In recent decades, a very old question about the so-called "parts of speech" has surfaced in Russian linguistics regarding the revision of the content of the elementary course of Russian grammar. In the grammars and dictionaries of most of the old, established languages, there is a traditional, also established nomenclature, which in general satisfies practical needs, and therefore few people think of looking for the foundations of this nomenclature and checking its consistency. In writings on general linguistics, the question is usually approached from the point of view of the origin of the categories of "parts of speech" in general, and only sometimes - from the point of view of different ways of expressing them in different languages, and little is said about the fact that the categories themselves can differ significantly from language to language, if you approach each of them as a completely autonomous phenomenon, and not consider it through the prism of other languages.

Therefore, it might not be useless to undertake a complete revision of the question in relation to each individual language at a certain point in its history. Without claiming to be absolutely original, I will try to do this in relation to the modern living Russian language of educated circles of society.<…>

I turn now to the review of the "parts of speech" in Russian.

I. First of all, a very obscure and vague category interjections, the meaning of which is reduced to "emotionality" and "absence of cognitive elements", and the formal sign - to complete syntactic isolation, the absence of any connections with previous and subsequent elements in the flow of speech. Examples: ah-ah!, Oh!, Hooray!, Oh my God!, trouble!, damn it!, Damn it! .

It is clear that although the etymology of such expressions as Oh my God, Damn it, and is quite clear, but this is only an etymology; the meaning of these expressions is exclusively emotional, and to understand take it v Damn it as a verb, it would mean to confuse different historical planes, to attribute to modern language something that is no longer in it. However, in the phrase damn you all! we are no longer dealing with an interjection, since from take it depends you all and thus there is no formal sign of an interjection. The same is in the famous Pushkin phrase Tatyana - ah!, If only Oh not to be understood as extraneous words. For me Oh refers to Tatyana and is a verb, not an interjection at all (see below, section VIII).

Since quite a few words are used or can be used syntactically in isolation, the category of interjections, while quite distinct in vivid cases, is generally rather vague. For example, will interjections Thank you, don't give a damn etc.?

It is hardly necessary to include appeals here and consider the vocative case (in Russian only an intonational form) as an interjectional form of nouns, although there are some grounds for this. To a certain extent, forms of the imperative mood are also related, and especially such words and phrases as shut up!, silence!, poof!, shh! etc. It goes without saying that the so-called onomatopoeic Meow meow, Wow Wow etc. there is no reason to refer to interjections.

II. Further, two correlative categories should be noted: the category of words significant and category of words official. The differences between these categories are reduced to the following points: 1) the first have an independent meaning, the second only express the relationship between the objects of thought; 2) the former are themselves capable of spreading a given word or combination of words: I go - i walk around; I write - i am writing a book - I am writing a big book, the latter are incapable of spreading words on their own: on the, at, v, and, to, be, become(in terms of connections) around (I walk around the house); 3) the former can carry phrasal stress; the latter never have it, except in the case of highlighting words by contrast ( Not only was it delicious, but it will also be delicious.), which is a special case, since unstressed morphemes (parts) of words can also be distinguished by contrast. The second and third differences should be considered formal features of these categories. By no means should one consider their immutability as a sign of service words, since some service words change, such as connectives (conjugate), relative which, which(inclined and changed by birth).

III. I turn to noun. The meaning of this category is known - objectivity, substantiality. With its help, we can represent any lexical meanings, and actions, and states, and qualities, not to mention objects, as objects: action, lying, kindness etc. The formal features of this category are: variability in cases (which in some cases may be absent: cockatoo, coat) and the corresponding systems of endings; a series of derivational suffixes of nouns, such as: -tel, -schik, -Nick, -from-(-a), -out-(-a), -awn, -(OK, -(e)k etc.; definition by adjectives; agreement of the adjective related to this word ( beautiful cockatoo; and me, the poor, and forgotten; something gray and misty slid past); lack of agreement with a noun, explicit or directly implied; verb or copula in the personal form related to the given word ( i was on a boat; people were unhappy; who's come?). From what has been said, it is clear that in the expressions this beggar, all good beggar and Kind will be nouns. On the other hand, it is also clear that a number of so-called "pronouns" have to be considered nouns: I am, we, you, you, he, she, it, they, myself, who? what? someone, something, someone, something, no one, nothing; Moreover, it(rarely then) and all, used as nouns in the form of the middle gender; any and each, used as nouns only in the masculine form; all used as a plural noun. Examples: I can't stand it; it's already tired; I offered him this and that; my brother is always very happy with everything; i know everything; everyone knows it; I undertake to hold everyone; everyone ran away. But it must be said that the last five words are more of an adjectival nature and do not tolerate any adjectival definition, so that in the phrase i love everything good word all is already an adjective good- a noun. It is interesting to note that even in such combinations as something airy appeared on the stage, nothing good can please you, you can ask yourself what belongs to what: something To air, good To nothing or vice versa.

All the words listed, of course, according to the content of the concepts they designate, form a special group of pronominal nouns, since the content is extremely poor and consists in each case of one very indefinite feature. Formally, they are united by the impossibility of defining them. previous adjective; can't say: kind me, nice someone etc. As for the forms of declension, they are not the same for all the words of the group and therefore are inexpressive. The former state of the language with a clear pronominal declension, expressing the opposition of a group of pronouns to a group of names (nouns and adjectives), has long been destroyed.

To a certain extent, the group of "personal pronouns" stands out for its function of personal prefixes (albeit not completely fused) in the conjugation of verbs; however, even there the pronoun of the 3rd person (the former demonstrative) declines differently than the pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person.

In general, it must be admitted that in this area in the Russian language at present there is no clear, distinct system: the old group of pronouns has broken up, and new distinct oppositions of pronominal adjectives and nouns, like what is in French ( ce, cage, ces, celui, celle, ceux, cells), did not work out. This is generally not surprising. Words of a pronominal nature are not numerous, but they play a significant role in the structure of the language, and all sorts of survivals are preserved here most often, successfully resisting the logical unification aspirations of collective linguistic creativity.

In addition to pronominal nouns, we have in Russian a number of categories that are more or less expressive.

1) Names own and common nouns: the former, as a rule, are not used in the plural. Ivanovs, Krestovsky etc. are the names of genera and represent a kind of pluralia tantum.

2) Names abstract and concrete: the former are again normally not used in the plural. The joys of life appear to us as something specific and not identical to words joy, yearning, sadness, learning, patience etc.

3) Names animated and inanimate: in the former, the form of the accusative plural is similar to the genitive, and in the latter, to the nominative.

4) Names real also not used in the plural: honey, sugar. And since they are used, they then designate different varieties: guilt, oils etc.

5) Names collective(of course not flock, regiment, Class, since their collectivity is not expressed in any way). Our modern understanding of them is exclusively unifying and individualizing.<…>

But in modern Russian there is an undoubted opportunity to form collective names through suffixes -j- or -(e)stv- in the middle kind: soldier, peasant, rags, officers, professor, officers, students.

6) Further, in Russian there is a category of names single: beads / bead, pearl / pearl, straw / straw formed by the suffix - in- which make up a kind of group, category.<…>

IV. Category value adjectives in Russian - of course, quality, as it is beautifully shown by [A.M.] Peshkovsky in his "Russian Syntax ...", ., 1920, p. 54 et seq. Formally, it is expressed primarily by its relation to the noun: without a noun, explicit or implied, there is no adjective. Further, it is expressed by the forms of agreement with the noun, although this is not absolutely necessary; a kind of variability, which, by the way, includes a change in the degree of comparison (also optional and common with adverbs); a number of derivational suffixes, such as: -(e)n-, -ist-, -en-, -ovate- etc.; finally, it is also expressed by the adverb that defines it.

From all this it follows that under the category of adjectives we bring such "pronouns" as my, your, our, your, mine, this, that, such, which, which the, any, myself, most, the whole, each etc., and all "ordinal numbers" ( first, second etc.), and all participles, and finally the comparative forms of adjectives when they refer to nouns, for example: your drawing is better than mine; this place is the most beautiful I have ever seen; a jet of lighter azure(from Lermontov's "Sails").<…>

Among adjectives, a group of adjectives stands out possessive, which has formal features - nominal endings - at least in all forms of the nominative case:

dad- in-		dad- in-a
father- ov-		father- ov-a
		mo- I am(my- a)
		our- a
bab- uy		bab-i (bab- th-a)

dad- in-O	heritage	dad- in-s
father- ov-O		father- ov-s
mo- yo(my- O)
our- e		our- and
woman- e(babe- uh)		woman- and(babe- th-and)

But, apparently, this category is being destroyed, since in children's language constantly find daddy's daughter; instead of fathers house we say more father's house, but instead Indian summer can sometimes be heard babe summer; the same cases as wolf skin, have to be considered, if not normal, then very common, especially among the younger generation.

As for the pronominal group, although it is a certain group in meaning, it is not unconditionally closed: should we consider, for example, the word any? Peshkovsky, in the book already frequently cited (p. 406), also refers here the words famous, the, definite. The absence of a clear formal criterion does not allow a group of pronominal adjectives to be clearly understood, since the fact that in the chain of adjective definitions of a noun they are normally placed in the first place ( any (any) decent thoughtful doctor) is not overly imposed on our consciousness.

The same can be said about ordinal numbers, although they are also assigned the first place in the chain of adjective definitions ( I graduated from the second Kiev male gymnasium). However, it must be admitted that a strong associative connection by adjacency (when counting) vigorously supports the semantic connection and the concept of "order", "number" appears quite clearly, so, perhaps, we still have to talk about ordinal adjectives.

The categories of adjectives seem very alive quality having degrees of comparison, and relative who do not have them. So, gold may belong to both: Golden ring / Why do you have golden curls, but hers is even more golden.

Communions, of course, constitute a sharply isolated group, being subsumed under the category of verbs. Losing verbosity, they become simple adjectives. learned poem can be used in a double sense: 1) "containing a lot of scientific" - an adjective and 2) "which has already been taught" - a participle.

V. Category adverbs is an exclusively formal category, because its meaning coincides with the meaning of the category of adjectives, as is obvious from a comparison of such pairs as light / easy, peppy / cheerfully etc. We would probably recognize such adverbs as the form of the corresponding adjectives, if a large number of invariable words that are not derived from adjectives were not used in the same function: very, too much, by heart, straightaway, around etc. Due to this, formal features, categories are primarily related to the adjective, to the verb or other adverbs, the inability to determine the adjective (unless it is an adverbial expression), immutability (however, adverbs derived from adjectives can have degrees of comparison) and finally for adverbs. derived from adjectives, endings - O or - e, and for verbal adverbs (germs) special endings.

The most delicate issue is the difference between adverbs and nouns, since the criterion of immutability arises most often on the basis of a break in the connection of a given word with the forms of the corresponding noun, i.e., in the end, on the basis of meaning: is it thought in this case thing(noun) or not. It is very likely that if we did not have adjective adverbs and a number of cases where the connection with the noun is absolutely broken, i.e. if the category of adverbs would not have its own undoubted representatives in form, then the establishment of the category of adverbs in such cases, how Abroad, abroad, would present great difficulties. However, here an experiment can come to the rescue; it is worth trying to give an adjective: beyond our borders over the southern border to understand that this is impossible without changing the meaning of the words and that, therefore, Abroad, abroad are adverbs, not nouns.

Concerning gerunds, then they, of course, constitute a sharply isolated group. In essence, these are real verb forms, in their function only partially approaching adverbs. Formally, they are combined with these latter by being related to the verb and allegedly lacking agreement with it (in fact, they should have a common face in Russian, although this is not expressed in any way outwardly). What especially justifies this discretion in the gerunds of a certain adverb is their easy transition to genuine adverbs: silently, standing, lying down etc. can be either gerunds or adverbs.

VI. A special category must be recognized quantitative words. The meaning is the abstract idea of ​​a number, and the formal feature is a peculiar type of combination with a noun to which the word expressing quantity refers. Thanks to these types of combinations, the category of quantitative words is removed from the category of adjectives, where it could most naturally belong, as well as from the category of nouns, with which it is similar in declension forms. These types of combinations consist in the fact that in the nominative and accusative cases the definitive is put in the genitive case of the plural (with two, three, four- genus. pad. units hours), and in oblique cases the expected agreement in the case is restored: five books - with five books, twenty soldiers - with twenty soldiers. The historical reasons for such strange designs are known; now these constructions are meaningless and are relics, however, they are utilized by the language to designate a special category, which, of course, only by violating the immediate linguistic instinct, can be confused with nouns. The difference emerges very clearly from the comparison: ten apples, with ten apples / a dozen apples, with a dozen apples, one hundred soldiers, with a hundred soldiers / a hundred soldiers, with a hundred soldiers.

It is curious to note that one thousand from a philistine point of view, it is poorly represented as a number, but rather as a kind of unity, as a "noun", which is expressed by the type of connection: thousand soldiers, with a thousand soldiers. However, the course of culture and the development of abstract thinking make themselves felt: one thousand more and more turns into a quantitative word, and a thousand soldiers were given rations doesn't sound too wrong a million soldiers it would be impossible to say), but to say a thousand soldiers came, perhaps, and at all ridiculous. Undoubtedly, with the experienced fall of money and million and billion became more abstract, although, perhaps, this did not have time to affect the language.

VII. There are a number of words like it is forbidden, can, necessary, it's time, it's a pity etc., which are difficult to classify under any category. Most often, on the formal basis of immutability, they are included in adverbs, which in the end does not cause practical inconvenience in terms of vocabulary, if it is stipulated that they are used with a bunch and function as a predicate of impersonal sentences. However, upon closer examination, it turns out that these words do not fall under the category of adverbs, since they do not belong to either a verb, or an adjective, or any other adverb.

Further, it turns out that they form one group with such forms as cold, light, fun, etc. in phrases: it was getting cold outside; the room was bright; we had a lot of fun etc. Such words also cannot be considered adverbs, since these latter refer to verbs (or adjectives), but here we are dealing with connectives (see below). They also do not fit under the neuter singular form of adjectives, since adjectives refer to nouns, and here these latter are not present, either explicit or implied.

Perhaps we are dealing here with a special status category(in the above examples, attributed to no one and nothing - an impersonal form) in contrast to the same state, but presented as an action: it is forbidden(in one of the values) / prohibited; can(in one of the values) / allowed; getting cold / getting colder; it's getting dark / getting dark; frosty / freezes etc. (however, there are not many such parallels).

The formal features of this category would be immutability, on the one hand, and use with a bunch, on the other: first it would differ from adjectives and verbs, and secondly from adverbs. However, I myself do not think that this is a bright and convincing category in the Russian language.

However, even with a personal construction, you can indicate a number of words that would fit here: I'm ready; I must; I am pleased to/ rejoice; I can("I'm able") / can; I am sick / sick; I intend to / intend; I am friendly / I'm friends; I'm familiar / I know (glad] is not used, but ready, due, able, sick, intentional, friendly, familiar used in a different sense).

In the end, the following contrapositions will also be correct:

i'm cheerful(condition) / I'm having fun(state as action)] / I'm funny(quality); he is noisy(condition) / he makes noise(action) / he is noisy(quality); he is angry(condition) / he is angry he is angry(quality); he is sad(condition) / he is sad(state as action) / he's sad(quality);

and without parallel verbs: he is sad / he is sad; he is happy/ he is happy; he is red as hell / flags are red; the stick is too big for me / stick - big; boots are too small for me / these boots are too small; my brother is very cheerful / my brother is always cheerful etc.

Finally, under the category states include words and phrases such as be tipsy, ready, alert, married, capable of, alert, without memory, Without feelings, in a frock coat, etc., etc. In all these cases, to be is a connective, not a noun verb; so the words tipsy, ready etc. can hardly be considered adverbs. They also express condition, but due to the absence of parallel forms that would express action or quality(however, married / married; capable of / can), this idea is not sufficiently emphasized.

Although all these parallels hardly strengthened my new category, since the means of its expression are too diverse, however, the attempts of the Russian language to have a special category of state, which is developed on different paths, but has not yet received, and may never receive , common brand. Now it's formal status category would have to be defined as follows: these are words in conjunction with a bunch, which, however, are neither full adjectives nor the nominative case of a noun; they are expressed either in an invariable form, or a noun form with a preposition, or forms with generic endings - zero for masculine, -a for feminine, -O, -e (sincerely) for the neuter gender, - or a form of the instrumental case of nouns (which then loses its normal, i.e., instrumental, meaning).

If you do not recognize the presence in the Russian language status categories(which, for lack of a better term, can be called a predicative adverb, following in this case Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky), then words such as it's time, cold, tipsy etc., yet cannot be considered adverbs, and they simply remain outside the categories (cf. p. 81).

So, variability in different verb categories with corresponding endings is the first sign of the verb, just like some suffixes, for example - ov- || -at-, -Well- and others, in general, however, inexpressive; further, the nominative case, directly related to the personal form, also determines the verb; further, the impossibility of adjective and the possibility of adverbial distribution; finally, characteristic control, for example: love your father, but love for father.

Now it is clear why the infinitive, participle, gerund and personal forms are recognized by us as forms of one word - the verb: because strongly(not strong) be in love, loving, loving, I love my daughter(not to my daughter) and because although each of these forms has its own meaning, they all have a common meaning. actions. Of them loving is brought simultaneously under the category of verbs and under the category of adjectives, having with the latter and general forms and the meaning by which the action is here understood as a quality; such forms are conventionally called communion. For the same reasons loving is subsumed under the category of verbs and partly under the category of adverbs and is conventionally called gerund. Love denoting an action, however, we do not bring it under the category of verbs, since it does not have their signs ( love for daughter, but not daughter); so the idea actions in this word is muffled, and only the idea appears in relief substances.

In view of all this, there is no basis in the phrase and she fuck him in the face! refuse fuck in verbality: this is nothing more than a special, very emotional form of the verb fuck with a negative (zero) suffix morpheme. The same is true in the expression Tatyana - ah! and others like it, unless you see in Oh introductory words.

Finally, from what has been said above about verbs in general, it is also clear that the copula be not verb, although it has verb forms, and this is because it has no meaning actions. Indeed, the only function of the link is to express the logical (in the true sense of the word) relationship between the subject and the predicate: in the phrase my father was a soldier v was no elements of action, no elements of the will of the subject can be discovered. It's different when to be is a noun verb: my father was at the theater yesterday. Here was = was, sat- in a word, he somehow showed his "I" by the fact that was. This should be firmly remembered and not considered a copula as a verb and the function of a copula as a verb. In the so-called significant connectives, we observe a contamination of two functions - a connective and a greater or lesser verbality (similar to the contamination of two functions in participles). Awareness and differentiation of these functions is very important for understanding syntactic relations].

IX. It is necessary to note one more category of significant words, although it is never independent - these are words interrogative: who, what, which, whose, which the, where, how, where, where, when, why, why, how etc. Its formal expression is the specific intonation of the syntagma (a group of words), which includes an interrogative word.

Turning to functional words, we must first of all note that the general categories here are not always clear and, in any case, are often of little content.

x. Bundles. Strictly speaking, there is only one link be expressing the logical relationship between the subject and the predicate. All other links are more or less significant, i.e. they represent a contamination verb and bundles, where verbality can be more or less pronounced (see above).

I will not add anything to the well-known about bundles, except perhaps for the fact that we seem to have another form of bundle - it. Examples: our children are our future, our children will be good guys. Particle it most of all, it expresses the relationship between the subject and the predicate, and in any case it is hardly understood by us as the subject: the forms of the copula be serve in this case mainly to express time.

XI. Next, we have a group of particles connecting two words or two groups of words into one syntagma(the simplest syntactic whole) and expressing the relation of "defining" to "defined". They're called pretexts, whose formal feature in Russian is case control. Of course, words such as according to (according to your prescription, but in stationery style your order), around, inside, upstairs, like, during, during, due to, ago(with vin. pad.), etc. However, on a functional basis, such words as to, with the aim of, how for example in the following sentences: i came to eat= for the purpose of eating; I was dressed] like a chrysalis = like a chrysalis.

XII. Further, one can state a group of particles that connect words or groups of words into one whole - syntagma or higher-order syntactic integer- on equal terms, and not on the principle of "defining" and "defined", and usually called coordinating unions. It contains two subgroups.

a) Particles that completely connect two words or two groups of words into one whole - connecting unions: and, Yes, or] (not repeated). Examples: brother and sister went for a walk; father and mother stayed at home; I want to take a teacher or a teacher to my children; Ivan da Marya; when everyone gathered and the owners lit the fire, it became more fun].

Prepositions are sometimes used in the same function: brother and sister went for a walk(the special function of the particle with is noted here by the plural form of verbs).<…>

b) Particles that unite two words or two groups in contrast, that is, opposing them, - conjunctions adversarial: a, but, Yes. Thanks to this opposition, each member of such a pair retains its independence, and this case "b)" differs not only in meaning, but also in form from cases "a)". Examples: I want not a big, but a small scarf; she sang in a small but clear voice; small spool but precious; I shouted to you, but you did not hear; you promised, but that doesn't always mean you will.

XIII. The same unions can be used in another function: then they do not connect these or other elements into one whole, but only join them to the previous one. Whereas in the case of section XII both terms are present in consciousness, even in a vague form, already at the very beginning of the utterance, in the present case the second element appears in consciousness only after first or during his statements. The indicated difference in functions is formally expressed by phrasal stress, sometimes by a pause, and intonation in general (there are no exact studies on this subject). clear examples of this difference are the different interpretations of the following two verses by Pushkin and Lermontov:

Whether I am right or not in my understanding, in this case is indifferent, but the possibility of the question itself, and therefore the dual function of the union, and, I think, are obvious.

Conjunctions in this function could be called connecting. Other examples: I got into a wagon with Savelich, and set off on the road(example borrowed from Grotto, but the comma belongs to me); yesterday we gathered in a big company and went to the theater, but missed the whole evening; A crow perched on a spruce, it was quite ready to have breakfast, she was already getting ready, but thoughtful, and she kept the cheese in her mouth; I will come very soon, or not at all; the case will drag on without end, or it will immediately break off.

XIV. A special group is made up of particles that "separate" words or groups of words and form from them "endless" rows of homogeneous wholes. The formal expression of this category is, firstly, the repetition of particles, and secondly, a specific intonation. They organize what I call "open combinations" (see: Russian speech, I, p. 22). These include and - and..., no no..., Yes Yes..., or or... and so on. For brevity, they could be called united unions. Known examples: And the sling, and the arrow, and the crafty dagger spare the winner years; nothing amused me - neither new toys, nor grandmother's tales, nor newly born kittens. <…>

XV. A completely separate group is made up of particles expressing the relation of "defining" to "defined"] between two syntagmas and uniting them into one syntactic whole of a higher order (in section XI, the matter took place within one syntagma). These particles are most conveniently called relative words. This also applies to what is traditionally called subordinating unions (bye, when, how, if, just etc.) - but the so-called "relative pronouns and adverbs" will also fit here ( which the, which, where, where, why etc.). I say "so-called" because often there really is no reason to see, for example, in the relative which is a significant word, since it has only the forms of significant words, but not their meaning. Those who doubt, let them try to determine what is which the- noun or adjective - in a phrase I found a book that was thought to be missing]. In the same way, it is difficult to recognize the adverb in when, even in such an example as on the day when we moved to the dacha, it was raining. However, the possibility of contamination of two functions - auxiliary (relative) and significant, especially the noun - is undeniable. One could even speak of "significant relative words" (cf. significant connectives). For instance: I walk with whom I want; father furrowed his brows, which was a sign of an impending thunderstorm.

The formal features of the category of relative words are the absence of phrasal stress common to all functional words, as well as the fact that these words are part of a syntagma with a characteristic relative intonation. What makes this category especially lively and vivid is its correlation with significant words. When youcome , we will alreadyHouses . / When will you come? I know you arewrite . / What you write? The year in which you came to us is especially memorable for me. / Vwhich year you came to us?

It is not for nothing that relativity has always been felt by everyone as a single category, although it often appeared in two different places in grammar.<…>

Printed by: Shcherba L.V. Language system and speech activity. - M., 1974.

INDEPENDENT PARTS OF SPEECH
Independent (significant) parts of speech are categories of words that name an object, action, quality, state, etc. or point to them and which have an independent lexical and grammatical meaning and are members of the sentence (main or secondary).
The independent parts of speech are:

noun,
adjective,
numeral,
pronoun,
verb,
adverb.

24. NOUN- this is an independent part of speech that combines words denoting objects and animate beings (the meaning of objectivity) and answering the questions who? what? This meaning is expressed using the independent categories of gender, number, case, animateness and inanimateness. In a sentence, nouns mainly act as the subject and object, but they can also be other members of the sentence.
24.1. Discharges of nouns: common, specific, collective.
Depending on the lexical and grammatical features, nouns are divided into:

common nouns (names of homogeneous objects, actions or states): house, bed
own (names of single objects selected from a number of homogeneous ones - names, surnames, geographical names, etc.): Vanya Petrov, Pluto, Moscow;
specific (they name specific objects and phenomena from reality): a boy, a station and abstract (abstract) (they call an object or sign abstractly from the agent or carrier of the sign): hatred, love, care;
collective (denoting a set of identical or similar individual items as one whole): students, sheet.

24.2. Lexicre-grammatical categories of nouns:
24.1. Animation-inanimate category: animate nouns denote living beings (people and animals), and inanimate nouns - an object in the proper sense of the word, in contrast to living beings. This category is manifested in the declension of nouns, namely in the accusative case of the plural: the form of the accusative case of the plural of animate nouns coincides with the form of the genitive case, and of inanimate nouns with the form of the nominative case. For masculine nouns (except for -a, -я), the same thing happens in the singular.
242.2. Gender Category: All nouns (not counting those that are always plural: scissors, gates, etc.) belong to one of three genders: masculine, feminine, or neuter.
The masculine gender is a variety of the gender category, characterized by a certain form change, and for animate nouns, the belonging to it of masculine creatures (father, cat, table, house).
Feminine gender is a kind of gender category, characterized by a certain form change, and for animate nouns - the belonging of feminine creatures to it (mother, cat, bench, terrace).
There are nouns of the general gender that can be correlated with both masculine and feminine persons: slob, orphan, incognito, protégé.
The neuter gender is a variety of the gender category, characterized by a certain form change (partially coincides with the form change of the masculine gender) and the meaning of inanimateness (window, sky, sun);
24.2.3. Category of number: in Russian there is a singular form (denoting one parent in a series of homogeneous objects): chair, sock, boy, and plural (denoting an indefinite set of homogeneous objects): chairs, socks, boys.
The only and plural differ in different endings, different compatibility with other parts of speech.
There are nouns that have only the singular form: some abstract nouns (love, care), collective nouns (leaves, students), proper names (Moscow, Siberia), some nouns denoting substance (milk, gold).
There are nouns that, on the contrary, have only the plural form: some abstract nouns (holidays, twilight), some nouns denoting a substance (soup, cream), the names of some games (chess, hide and seek), some concrete nouns that consist of several components (scissors, trousers);
24.2.4. Case category: this category is based on the opposition of case forms and denotes the relationship of the object denoted by the noun to other objects, actions or features. There are six cases in Russian: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, prepositional.
24.3. Declension of nouns is a change of nouns by cases.
There are three declensions in Russian.

1 cl. noun m.r. and cf. on -a, -i 2 fold. noun m.r. from zero. ending dry cf. on -o, -e Zkl. noun from zero. ending Singular: I.p. Mother. uncle R.p. moms, uncles D.p. mom-e, uncle-e V.p. mum, uncle etc. mom-oh, uncle-her P.p. oh mom, oh uncle house, window house-a, windows-a house-y, window-y house, window house-ohm, window-ohm about the house, about the window night night and night and night at night about the night and Plural: I.p. mothers. uncles R.p. mom, uncle D.p. mum-am, uncle-yum V.p. mom, uncle etc. mom-ami, uncle-ami P.p. about mom-ax, about uncle-x house-a, windows-a houses, windows house-am, window-am window-a, house-a, houses, windows about house-ax, about windows-ah night and night-she night-am night and nights about the nights

Notes: in masculine and neuter nouns, in which a vowel is written before the case ending and, in an unstressed position in P.p. the ending -i is written; for feminine nouns, this rule applies to D.p. and P.p.
I. p. militia, genius, blade
R.p. militia, genius, blade
D.p. militia, genius, blade
V.p. militia, genius, blade
etc. militia, genius, blade
P.p. about the police, about the genius, about the blade
For more information about difficult cases of writing the ending of nouns, see the "Spelling" section.
In the Russian language there are nouns with different declensions: these are 10 neuter nouns in -mya (flame, burden, time, udder, banner, seed, stirrup, shemya, tribe, name) - they decline with the growth of the suffix -en- in the singular in all cases , except for the instrumental, according to the 3rd declension, and in the instrumental case of the singular - according to the 2nd declension, in the plural they decline according to the 2nd declension; the words mother, daughter (inclined according to the 3rd declension with an increase -er-), way (inclined in all cases according to the 3rd declension and only in the instrumental - according to the 2nd), child (this word is not now used in indirect cases singular).
There are also indeclinable nouns (that is, they do not change for cases and numbers). Basically, they include words of foreign origin, which denote both inanimate objects (cafes, radios), and masculine and feminine persons (attache, lady); they can also represent animals (kangaroos, chimpanzees), given names and surnames (Helen Frankenstein), place names (Baku, Helsinki), etc.
24.4. Syntactic functions of nouns
In a sentence, a noun can be; any member:

subject: Mom goes to the store,
addition: I asked him to give me a book.
definition: Mom bought me a notebook with checkered paper.
Addendum: The Volga River is very beautiful.
circumstance: He got his way despite the difficulties.
predicate: My father is an engineer.

25. ADJECTIVE- this is an independent part of speech that combines words that denote non-procedural features of the subject and answer the questions what? whose? This meaning is expressed in non-independent inflectional categories of gender, number and case (perform the grammatical function of agreement). In a sentence, adjectives act as a definition or nominal part of a compound nominal predicate.
25.1. Classes of adjectives: qualitative, relative, possessive.
Lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives.

quality adjectives - designate an object directly, that is, without relation to other objects (red, beautiful, kind), have comparison forms and short forms;
relative adjectives - indicate a sign through relation to another object, they are derived from nominal bases (laboratory, wooden);
possessive adjectives - denote belonging to a person or animal, that is, they contain an indication of the owner (foxes, fathers).

25.2. Short adjectives are formed from full qualitative adjectives and correlate with them semantically. Short adjectives are those that in the masculine singular have zero endings (black, handsome), in the feminine singular - the endings -а, -я (black, beautiful), in the singular of the neuter gender - the endings -о, -е (black, beautiful), and in the plural of all genders - endings -i, -ы (black, beautiful). Short adjectives in a sentence act as a predicate. ("How good, how fresh were the roses...")
25.3. Degrees of comparison of adjectives is a grammatical category of adjectives that expresses the relative difference or superiority in quality inherent in objects. In Russian, three forms are opposed:
- positive,
- comparative
- excellent.
A positive degree names a feature without any opposition to another feature. The comparative degree indicates a feature that a given subject has to a greater or lesser extent. The superlative degree indicates the highest degree of manifestation of this quality in comparison with other subjects (cf .: kind - kinder - kindest).
Formation of forms of comparison.
Adjectives are declined, i.e. change in gender, case and number, but their form depends on the form of the word on which they depend. (For the spelling of the endings of the names of adjectives, see the "Spelling" section)
25.4. Syntactic function of the adjective.
In a sentence, adjectives can act as:
- definitions (The girl had a very beautiful doll),
- the nominal part of the compound nominal predicate (The doll was beautiful).
26. NUMBER- an independent part of speech that combines words that denote abstract numbers or the number of objects and their order when counting. Numerals are combined as a quantitative determinant only with nouns and form an indivisible phrase with them, which in the sentence is one member of the sentence. Numerals cannot be determined by adjectives.
By composition, numerals are divided into:

simple (non-derivative base: two, eight, one hundred),
complex (derivatives: eighteen, seven hundred, five hundredth),
compound (consisting of two or more words: six hundred thirty-five).

Digits of numerals:

quantitative (denoting an abstract number or the number of homogeneous objects): two, twenty-five;
fractional (denoting a fractional value: two-fifths);
collective (denoting the number of items as a set: three, both);
ordinal (indicate the order of objects in the count: first, third, twenty).

Cardinal numerals are declined (they change in cases, but have neither the category of gender nor the category of number). Exceptions: The numerals one and two have gender forms. They agree with the noun in case, the numeral two - in case and gender, the numeral one - in gender, number and case. If the compound numeral ends in one, then the noun is put in the singular form (three hundred and fifty-one rubles).
Fractional numbers are formed by combining the cardinal number in the nominative case and the ordinal number in the genitive case (three fifths, six eighths).
The collective numerals eight, nine, ten are practically not used in modern Russian, the numerals two, three, four, five, six, seven, both, both are used much more often. Collective nouns can only be used in certain cases:

with masculine or common nouns that name males: two boys, both professors;
with nouns that have only the plural form: three days, two sledges);
with nouns guys, people, children, person (meaning "person"): six guys, two persons;
with personal pronouns in the plural (there were three of us);
with the names of baby animals: (three kittens);
as substantiated numerals (five in white);
with the names of paired items (three mittens (= three pairs of mittens)).

Ordinal numbers are formed from their corresponding cardinal numbers (three - third, five - fifth), exception: one - first. They change in gender, number, and case, and agree with nouns.
For details on the endings of numerals in declension, see the "Spelling" section.
27. PRONOUN- an independent part of speech, which includes words that indicate objects, signs, etc., but do not name them. In a sentence, pronouns can act as various members of a sentence.
Groups of pronouns according to correlation with other parts of speech:

noun pronouns (I, who, nothing);
pronouns-adjectives (none, own);
pronouns-numerals (a few, not at all).

Ranks of pronouns:

personal (indicate a person or object): I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they;
reflexive (indicates the attitude towards the acting person): oneself;
possessive (indicate belonging to one of three persons): mine, yours, mine;
demonstrative (generally indicate objects, their quality or quantity): this, this, that;
interrogative (transmit the question): who, which, whose;
relative (in form they coincide with interrogative pronouns, but act as allied words): who, what;
negative (indicate the absence of an object): no one, nothing;
indefinite (indicate indefinite objects or their signs): someone, someone;
definitive (indicate a generalized attribute of an object): any, any.

In a sentence, a pronoun can act as the same member of a sentence as the part of speech for which it is used:

subject: I came home very tired.
definition: I want to buy some book.
Addendum: I want to ask her about it.
circumstance: The boys went to her.

28. VERB- this is an independent part of speech that combines words denoting action and answering the question what to do? what to do? This meaning is expressed in terms of aspect, voice, tense, person, and mood. In a sentence, verbs act mainly as a predicate.
28.1. Conjugated and non-conjugated forms of the verb, infinitive.
Verbs, depending on the ability or inability to change in persons, numbers, moods and tenses, have non-conjugated forms (the infinitive is the indefinite form of the verb) participles and participles, all other forms belong to conjugated forms.
The infinitive is the original form of the verb, with which all other forms of the verb are lexically and word-formatively connected. Verbs in the infinitive name the process itself, without attributing it to any person or tense. The indefinite form of the verb is characterized by the suffixes -t, -ti (revenge, buy), some verbs in the infinitive end in -chi (lie down).
Grammatical categories of verbs:
28.2. Verb type
- aspect - a grammatical category that expresses differences in the course of an action. Imperfective verbs denote an action in development, without indicating its limit, and answer the question what to do? (receive, buy, wear); and perfective verbs designate an action as limited by a certain limit and answer the question what to do? (get, buy, demolish).
28.3. Transitivity of the verb
- transitivity - intransitivity - this is a category on the basis of which verbs with the meaning of an action directed at an object (it is the object of this action) are distinguished - transitive verbs read a magazine, paint a wall), and verbs with the meaning of an action that does not imply an object on which this action is naturally directed - intransitive verbs (ache, sit). In practice, this difference) manifests itself in management: transitive verbs are combined with nouns or pronouns in the accusative case without a preposition (treat a boy, read a book), and intransitive verbs are combined with objects expressed by nouns or pronouns in indirect cases with prepositions (walk down the street, play in the yard). A special group of intransitive verbs is made up of reflexive verbs, the formal feature of which is the suffix -sya (to return, to wash).
28.4. Voice of the verb
- pledge is a category that expresses various relations between the subject and the object of the action. Active voice verbs are verbs in which the subject names the actor (subject of the action): mother washed the frame; passive voice verbs are verbs that act in a passive construction (when the subject names the object of the action, and the object in the instrumental case is the subject of the action (the window was washed by mom)).
28.5. verb mood
- inclination is a category that expresses the relation of action to reality. There are three moods in Russian:

indicative - expresses an action that really exists, existed or will exist (bought, read); verbs in the indicative mood have the forms of tense (present, past and future), person (1,2 and 3) and number (singular or plural);
conditional (or subjunctive) - expresses an action that does not really exist, but is only possible or desirable (would buy, would read); it is formed with the help of a verb in the past tense of the indicative mood and a particle by;
imperative - expresses an action that is not real, it expresses a request, an order, etc. (buy, read); it is formed from the basis of the present or simple future tense using the suffix -i- (buy, count) or the zero suffix read, smear), the plural is formed by adding the imperative suffix -te (buy, read) to the singular form (buy, read), also imperative mood can be formed by adding particles to verbs in the explanatory mood of the present tense let, let.

- time is a category that expresses the relationship of action to the moment of speech. There are three tenses in Russian: present, past and future. The category of time is connected with the category of aspect: imperfective verbs have 3 forms (buy - present tense, bought - losh. vr., I will buy (future add, tense), and perfective verbs - 2 forms (bought - past time and I will buy - future time is simple, time).
- person is the most important category, with the help of which it is indicated who performs the action. There are three persons in Russian, they differ in singular and plural. Every face has its endings
For conjugation of verbs, see the Spelling section. In a sentence, verbs can act as:

simple predicate: I bought a book;
compound verbal predicate: I decided to go to the library;
an inconsistent definition: I did not like the plan to go there right away.

29. PARTICIPATION- this is a special non-conjugated form of the verb that denotes an action, but presents it as a sign of an object. The participle combines the features of a verb and an adjective:
- signs of the verb:

transitivity - intransitivity,
return, irrevocable
view,
pledge,
time (present and past);

- signs of an adjective:

genus,
number,
case,
in the sentence acts as a definition,
the presence of passive participles in both full and short forms.

Participle formation:
note:

from perfective verbs that do not have the present tense form, present participles are not formed;
passive participles are formed only from transitive verbs.

For more information on the spelling of participles, see the "Spelling" section.
In a sentence, full participles act as a definition (The girl who entered was very pretty.), And short participles act as a nominal part of a complex predicate (The floor is washed.)
30. GENERAL PARTICIPLE- this is a special invariable form of the verb, which denotes a sign, but acts as a sign of another action. The participle combines the features of a verb and an adverb:
- signs of the verb:

lexical meaning,
view,
syntax control,
recurrence - non-returnability;

- signs of adverb:

immutability,
type of subordinating relationship - adjacency.

Formation of adverbs:
For more information on the spelling of adverbs, see the "Spelling" section.
31. ADVERB- this is an independent part of speech, which includes words denoting signs of actions or signs of signs and answering questions like how? where? when? where? why? for what? in what degree? (read carefully, see you tomorrow, very cheerful). In a sentence, adverbs act as circumstances, adjoining verbs, adjectives, adverbs and nouns.
According to the word-formation structure, adverbs are:

derivative (or motivated), they are formed mainly from adjectives (fabulous, beautiful); there are much smaller groups that include adverbs formed from nouns, numerals, pronouns, verbs and other adverbs;
non-derivative (then, here, where, etc.).

By meaning, adverbs are divided into:

definitive (characterize a feature or object in terms of quality or quantity): by heart, good, bad; this group includes qualitative adverbs (beautifully, softly), quantitative adverbs (very, twice), adverbs of image and mode of action (in my opinion, in English, tipsy, secretly).

Adverbs formed from qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison:* Note. The uniqueness of the work is indicated on the date of publication, the current value may differ from the indicated one.

Part of speech- this is a category of words of the language, which is determined by syntactic and morphological features. In the languages ​​of the world, first of all, the name (further divided into a noun, adjective, etc.) and a verb are opposed. It is also generally accepted to divide parts of speech into independent and service parts. In the article Morphological analysis, you can see many additional characteristics of parts of speech.

Independent parts of speech(include words naming objects, their actions and various signs):
1. Noun
2. Verb
3. Adjective
4. Numeral
5. Pronoun
6. Adverb
7. Participle
8. gerund
9. Condition Category Words

Service parts of speech(they name neither objects, nor actions, nor signs, but only express the relationship between them):
1. Pretext
2. Particles
3. Unions
4. Interjections, onomatopoeic words.

Noun

A noun is a part of speech that refers to an object. The noun answers the questions: who? what? (dad, song). They are distinguished by gender, and nouns change by cases and numbers. There are animate (human) and inanimate (house).

Adjective

Qualitative adjectives are adjectives denoting a property of an object that can manifest itself with different intensity: fast, white, old. Qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison and short forms: fast, white, old. Relative adjectives are adjectives denoting the property of the object itself in relation to the action or another object: iron, measuring, door, inflatable. Possessive adjectives- these are adjectives indicating the belonging of the object they define to someone or something: sisters, fathers, foxes.

numeral

The numeral is a part of speech that means:

• number of items, answering the question: how?, these are cardinal numbers: three, fifteen, one hundred thirty-five;
• the order of items when counting, answering the question: which the?, these are ordinal numbers: third, fifteenth, one hundred thirty-fifth;
• the total number of items, this is a collective numeral: both, two, four, six, nine, etc.

Pronoun

A pronoun is a part of speech that refers to a person, attribute, or object without naming it. Pronouns are divided into:

• personal: we, me, you, you, she, it, he, they;
• reflexive: oneself;
• possessive: ours, mine, yours, yours, yours;
• interrogative-relative: what, who, what, what, whose, how much, which, which;
• demonstrative: that, this, such, so many, such;
• definitive: most, himself, all, all, all, all, everyone, everyone, other, any;
• negative: nothing, no one, nothing, none, no one;
• indefinite: some, something, some, someone, several, something, someone, some, something, some.

More about the pronoun for beginners in the video:

Verb

A verb is a part of speech that denotes a state or action, answers any of the following questions: what to do?, what have you been doing?, what is he doing?, what will do?, and has features of aspect, person, voice, tense, number, gender and mood (subjunctive, past tense). There are such forms of verbs: infinitive, participle and participle.

1. The infinitive is an indefinite form without signs of person, tense, number, pledge, gender and mood: sleep, run, read.
2. Participle- the non-conjugated form of the verb, denotes the action or state of an object in a form that changes over time; the participle can change by case, number and gender, and also has signs of type, tense and voice (this is what differs from the adjective). Participles, in turn, are divided into several types:
3. Real communion is an action performed by the bearer of the sign: a blossoming garden, a student reading;
4. Passive Communion- a sign that arose as a result of the impact of something or someone on the carrier of the sign: driven by the wind leaves, thrown stone.
5. gerund- this is an invariable form of the verb, designates an action as a sign of another action: exhausted, sat down on a bench; spoke without looking into his eyes. It differs from participle in that it has signs of pledge and aspect, but does not change.

Adverb

An adverb is a part of speech that denotes a sign of a quality, action or object, answering the question: when?, as?, where?, why? etc. The main feature of an adverb is immutability: yesterday, slowly, everywhere, etc. adverbs also include pronominal adverbs: nowhere, where, so, no way, like, when, sometimes, never, from where, from here, to where , there, why, therefore, because, why, then, etc.

Pretext

The preposition is unchangeable service unit speech used to connect words: to, in, from, from, on, at, between, through, for the sake of, during, by means of, around, like, about, relatively, thanks to, according to, after, really, despite, in force, in connection with, depending on, in relation to, etc.

Union

A union is an invariable service part of speech that serves to connect the members of a sentence and (or) parts of a complex sentence (it is necessary to distinguish the union from prepositions, the preposition connects words, not syntactic units). Union types:

1. coordinating conjunctions: yes, and, but, or, but, or, also, too.
2. Subordinating conjunctions: before, when, while, in order to, what, how, because, since, due to the fact that, as if, so, as if, once, if, although, in order to, despite the fact that, not only ... but also ..., not so much ... as ... etc.

Particle

Particles are service words that give semantic or emotional nuances to individual words or sentences: neither, not, something, -something, -something, -sya (s), -te, -ka, same, -de, whether, it happened, would, yes, let, even, only, almost, at least, only, perhaps, give, really, know, well, come on, they say, after all, they say, well, as if, as if , exactly, sort of, as if, supposedly, perhaps, tea, maybe, just, just, almost, or something, almost, etc.

Bundle

A link is a function word that has broken away from the paradigm of a pronoun or a verb. The link indicates the syntactic relations of the components of the sentence. Linkages include words, phrases, conjugated forms of verbs, forms of the verb be, for example: this, this is, is, is, means, appears, is called, means. Often ligaments are omitted and dashes are put in their place in the sentence, for example: The car - [is] not a luxury, but a means of transportation.

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Introduction

The part of speech is admittedly one of the most general categories of language. They in a certain way group words with similar lexical and grammatical characteristics, with the same way of displaying objective reality. Therefore, the parts of speech have attracted and continue to attract special interest both in solving important theoretical issues and in the practical development of the language. Nevertheless, despite the large number of works on this issue, the problem of parts of speech remains unresolved. For the science of language, the words spoken by O.P. Sunik about four decades ago: “A very old and very confusing question about parts of speech, about their linguistic nature, about their quantity and quality in languages various types and families, as is known, did not receive a satisfactory solution either in grammatical studies on individual languages, or in works on general linguistics The question of parts of speech has occupied the minds of scientists since ancient times.
Aristotle, Plato, Yaska, Panini were engaged in research in this area; in Russian linguistics, L.V. Shcherba, V.V.
Vinogradov, A. A. Shakhmatov and others.

Principles of classification of parts of speech.

All words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories, called parts of speech. Parts of speech- the main lexical and grammatical categories, according to which the words of the language are distributed on the basis of signs: a) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.), b) morphological (morphological categories of a word) and c) s and n t a x i c h e c o o g (syntactic functions of the word).

The parts of speech are the categories of the most general. Nouns have a general meaning of objectivity, adjectives - qualities, a verb - actions, etc. All these meanings (subjectivity, quality, action) are among the general lexico-grammatical meanings, while the actual lexical meanings of words are different, and the same stem can become a source of formation of words that differ in grammatical features, i.e. different parts of speech. For example, from the basics that have a general meaning of objectivity - stone, wood, you can form nouns stone, tree, and adjectives stone, wood, and verbs to stone, to stiffen; from the foundations that have the general meaning of quality, - white, deaf, not only adjectives can be formed white, deaf or verbs to turn white, to stun, but also nouns whiteness, deafness. The lexical meanings of the stems, even within the same part of speech, can be different and differ markedly from the grammatical meanings. For example, adjectives along with the meaning of quality - white, skinny can be related to the meaning of objectivity - gold, brick, action process - evasive, loose, etc. . Adjectives express objectivity and the process of action not abstractly, but only as a sign of some object or phenomenon of reality ( gold bracelet, brick house, evasive answer, loose material), as belonging to an object or phenomenon, while nouns that have quality values ​​( whiteness, deafness) or actions ( running, running), denote independent (independent) concepts and may have adjectives defining them: pleasant whiteness, severe deafness, constant running around, fresh uprooting etc.

Morphological features different parts of speech are different. For example, nouns have the categories of gender, case, and number. Adjectives also have grammatical categories of gender, number and case. But if the gender, number and case of nouns are grammatically independent categories, then for adjectives they entirely depend on the noun to which the adjective refers. Verbs have the category of person, tense, mood, aspect, voice, number. At the same time, the categories of time, mood, aspect, voice are inherent only in the verb. And the category of number covers different parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs), the category of person is also inherent in pronouns.

Parts of speech differ in the nature of morphological changes: nouns change in cases and numbers (decline), but not in gender; adjectives change not only by cases and numbers, but also by gender; verbs - according to persons, numbers, tenses and moods (conjugate), and adverbs and impersonal predicative words (state category) are distinguished by immutability.

In some inflected parts of speech, words that do not undergo morphological changes are distinguished. This includes, for example, borrowed nouns ( coat, subway etc.), which do not change either in cases or in numbers; adjectives borrowed type beige, burgundy and etc.

Depending on the role of which members of the sentence this or that part of speech is used, as well as on what words it is combined with in the sentence, various syntactic functions parts of speech. For example, nouns in a sentence most often act as a subject and an object. Adjectives perform the function of definition. Verbs act primarily as a predicate.

Classification andparts of speech

The modern classification of parts of speech in Russian is basically traditional and is based on the doctrine of eight parts of speech in ancient grammars.

I. The first grammar of the Russian language was "Russian Grammar" by Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1755). Lomonosov divided all parts of speech into significant and auxiliary. Two parts of speech - the name and the verb - were called the main, or significant, the remaining six - the pronoun, participle, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection - official. The main provisions of M.V. Lomonosov entered the Russian grammatical tradition and were revealed, supplemented in the works of A.Kh. Vostokova, F.I. Buslaeva, A.A. Potebni, F.F. Fortunatova, A.M. Peshkovsky, A.A. Shakhmatova, V.A. Bogoroditsky, L.V. Shcherba and V.V. Vinogradov.

II. In the "Russian Grammar" by Alexander Khristoforovich Vostokov (1831), the traditional eight parts of speech were preserved. However, the adjective was singled out from the name as a special part of the speech of the East, but participles were considered as a kind of adjectives (“effective adjectives”), and numerals were also assigned to adjectives.

III. Fedor Ivanovich Buslaev in his work "The Experience of the Historical Grammar of the Russian Language" (1858) delimits the parts of speech into significant and auxiliary. He refers to significant words as three parts of speech: a noun, an adjective and a verb.

As part of the official parts of speech, Buslaev names five: pronouns, a numeral, a preposition, a union and an adverb. Moreover, he divides adverbs into two groups: 1) formed from significant words, for example, again, sideways, and 2) formed from service words, for example, here, there, twice. The former should be considered as part of significant parts of speech, the latter - as part of official words.

IV. Alexander Afanasyevich Potebnya in the book "From Notes on Russian Grammar" (1874) somewhat redistributes the parts of speech. He refers to significant parts (“lexical words”): verb, noun, adjective and adverb; to official ("formal words"): conjunctions, prepositions, particles and auxiliary verbs; pronouns are considered separately.

v. In the course "Comparative Linguistics" by Philip Fedorovich Fortunatov (1901-1902), there is no traditional division of words into parts of speech and grammatical categories are distinguished according to formal features: 1) full words: verbs, nouns, adjectives, infinitives, adverbs, which are divided into conjugated , declinable and non-declining; 2) partial words; 3) interjections stand separately.

VI. Common list includes Academician A.A. Shakhmatova 14 parts of speech, of which 4 are significant (noun, adjective, adverb, verb), 4 non-significant (pronoun-noun, pronoun-adjective, pronominal adverb, numeral), 5 auxiliary (preposition, copula, particle , union, prefix) and one special part of speech (interjection).

VII. The classification of parts of speech proposed by the representative of the Kazan Linguistic School Vasily Alekseevich Bogoroditsky is not without interest. He singles out: 1) words with an independent meaning: noun, verb, personal pronoun;

2) words with a lesser degree of independence: adjectives, numerals, definitive pronouns, participles, adverbs, gerunds; 3) words without their own meaning: prepositions and conjunctions; 4) interjections stand separately.

VIII. Huge contribution Academician Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba contributed to the development of the theory of parts of speech. The scientist distinguishes "two correlative categories: the category of significant words and the category of auxiliary words." To the words of L.V. Shcherba refers to the verb, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, quantitative words (i.e. numerals), the category of state, or predicative adverbs. As part of service words, Shcherba calls ligaments ( be), prepositions, particles, unions (coordinative, connecting, connecting), words "separating", or fused unions ( and - and, neither - nor etc.), relative words (or subordinating conjunctions). Separately, he considers interjections and the so-called onomatopoeic words. L.V. Shcherba was also the first to single out parts of speechRussian language category u states (in article "On parts of speech in Russian" 1928 ).

IX. The classification of academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov is one of the most reasonable and convincing. She divides all words into four grammatical-semantic (structural-semantic) categories of words:

1. Words-names, or parts of speech;

2. Connective, service words, or particles of speech;

3. Modal words;

4. Interjections.

1. Words-names (parts of speech) designate objects, processes, qualities, signs, numerical connections and relationships, are members of a sentence and can be used separately from other words as sentence words. To the parts of speech V.V. Vinogradov refers nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words to the category of state; pronouns are also attached to them.

2. Service words are devoid of a nominative (naming) function. These include connective, auxiliary words (prepositions, conjunctions, proper particles, bundles).

3. Modal words and particles also do not perform a nominative function, but are more “lexical” than auxiliary words. They express the attitude of the speaker to the content of the utterance.

4. Interjections express feelings, moods and volitional impulses, but do not name and. Interjections differ from other types of words in the absence of cognitive value, intonation features, syntactic disorganization and direct connection with facial expressions and expressive test.

In modern Russian, 10 parts of speech are distinguished: 1) noun,

2) adjective, 3) numeral, 4) pronoun, 5) category of state, 6) adverb, 7) preposition, 8) union, 9) particles, 10) verb (sometimes participles and gerunds are also distinguished as independent parts of speech ). The first six parts of speech are significant performing a nominative function and acting as members of the proposal. Special place among them are pronouns, including words devoid of a nominative function. Prepositions, conjunctions, particles - official parts of speech that do not have a nominative function and do not act as independent members of the sentence. In addition to the named classes of words, in modern Russian there are special groups words: 1) modal words expressing the attitude of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker ( probably, obviously, of course); 2) interjections that serve to express feelings and will ( oh, oh, chick); 3) onomatopoeic words ( quack-quack, meow-meow).

Conclusion

The question of parts of speech in linguistics is debatable. Parts of speech are the result of a certain classification, depending on what is taken as the basis for the classification. So, in linguistics there are classifications of parts of speech, which are based on only one feature (generalized meaning, morphological features or syntactic role). There are classifications using several bases. School classification is of this kind. The number of parts of speech in different linguistic works is different and ranges from 4 to 15 parts of speech. But the most productive and universal approach seems to be the approach to parts of speech as lexico-grammatical categories of words, taking into account their syntactic role.

7. Rakhmanova L.I., Suzdaltseva V.N. Modern Russian language. - M., Moscow State University, 1997. - C. 144

8. Rybacheva L.V. Modern Russian literary language. Morphology. - Voronezh., VSU, 2008. - C. 7

9. Nikonova M.N. Modern Russian language. - Omsk., OmGTU, 2008. - P. 88

10. Sidorenko E.N. General issues theory of parts of speech. Noun

Introduction

Chapter I. From the history of the doctrine of parts of speech

Chapter II. Criteria for the allocation of parts of speech in the works of various scientists

Chapter III. Parts of speech in Russian

Bibliography

Introduction

The question of parts of speech has occupied the minds of scientists since ancient times. Aristotle, Plato, Yaska, Panini were engaged in research in this area; in Russian linguistics, L.V. Shcherba, V.V.

Vinogradov, A. A. Shakhmatov and others.

The most common and necessary categories in the grammar of each language are the parts of speech. With clarification of the question of parts of speech, a grammatical description of any language begins. Speaking of parts of speech, they mean the grammatical grouping of lexical units of the language, i.e. the allocation in the vocabulary of the language of certain groups or categories, characterized by certain features. But on what basis are groupings of words called parts of speech distinguished, what is their role?

The problem concerning the essence of parts of speech and the principles of their selection in various languages of the world is one of the most controversial problems of general linguistics.

Are separate parts of speech distinguished on the basis of one leading feature inherent in words related to a given grouping of words, or are they distinguished on the basis of a combination of various features, of which not one can be called the leading one? If the first is true, then what is the leading feature? Lexical meaning of the word? The logical category enclosed in it? Its connection with the grammatical category? Its morphological nature? Its syntactic function? His role in speech?

Knowledge in the field of the nature of the word, in particular its grammatical nature, is not yet deep enough to be able to construct a grammatical classification of words in the scientific sense of the word, and the distribution of words gradually emerging and entrenched in the tradition of parts of speech is not yet a classification, but only a statement that among the words there are groupings united by one or another common and more or less significant, but not always clear signs.

There is another problem in determining the role, the essence of parts of speech. This is the problem of the universal nature of parts of speech, i.e. whether parts of speech are distinguished in all languages, whether the set of parts of speech is the same in all languages.

Analyzing research in the field of parts of speech, the purpose of this test is to determine the role of parts of speech.

Chapter I . From the history of the doctrine of parts of speech

For a very long time, people intuitively, on the basis of a wide variety of criteria, established certain classes of words, which turned out to be convenient to establish when describing languages ​​with a division of the vocabulary into parts of speech. In the history of the science of language, starting with the ancient Indian linguists and Aristotle, there is a constant desire to characterize certain classes of words, to clarify their role.

Yaska and Panini (V - III century BC) established four parts of speech in ancient Indian languages: name, verb, preposition and particle. They were combined in pairs on the basis of the preservation of the meaning outside the sentence (name, verb) or the loss of the meaning outside the sentence (preposition, particle). Name and verb in a sentence, i.e. as word forms of the speech chain, were called "case" and "action"". As a subgroup of names Jaska singled out pronouns. The semantic criterion was the leading one in establishing the parts of speech in ancient Indian linguistics.

Aristotle (IV century BC) established three parts of speech in the ancient Greek language: the name, the verb and conjunctions (which also included articles, pronouns, copulas). Later Alexandrian grammarians established eight parts of speech: noun, verb, participle, article, pronoun, adverb, preposition, conjunction. Roman linguists, removing the article from the parts of speech (there was no article in Latin), added an interjection. In the Middle Ages, the adjective began to be emphasized. The classification of parts of speech in ancient linguistics was compiled in close connection with the development of logic: parts of speech were identified with the members of the sentence and approached the members of the judgment, i.e. with categories of logic. But still, this classification was partially grammatical, since some parts of speech were established by the presence of certain grammatical forms and meanings (for example, verbs are words that change in numbers, tenses, persons, etc. and denote an action).

The grammar of the ancient world, the Middle Ages, and even the Renaissance dealt mainly with Greek and Latin; when developing the grammars of new Western European languages, linguists proceeded from the norms of the Latin language.

In the XIX - XX centuries. the traditional system of parts of speech ceases to satisfy scientists.

In the 19th century In connection with the intensive development of linguistics, in particular morphology, with the study of many new languages, the question arises of what criteria should be used to distinguish parts of speech and whether they are different in different languages. The allocation of parts of speech is beginning to be based on morphological criteria, i.e. on the commonality of grammatical forms inherent in certain categories of words. An example of the allocation of parts of speech from a formal grammatical point of view is the definition of parts of speech by F. F. Fortunatov. F.F. Fortunatov singled out the parts of speech that he called “formal classes” by the presence of certain forms of inflection in the corresponding words: inflected words, conjugated words, indeclinable and non-conjugated words. Proceeding from this, a noun is such a formal class (according to Fortunatov), ​​which has a case form, and an adjective is such a formal class, which is characterized by the form of gender, number and case.

Along with the morphological criterion, the logical-syntactic criterion of approach to the characterization of parts of speech continued to develop. From a syntactic point of view, words that act as the same member of a sentence are combined into the same part of speech. For example, those words that can act as definitions are adjectives. Based on the narrow morphological or syntactic features of words, which are always in one way or another connected with their proper lexical meaning, parts of speech began to be designated as ""lexical-grammatical categories of words"".

Chapter II . Criteria for the allocation of parts of speech in the works of various scientists

According to F. I. Buslaev, there are nine parts of speech in the language: verb, pronoun, noun, adjective, numeral, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection. F.I. Buslaev allocates the latter to a special department.

The remaining parts of speech are divided into significant (noun, adjective and verb) and service (pronoun, numeral, preposition, conjunction and auxiliary verb); adverbs according to this classification (as well as verbs, by the way) fall into two groups: those derived from the service parts of speech belong to the service parts of speech, and those derived from the significant ones belong to the significant ones. Thus, it turns out that the division of words into significant and auxiliary ones does not coincide with their division into parts of speech.

F. I. Buslaev's observation of the closed nature of the list of functional words and the open nature of the list of verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs, which, according to him, are "countless"; but he denies the open nature of the list of numerals.

The most important in relation to the definition of parts of speech (which F. I. Buslaev considered in syntax) is his statement that "" in order to form a complete concept of the individual words used in speech, they must be considered in two ways: 1) in relation to the dictionary 2) in relation to grammar. In the first respect, attention is drawn to the expression of representations and concepts in a separate word, and in the latter, to the meaning and belonging of each part of speech separately "". This statement is, in essence, the key to defining the concept of parts of speech in modern linguistics.

V. V. Vinogradov defended a synthetic approach to parts of speech based on an in-depth analysis of the concept of words, its form and structure in the language.

Classification cannot ignore any side in the structure of the word, although lexical and grammatical criteria, in his opinion, should play a decisive role, and morphological features are combined with syntactic ones in "" organic unity "", since there is nothing in morphology that is not or before it was not in syntax and vocabulary. An analysis of the semantic structure of a word led V. V. Vinogradov to distinguish four main grammatical and semantic categories of words:

1. Words-names, to which pronouns adjoin, form the subject-semantic, lexical and grammatical foundation of speech and are parts of speech.

2. Particles of speech, i.e. connective, auxiliary words, devoid of a nominative function, closely related to the technique of language, and their lexical meanings are identical with grammatical ones, words that lie on the verge of vocabulary and grammar.

3. Modal words and particles, devoid, like linking words, of the nominative function, but more ""lexical"": ""wedged"" into the sentence, marking the relation of speech to reality from the point of view of the subject of speech. When attached to a sentence, modal words are outside of both parts of speech and particles of speech, although ""in appearance"" may sound like both.

4. Interjections in the broad sense of the word, having no cognitive value, syntactically unorganized, unable to be combined with other words, having an affective coloring, close to facial expressions and gestures.

V. V. Vinogradov notes that the ways of expressing grammatical meanings and the very nature of these meanings are heterogeneous for different semantic types of words. In the system of parts of speech, according to V. V. Vinogradov, grammatical differences between different categories of words come out most sharply and definitely. The division of parts of speech into the main grammatical categories is due to:

1. Differences in those syntactic functions that different categories of words perform in connected speech, in the structure of a sentence;

2. Differences in the morphological standing of words and word forms;

3. Differences in the real (lexical) meanings of words;

4. Differences in the way reality is reflected;

5. Differences in the nature of those correlative and subordinating categories that are associated with one or another part of speech.

V. V. Vinogradov, noting that in different languages ​​there may be different composition parts of speech, emphasized the dynamism of the system of parts of speech in one language.

Chapter III . Parts of speech in Russian

Parts of speech are groups of words combined on the basis of the commonality of their features. The signs on the basis of which the division of words into parts of speech occurs are not uniform for different groups of words.

According to their role in the language, parts of speech are divided into independent and auxiliary parts.

Independent words can be divided into significant and pronominal. Significant words name objects, signs, actions, relations, quantity, and pronominal words indicate objects, signs, actions, relations, quantity, without naming them and being substitutes for significant words in a sentence (cf .: table - he, convenient - such, easy - so, five - how many). Pronominal words form a separate part of speech - the pronoun.

Significant words are divided into parts of speech, taking into account the following features:

1) generalized value;

2) morphological features;

3) syntactic behavior (syntactic functions and syntactic links).

There are at least five significant parts of speech: a noun, an adjective, a numeral (a group of names), an adverb and a verb.

Thus, parts of speech are lexico-grammatical classes of words, i.e., classes of words distinguished taking into account their generalized meaning, morphological features and syntactic behavior.

There are 10 parts of speech, grouped into three groups:

1. Independent parts of speech: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.

2. Service parts of speech: preposition, union, particle.

3. Interjection.

The modern Russian language has a large number of morphological variant forms. Some of them settled in literary language, are recognized as normative, while others are perceived as speech errors. Variants of forms can be associated with different meanings of the word. Also, variant forms may differ in stylistic coloring. Variants of forms associated with the categories of gender and number can also be stylistically colored.

Morphology - (Greek "morphe" - form, "logos" - science, word) - a section of grammar in which words are studied as parts of speech. And that means studying common values and changing words. Words can change by gender, number, case, person, etc. For example, a noun denotes an object and changes in numbers and cases, an adjective denotes a sign of an object and changes in genders, numbers and cases. But, there are words that do not change, for example, prepositions, conjunctions and adverbs.

In speech, independent and auxiliary words perform different work. In a sentence, independent words, naming objects, their signs, actions, etc., play the role of members of the sentence, and auxiliary words most often serve to connect independent words.

Noun

A noun is an independent significant part of speech that combines words that:

1) have a generalized meaning of objectivity and answer the questions who? or what?;

2) are proper or common nouns, animate or inanimate, have a constant gender and non-permanent (for most nouns) signs of number and case;

3) in the proposal most often act as subjects or additions, but can be any other members of the proposal.

A noun is a part of speech, in the selection of which the grammatical features of words come to the fore. As for the meaning of nouns, this is the only part of speech that can mean anything: an object (table), a person (boy), an animal (cow), a sign (depth), an abstract concept (conscience), an action (singing) , relation (equality). In terms of meaning, these words are united by the fact that you can ask them the question who? or what?; this, in fact, is their objectivity.

Adjective

An adjective is an independent significant part of speech that combines words that:

1) designate a non-procedural sign of the subject and answer the questions what ?, whose ?;

2) change by gender, number and case, and some - by completeness / brevity and degrees of comparison;

3) in a sentence there are definitions or a nominal part of a compound nominal predicate.

Adjectives depend on nouns, so questions to adjectives are asked from nouns. Adjectives help us to select the desired item from a variety of identical items. Our speech without adjectives would be like a painting painted with gray paint. Adjectives make our speech more accurate and figurative, as they allow us to show various signs of an object.

Numeral

The numeral is an independent significant part of speech that combines words that denote numbers, the number of objects or the order of objects when counting and answer the question how many? or what?.

The numeral is a part of speech in which words are combined based on the commonality of their meaning - relation to number. The grammatical features of numerals are heterogeneous and depend on which category the numeral belongs to in terms of meaning.

Number words play an important role in people's lives. Numbers measure the number of objects, distance, time, size of objects, their weight, cost. In writing, words-numbers are often replaced by numbers. In the documents, it is necessary that the amount be written in words, and not just in numbers.

Pronoun as a part of speech

A pronoun is an independent non-significant part of speech that indicates objects, signs or quantities, but does not name them.

The grammatical features of pronouns are different and depend on which part of speech the pronoun acts as a substitute in the text.

Pronouns are classified by meaning and by grammatical features.

Pronouns are used in speech instead of nouns, adjectives, numerals and adverbs. Pronouns help to combine sentences into a coherent text, to avoid repetition of the same words in speech.

An adverb is an independent part of speech denoting a sign of an action, sign, state, rarely an object. Adverbs are invariable (with the exception of qualitative adverbs in -о/-е) and adjoin the verb, adjective, another adverb (run fast, very fast, very fast). In a sentence, an adverb is usually an adverb.

In rare cases, an adverb can adjoin a noun: racing (the noun has the meaning of action), soft-boiled egg, Warsaw coffee. In these cases, the adverb acts as an inconsistent definition.

Classification of adverbs is carried out on two grounds - by function and by meaning.

The verb is an independent significant part of speech, denoting an action (read), a state (sick), a property (limp), an attitude (equal), a sign (turn white).

The grammatical features of the verb are heterogeneous in different groups of verb forms. The verb word combines: an indefinite form (infinitive), conjugated (personal and impersonal) forms, non-conjugated forms - participles and participles.

Verbs for speech are very important because they allow you to call various activities.

Participle

Participle as a morphological phenomenon is interpreted in linguistics ambiguously. In some linguistic descriptions, the participle is considered an independent part of speech, in others - a special form of the verb.

The participle denotes a sign of an object by action, combines the properties of an adjective and a verb. V oral speech participles are used less frequently than in writing.

gerund

Like the participle, the participle can be considered as an independent part of speech or as a special form of the verb.

A gerund is a special form of a verb that has the following features:

1. Indicates an additional action, answers the questions what by doing? or doing what?

2. Has the grammatical features of a verb and an adverb.

Service parts of speech

Service parts are those parts of speech that, without independent parts of speech, cannot form a sentence and serve to connect independent units or to express additional shades of meaning.

A preposition is an official part of speech that serves to connect a noun, pronoun and numeral with other words in a phrase. Prepositions can denote relationships between an action and an object (looking at the sky), an object and an object (a boat with a sail), a sign and an object (ready for self-sacrifice).

Prepositions do not change, they are not independent members of the sentence.

Linking independent words with each other, prepositions express, together with the endings of independent words, various semantic meanings.

A union is a service part of speech that serves to connect homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of a complex sentence, as well as individual sentences in the text.

Unions do not change, are not members of the proposal.

A particle is a service part of speech that serves to express shades of meanings of words, phrases, sentences and to form word forms.

In accordance with this, particles are usually divided into two categories - semantic and formative.

Particles do not change, are not members of the sentence.

Interjection

Interjection is a special part of speech that does not belong to either the independent group or the service group.

An interjection is a part of speech that combines words that express feelings, an impulse to action, or are formulas for verbal communication ( speech etiquette).

conclusions

At the end of this work, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. The question of parts of speech in linguistics is debatable. Parts of speech are the result of a certain classification, depending on what is taken as the basis for the classification. So, in linguistics there are classifications of parts of speech, which are based on only one feature (generalized meaning, morphological features or syntactic role). There are classifications using several bases. School classification is of this kind. The number of parts of speech in different linguistic works is different and ranges from 4 to 15 parts of speech. But the most productive and universal approach seems to be the approach to parts of speech as lexico-grammatical categories of words, taking into account their syntactic role.

2. Language belongs to those social phenomena that operate throughout the entire existence of human society. Being a means of communication between people, language is closely connected with the life of society. Changes in social life are reflected in the language: in grammar, in phonetics, in vocabulary, in the morphology of the language. Language is used to convey certain information. The role of parts of speech in the language is undeniably great, since with the help of them we can exchange information, express emotions, describe actions, name objects, etc.

Bibliography:

1. Vinogradov VV Russian language (Grammatical doctrine of the word). M.,

graduate School, 1986. 639s.

2. Kochergina V. A. Introduction to linguistics. M., ed. Moscow State University, 1970. 526 p.

3. Maslov M. Yu. Introduction to linguistics. M., Higher School, 1997. 272p.

4. Rakhmanin L.V. Stylistics of business speech and editing official documents. Uchebn. allowance. M., Higher school, 1998. 239p.

5. Rosenthal D.E. Practical stylistics of the Russian language. Textbook for high schools. M., Higher school, 1977. 316s.