the nearest cross, which makes it possible to calculate the future of the exact location of the projected object on the ground.

Below is a trap fragment with the specified values \u200b\u200bof rectangular coordinates on the crosses.

Scale of topographic shooting

Scale called linear dimensions. This word came to us from German, and translated as a "dimensional stick".

What is the scale of topographic shooting

In geodesy and cartography, the term is understood as the attitude of the real value of any object to the image of it on the map or plan. The value of the scale is recorded as a fraction having a unit in a numerator, and in the denominator - the number indicating how many times the decrease was made.

Using the scale, you can determine which segment on the map will correspond to the distance measured on the ground. For example, moving around the map, scale 1: 1000, one centimeter will be equivalent to ten meters traveled on the ground. And on the contrary, every ten meters of the terrain is a centimeter of the card or plan. The larger the scale, the more details the card, the more fuller it displays the objects of the area, applied to it.

Scale - one of the key concepts topographic shooting. The variety of scales is explained by the fact that each type of it, focused on solving specific tasks, makes it possible to obtain plans for certain size and generalization. For example, large-scale land survey is able to provide a detailed display of relief and objects located on the ground. It is done in the production of land management works, as well as in engineering and geodetic surveys. But she will not be able to show objects on the same large area as small-scale aerial photography.

The choice of scale, first of all, depends on the degree of detailing the map or the plan required in each case. The larger the scale used, the higher the requirements for the accuracy of the measurements produced. And the more experience should have performers and specialized enterprises that perform this shooting.

Speed \u200b\u200bspecies

There are 3 types of scale:

Named;

Graphic;

Numerical.

Scale of topographic shooting 1:1000 It is used in the design of low-rise construction, with engineering surveys. It is used to compile workers' drawings of various industrial facilities.

Smaller scale 1:2000 Suitable, for example, for detailing individual sections of settlements - cities, towns, countryside. It is used for projects enough large industrial structures.

On scale 1:5000 Make up cadastral plans, general plan of cities. It is indispensable when designing railways and highways, laying communication networks. It is taken as the basis in the preparation of small-scale topographic plans. The scale is smaller, starting with 1: 10,000, apply for plans of the largest settlements - cities and towns.

But the highest demand is used by topographic survey on scale 1:500 . The spectrum of its use is quite wide: from the master plan for construction, to ground and underground engineering communications. Large-scale work is required only in landscape design, where 1:50, 1: 100 and 1: 200 ratios are necessary for detailed description The terrain is separate trees, shrubs and other similar objects.

For topographic survey on 1: 500, the average errors of the contours and objects should not exceed 0.7 millimeters, no matter how difficult the nature of the area and relief. These requirements are determined by the features of the application area in which include:

engineering communications plans;

drawing up very detailed plans for industrial and economic structures;

improvement of territory adjacent to buildings;

breakdown of gardens and parks;

gardening of small sites.

Plans are depicted not only relief and vegetation, but also water objects, geological wells, orientation points and other similar buildings. One of the main features of this large-scale topographic survey is the application of communications that are necessarily agreed with the operating services.

Top photography with your own hands

Is it possible to perform topographical shooting of your own sector with your own hands without attracting a specialist in the field of geodesy? How difficult to perform the top photography on your own forces.

In case the topography is necessary for obtaining any official documents, such as building permit, providing property or lease of a land plot or obtaining technical conditions for connecting to gas, electricity or other communications, you will not be able to provide top photography made by hand. In this case, the topographic shooting is an official document, the basis for further design and to fulfill it have the right to carry out only specialists who have a license to carry out geodesic and cartographic works or consisting in relevant these types of work of a self-regulating organization (SRO).

Perform top photography with your own hands Having special education and experience is almost impossible. Topographic shooting is a rather complicated product in the technical plan, requiring knowledge in the field of geodesy, cartography and the presence of special expensive equipment. Possible errors in the resulting topoplane can lead to serious problems. For example, the incorrect definition of the location of the future structure due to poor-quality top photography can lead to a violation of fire and construction norms and as a result of a possible court decision on the demolition of the structure. Top photographing with rude errors can lead to an incorrect location of the fence that violates the rights of the neighbors of your land and as a result of its dismantling and significant additional costs for the construction of it in a new place.

In what cases and how can I pull the top photography with your own hands?

The result of topographic shooting is a detailed area of \u200b\u200bthe area, which displays the relief and detailed situation. Special geodesic equipment is used to apply to the plan of objects and terrain.
Devices and tools that can be used to perform the top cover:

theodolite

tacheometer

• high-precision geodesic GPS / GLONASS receiver

  three-dimensional laser scanner

Theodolite is the cheapest version of the equipment. The cheapest theodolite costs about 25,000 rubles. The most expensive of these devices is a laser scanner. Its price is measured in millions of rubles. Based on this and topographic surveillance prices, it makes no sense to acquire your own equipment to perform the top photography with your own hands. The rental option remains. The cost of renting an electronic tacheometer begins with 1000 rubles. in a day. If you have experience performing the top photography and working with this equipment, that is, it makes sense to rent an electronic tachometer and make the top photography with your own hands. Otherwise, not having experience, you spend quite considerable time to study complex equipment and work technology, which will lead to significant lease costs exceeding the cost of this type of work by an organization with a special license.

For the design of underground communications on the site, the nature of the relief is important. Improper definition of the slope can lead to unwanted consequences When laying sewage. Based on the foregoing only possible variant top photography with your own hands This is a compilation of a simple plan on a plot with existing buildings for simple landscaping of the territory. In this case, if the site stands on the cadastral register, a cadastral passport with a form B6 can help. There are accurate dimensions, coordinates and angles of rotation of the boundaries of the site. The most complicated measurement without special equipment is the definition of angles. Available information about the boundaries of the site can be used as a basis for building a simple plan of its site. The tool for further measurements can serve as a roulette. It is desirable that its lengths were enough to measure the diagonals of the site, otherwise, when measuring the lengths of the lines in several methods, errors will accumulate. Mounting measurements To compile the plan of the site can be carried out if there are already installed boundaries of your site and they are fixed with integrated signs or coincide with the fencing of the site. In this case, for application to the plan of any objects, several measurements of the lengths of the lines from the landmarks or corners of the site are performed. The plan is electronically or on paper. For the paper option, it is better to use millimeter paper. The boundaries of the site are applied to the plan and use them as a basis for further constructions. The distance measured by tape measure is laid off from the corners of the site and in places of crossing the radii of circles corresponding to the measured distances, the location of the required object is locked. The plan thus obtained can be used for simple calculations. For example, the calculation of the garden occupied by the garden, the preliminary calculation of the required building materials for additional decorative fences or gaskets of garden tracks.

Taking into account the foregoing, we can conclude:

If the topography is required to obtain any official documents (building permit, cadastral record, urban planning plan, planning organization scheme) or residential design, its implementation should be entrusted with an organization that has a relevant license or consisting in a self-regulatory organization (SRO). In this case, performed do it yourself top photography It does not have legal force and possible errors when conducting it, unprofessional can lead to disastrous consequences. The only possible option top photography with your own hands This is a compilation of a simple plan for solving simple tasks on a personal site.

Topic 8. Cartographic Signs

8.1. Classification of conditional signs

On the maps and plans, the image of the objects (situations) is presented in cartographic conventional signs. Cartographic symbols - system of symbolic graphic designations used for the image on the maps of various objects and phenomena, their quality and quantitative characteristics.Conditional signs are also also called the "Map Legend".
For the convenience of reading and memorizing, many conditional signs are drawn, resembling the species of local items depicted from above or side. For example, the conditional signs of factories, oil rigs, separate trees, bridges in their form are similar to external species listed local items.
Cartographic conventional signs are made to divide on large-scale (contour), necstable and explanatory (Fig. 8.1). In some textbooks, linear symptoms allocate in a separate group.

Fig. 8.1. Types of conditional signs

Scale (contour) signs called conventional signs used to fill the area of \u200b\u200bobjects expressed on the scale of the plan or card. According to plan or map, you can determine using such a sign not only the location of the object, but its size and outlines.
The boundaries of the area objects on the plan can be depicted with solid lines. different color: black (buildings and structures, fences, roads, etc.), blue (reservoirs, rivers, lakes), brown (natural relief forms), light pink (streets and squares in populated areas), etc. The dotted line is used for the boundaries of agricultural and natural land, borders of embankments and recesses from the roads. The boundaries of prospects, tunnels and some structures are designated by a simple dotted line. Filling signs inside the contour are located in a certain order.
Linear conditional signs (Variety of large-scale symbols) are used in the image of linear objects - roads, power lines, borders, etc. Location and planned outlines of the axis of the linear object are depicted on the map exactly, but their width exaggerates significantly. For example, a conditional highway sign on the map of 1: 100,000 exaggerates its width of 8 to 10 times.
If the object on the plan (map) cannot be expressed by a large-scale sign because of its smallness, then applies embossed size sign, for example, a landmark, separately growing tree, a kilometer pillar, etc. The exact position of the object on the ground shows main point Announceable conditional sign. The main point is:

• at the signs of a symmetric form - in the center of the figure (Fig. 8.2);
• at signs with a wide foundation - in the middle of the base (Fig. 8.3);
• at signs that have a base in the form of a direct angle - in the top of the angle (Fig. 8.4);
• signs representing a combination of several figures - in the center of the lower figure (Fig. 8.5).

Fig. 8.2. Signs of symmetric form
1 - geodesic network items; 2 - Mounting Points, fixed on the ground with centers; 3 - astronomical points; 4 - churches; 5 - plants, factories and mills without pipes; 6 - power plants; 7 - Water mills and sawmills; 8 - flaws of fuel and gas holders; 9 - mines and gallery valid; 10 - oil and gas wells without steps

Fig. 8.3. Wide base signs
1 - factory and factory pipes; 2 - groundcock; 3 - telegraph and radio telegraph office and offices, telephone exchanges; 4 - meteorological stations; 5 - semaphores and traffic lights; 6 - monuments, monuments, fraternal graves, tours and stone pillars with a height of more than 1 m; 7 - Buddhist monasteries; 8 - Separately lying stones

Fig. 8.4. Signs having a base in the form of a straight angle
1 - wind engines; 2 - gas stations and filling stations; 3 - windmills; 4 - permanent signs of river alarm;
5 - separate deciduous trees; 6 - separate coniferous trees

Fig. 8.5. Signs that are a combination of several figures
1 - plants, factories and mills with pipes; 2 - transformer booths; 3 - radio stations and telecentrators; 4 - oil and gas tower; 5 - tower type facilities; 6 - chapel; 7 - mosque; 8 - Radomachts and television masts; 9 - furnaces for burning lime and charcoal; 10 - Mazara, Suborgans (cult facilities)

Objects expressed by the bore-based conditional signs serve as good landmarks on the ground.
Explanatory conventional signs (Fig. 8.6, 8.7) are used in combination with large-scale and ease; They serve for the additional characteristics of local items and their varieties. For example, an image of a coniferous or deciduous tree in combination with a conditional forest sign shows the trees breeding in it, the arrow on the river indicates the direction of its flow, transverse touches on the conditional sign of the railway show the number of paths.

Fig. 8.6. Explanatory conventional signs of bridge, highway, rivers

Fig. 8.7. Characteristics of Holidays
In a numerator of the fraction - the average height of trees in meters, in the denominator - the average thickness of the stems, to the right of the fraction - the average distance between the trees

The maps are placed signatures of their own names of settlements, rivers, lakes, mountains, forests and other objects, as well as explanatory signatures in the form of alphabetic and digital designations. They allow you to get additional information On the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of local items and relief. Letter explanatory signatures are most often given in abbreviated form according to the established list of conventional cuts.
For a more visual image of the terrain on the maps, each group of conditional signs related to the same type of elements of the area (vegetation cover, hydrography, relief, etc.), the paint is printed in a certain color.

8.2. Conditional signs of local items

Settlements On topographic maps of scale 1:25 000 - 1: 100 000 show all (Fig. 8.8). Near the image of the settlement, its name is signed: cities - capital letters of direct font, and a settlement of a rural type - the lower case letters of a smaller font. Under the name of the village of the village type, the number of houses is indicated (if it is known), and if there is a district and rural councils in them - their abbreviated signature (PC, CC).
The names of urban and country towns are printed on the maps with capital letters of the inclined font. In the image of settlements on the maps retain their external outlines and the nature of the planning, allocate main and end-to-end passages, industrial enterprises, outstanding buildings and other buildings that have landmarks.
Wide streets and squares depicted on the map scale are shown by large-scale conditional signs in accordance with their valid sizes and configuration, other streets - conditional forces, main signs, the main (trunk) streets stand out on a wider lumen map.

Fig. 8.8. Settlements

The most detailed settlements are depicted on the maps of scale 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. Quarters with prevailing fire-resistant and neo-heating buildings are painted by appropriate color. Buildings located on the outskirts of settlements are shown, as a rule, everything.
On the map of the scale of 1: 100000, the image of all the main streets, industrial facilities and the most important objects that have landmarks are mainly preserved. Separate buildings inside the quarters are shown only in settlements with a very rarefied building, for example, in the villages of the dacha type.
As an image of all other settlements buildings, the buildings are combined into the neighborhoods and flooded with black paint, the fire resistance of the buildings on the map 1: 100,000 is not allocated.
Separate local items, These landmarks are applied to the card most accurately. Such local items include various towers and towers, shafts and gallery, windy engines, churches and separate buildings, radomaches, monuments, individual trees, mounds, rocks, remains, etc. All of them are usually depicted on the maps Conditional borrowed signs, and some are accompanied by abbreviated explanatory signatures. For example, signature shah. UG.. When the shaft sign means that the coal mine.

Fig. 8.9. Separate local subjects

Road network The topographic maps show full and detail. Railways are shown on the maps all and are divided by the number of paths (single, two-and three-step), in the width of the track (normal and narrow-chain) and state (existing, and disassembled). Special conditional signs highlight electrified railways. The number of paths is denoted by perpendicular to the axis of the conditional sign of the road in the suns: three invasses are three-way, two - two-way, one is uninterrupted.
On railways show stations, connectors, platforms, depots, travel posts and booths, embankments, recesses, bridges, tunnels, semaphores and other facilities. The own name of the station (trains, platforms) sign next to their conditional signs. If the station is located in the village or near him and has the same name with it, then the signature is not given, and the name of this settlement is emphasized. The black rectangle inside the conditional sign of the station indicates the location of the station relative to the paths: if the rectangle is located in the middle, it means that the paths are held on both sides of the station.

Fig. 8.10. Railway stations and facilities

Conditional signs of platforms, block posts, booths and tunnels are accompanied by appropriate abbreviated signatures ( pl., bl. p., b, tun.). Next to the conventional sign of the tunnel, in addition, its numerical characteristic is placed in the form of a fraction, in the numerator of which the height and width are indicated, and in the denominator - the length of the tunnel in meters.
Highway and soil expensive The image on the maps are divided into roads with coating and without coating. Coated roads include motorways, advanced highway, highway and improved ground roads. On topographic maps show all the coated roads available on the ground. The width and material coverage of motorways and road roads are signed directly on their conditional signs. For example, on the highway signature 8 (12) a Means: 8 - width of the covered part of the road in meters; 12 - road width from ditch to ditch; BUT - coating material (asphalt). On improved dirt roads, it is usually given only the signature of the width of the road from the ditch to the ditch. The highway, advanced highway and highway stand out on the maps of orange, improved ground roads - yellow or orange.

Figure 8.11. Highway and ground roads

On topographic maps show no coatings soil (country), field and forest roads, caravan paths, trails and winter roads. If there is a thick high-end road network, some minor roads (field, forest, ground) on the map of 1: 200,000, 1: 100,000, and sometimes 1:50,000 may not be shown.
The portions of the ground roads passing through the wetlands, lined with the wooden ligaments of the twigs (fascines) and then falling asleep with the layer of land or sand, are called false areas. If at such parts of the roads instead of Fatshin, it was made of logs from logs (stories) or just a mound from the ground (stones), then they are called valves and rowing, respectively. False areas of roads, gati and rowing on maps are drawn by dashes perpendicular to the conditional sign of the road.
On highways and dirt roads show bridges, pipes, embankments, recesses, planting trees, kilometer pillars and passes (in mountainous areas).
Bridges depicts on maps differently by design with conditional signs depending on the material (metal, reinforced concrete, stone and wooden); At the same time, bunk, as well as lifting and adjustable bridges. A special conditional sign distinguish bridges on floating supports. Next to the conditional signs of bridges having a length of 3 m or more and arranged on the roads (except for motorways and advanced highway), sign their numerical characteristic in the form of a fraction, in the numerator of which indicate the length and width of the bridge in meters, and in the denominator - loading capacity to tons. Before the fraction indicates the material from which the bridge is built, as well as the height of the bridge over the water level in meters (on shipping rivers). For example, a signature next to the suspended sign of the bridge (Fig. 8.12) means that the bridge is the stone (construction material), in the numerator - the length and width of the roadway in meters, in the denominator - loading capacity in tons.

Fig. 8.12. Overpass

With the designations of bridges on highways and advanced highways, only their length and width are given. The characteristic of bridges with a length of less than 3 m is not given.

8.3. Hydrography (Water Objects)

On topographic maps show the coastal part of the seas, lakes, rivers, canals (ditch), streams, wells, sources, ponds and other reservoirs. Next to them sign their names. The larger the scale of the card, the details are pictures of water bodies.
Lakes, ponds and other reservoirsshow on the maps if their area is 1 mm2 or more on the map scale. Lower sizes are shown only in dry and desert areas, as well as in cases where they have the importance of reliable reference points.

Fig. 8.13. Hydrography

Rivers, streams, canals and mains On topographic maps show everything. It has been established that on the maps of scale 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 rivers wide up to 5 m, and on the maps of scale 1: 100,000 - up to 10 m denoted by one line, wider rivers - two lines. Channels and ditches are 3 m wide and more depicted by two lines, less than 3 m wide - one.
Width and depth of rivers (channels) In meters, sign in the form of a fraction: in the numerator - width, in the denominator - the depth and character of the bottom of the bottom. Such signatures are placed in several places throughout the river (channel).
The flow rate of the rivers (m / S.), depicted by two lines, indicate in the middle of the arrow showing the flow direction. On rivers and lakes, they also sign the height of the level of water into the integrity in relation to the level of the sea (the marks of the water cuts).
On rivers and canals show dam, gateways, ferries (transportation), brody. And they give the corresponding characteristics.
Wells Denote in blue circles, next to which the letter is placed TO or signature art. to. (Artesian Well).
Ground water pipes Show solid blue lines with dots (after 8 mm), and underground - intermittent lines.
To make it easier to find and choose the sources of water supply in steppe and desert areas, the main wells allocate a larger conditional sign. In addition, in the presence of data to the left of the symbol of the well, an explanatory signature of the level of the earth level is given, on the right - the depths of the well in meters and the filling speed in liters per hour.

8.4. Soil-vegetable cover

Soil -vegetable cover Pictures on maps usually large-scale conditional signs. These include conditional signs of forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, swamp and salt mumps, as well as conditional signs depicting the nature of soil cover: sand, rocky surface, pebbles, etc. With the designation of soil-vegetable cover, a combination of conditional is often used signs. For example, in order to show a wetlamic meadow with bushes, the contour denotes a plot occupied by a meadow, inside which the conventional signs of swamps, meadows and bushes are placed.
The contours of the area covered with forest, shrub, as well as the contours of the marshes, meadows are indicated on the cards point dotted. If the border of the forest, garden or other land is served by a linear local subject (ditch, fence, road), then in this case the conditional sign of the linear local item replaces the dotted.
Forest, shrubs. The area of \u200b\u200bthe forest inside the contour paints green paint. The tree breed is shown by a deciduous, coniferous tree icon or a combination of them when the forest is mixed. In the presence of data on the height, the thickness of the trees and the density of the forest indicates its characteristic with explanatory signatures and numbers. For example, the signature denotes that the coniferous breed of trees (pine) prevails in this forest, their average height of 25 m, the average thickness of 30 cm, the average distance between the trunks of the trees of the trees is 4 meters. As an image on the map, they indicate their width in meters.

Fig. 8.14. The woods

Fig. 8.15. Shrub

Square covered porvil Forest (Height up to 4 m), solid shrubs, forest nurseries inside the circuit on the map are filled with appropriate conditional signs and painted pale green paint. In areas of solid shrubs, in the presence of data, special icons show the shrub breed and sign it average height in meters.
Swamp Pictures on the maps of a horizontal hatching of blue color with the separation of them according to the degree of passability within the passage on the passable (intermittent hatching), difficult and impassable (solid hatch). It is considered to be taken by the swamps of a depth of no more than 0.6 m; their depth on the maps usually do not sign.

Fig. 8.16. Swamp

The depth of difficult and impassable marshes is signed next to the vertical arrow indicating the place of the displacement. Increased and impassable swamps are shown on the maps of the same conditional sign.
Solonchaki On the maps show the vertical hatching of blue with the separation of them on the passable (intermittent hatch) and impassable (solid hatch).

On topographic maps, as they craft, their scale, homogeneous topographic conventional signs are combined into groups, the latter - in one generalized sign, etc. In general, the system of these designations can be represented in the form of a truncated pyramid, at the base of which there are signs for topographic plans of 1: 500 scale, and on top - for surveillance and topographic maps of scale 1: 1 000 000.

8.5. Colors of topographic conventional signs

Colors Topographic conventional signs are united for cards of all scales. Stroke signs of land and their contours, buildings, structures, local items, reference points and borders are printed when publishing black Color, relief elements - brown; reservoirs, watercourses, swamps and glaciers - blue (mirror of water - light blue); Square of wood-shrub vegetation - green (Dwarf forests, stabes, shrubs, vineyards - light green), quarters with fire-resistant buildings and highways - orange, quarters with neo-hesitant buildings and improved ground roads - yellow.
Along with topographic conventional signs for topographic maps installed conditional reductions in their own names Political and administrative units (for example, Lugansk region - meadow.) and explanatory terms (for example, a power station - EL.-st., South-West - Yuz, working village - r. p.).

8.6. Cartographic fonts used on topographic plans and maps

The font is the graphic stack of letters and numbers. Fonts that are used on topographic pianas and maps are called cartographic.

Depending on a number of graphic signs, cartographic fonts are divided into groups:
- tilting letters - straight (ordinary) and mean with inclons to the right and left;
- in the width of letters - narrow, normal and wide;
- in lightness - bright, bold and fat;
- by the presence of cast.

On topographic maps and plans, mainly two types of basic fonts are used: topographic and axle ital (Fig. 8.17).

Fig. 8.17. Outlet fonts and a speed-up letter numbers

Topographic (hair) font T-132 is used to sign settlements of rural type. It is drawn up the thickness of the line 0.1-0.15 mm, all elements of letters are thin hair lines.
Osters italic The use of topographic maps, agricultural cards, land sustainable pies, etc. On topographic maps, explanatory signatures and characteristics are performed on topographic maps: Astronomical points, ruins, plants, factories, stations, etc. The design of letters has a pronounced oval form . The thickness of all elements is the same: 0.1 - 0.2 mm.
Computing font Or a speed-up letter of numbers, belongs to the group of handwritten fonts. It was constructed for records in field journals and computing statements, because in geodesy, many of the field and cameral work processes were associated with the recording of the results of the instrumental dimension and their mathematical processing (see Fig. 8.17).
Modern computer technologies provide a wide, almost unlimited choice of fonts of different types, size, drawing and tilt.

8.7. Inscriptions on topographic plans and maps

In addition to conventional signs, various inscriptions are present on topographic plans and maps. They constitute an important element of the content, explain the depicted objects, indicate their high-quality and quantitative characteristics, serve to obtain reference information.

According to their inscription value:

• own names of geographic objects (cities, rivers, lakes
  and etc.);
• part of the conditional sign (vegetable garden, arable land);
• conventional signs and their own names at the same time (signatures of the names of cities, hydrography objects, relief);
• explanatory signatures (lake, mountain, etc.);
• Explanatory text (transmit information about the distinctive features of objects, specify their nature and purpose) (Fig. 8.18).

The inscriptions on the maps are performed by various fonts, characterized by the drawing of letters. On maps can be used to 15 different fonts. The drawing of the letters of each font has elements inherent in this font only, which is based on the knowledge of the features of various fonts.
For groups of related objects, certain fonts are used for example, for the names of the cities, direct-drawing fonts are used, for the names of hydrography objects - italic fonts, etc. Each inscription on the map should be read well.
In the arrangement of their own names available distinctive features. The names of settlements are located on the right side of the contour parallel to the northern or south side of the map frame. This provision is most desirable, but not always done. Names should not close images of other objects and place in the map frame, so it is necessary to have the names on the left, on top and bottom from the contour of the settlement.

Fig. 8.18. Examples of inscriptions on maps

The names of the area objects are located inside the contours so that the signature is evenly distributed over the entire area of \u200b\u200bthe object. The name of the river is located in parallel to its bed. Depending on the width of the river, the inscription is placed inside or outside the contour. Large rivers are taken to sign several times: at the origins, on characteristic bends, when merging rivers, etc. When the name of one river, the names of the names are pushed so that there is no doubt in the name of the rivers. Before the merger, sign the main river and the influx, after the merger - necessarily the name of the main river.
When the inscriptions arranged not horizontally, special attention appeals to their readability. The following rule is adhered to: if the exhaust circuit, along which the inscription should be placed, is located from the north-west to the southeast, then the inscription is located on top, if the outline stretches from the north-east to the south-west, then the inscription is located below.
The names of the seas and large lakes are located inside the contour of the pools on a smooth curve, in the direction of their length and symmetrically shores the inscriptions of small lakes are placed as the inscriptions of settlements.
The names of the mountains are placed in the right of the top of the top of the mountains and in parallel to the south or northern frame. The names of the mountain ranges, sandy formations and deserts sign in the direction of their length.
Explanatory inscriptions are parallel to the northern side of the frame.
Numeric characteristics are accomplished depending on the nature of the information transmitted. The number of houses in the villages of the rural type, the heights of the earth's surface and water cuts sign parallel to the northern or south side of the frame. The flow rate of the river, the width of the roads and the material of their coating are placed along the axis of the object.
The inscriptions should be positioned in the least loaded places of the cartographic image so that there are no doubts about which object they relate. The inscriptions should not cross the fusion of rivers, characteristic relief parts, images of objects having landmark values.

Basic rules for building cartographic fonts: http://www.topogis.ru/oppks.html

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What are conditional signs?
2. What types of conditional signs do you know?
3. What objects are the maps of large-scale conditional signs?
4. What objects are depicted on the maps of borrowed conventional signs?
5. For what purposes does the main point of the members of the nestable conventional sign?
6. In which location is the main point of the mainstream sign?
7. What are the purpose of the color registration of cards?
8. What are the objectives of the explanatory signatures and digital designations on the maps?