Ancient world (1st century BC - 5th century AD).

Music in primitive society : one). ritual nature (accompanied rituals and ceremonies of a peaceful or military nature); music at an early stage of development was mainly of a rhythmic and invocative nature. 2). syncretic character (indissoluble unity of singing, dance and music).

Music in ancient states played a significant role in the rituals of the church (initiation into rulers, priests, wars) and secular nature (accompanying festivities and funeral processions). ABOUT important role Music in ancient states is evidenced, first of all, by frescoes depicting musicians and dancers, and references in the literary sources of those times.

Egypt.

"Passion-mysteries"- the highest achievement of the serious musical art of Egypt, telling about Gods and heroes, instructive. Instruments: brass, percussion, strings (ancestors of the harp).

Greece.

Music functions: 1). accompaniment of ceremonies; 2). accompaniment of theatrical performances; 3). accompanying the reading of poetic texts; 4). music as a medicine of the spirit (certain modes brought up the soul in a certain way); 5). music as part of mathematical science (intervals measured the distances between the planets).

The largest musical theorist of antiquity:PYTHAGORAS- invented the monochord (6th century BC) - a single-string instrument for measuring the pitch. Pythagoras developed the theory "harmonies of the heavenly spheres" and the aesthetic impact of music on a person.

ancient theater - the most important cultural achievement of Greece, which gave rise to many theatrical and musical traditions. Features of theatrical performances in Greece: but). the texts were spoken in a chant = later, from the revival of this tradition came opera; b). played only by men who used masks And katurna- shoes on a high platform; in). the names of theater venues gave rise to modern theatrical terms; G). seats for spectators were located in a circle with the elevation of each next row above the previous one.

Theatrical antique terms:

orchestra(a platform where the choir stood, commenting on the events) - an orchestra;

skene(the tent where the actors changed) - the scene.

Famous composers of tragedies (they were also directors and, often, actors of their plays):Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides. Created a category catharsis - purification of the soul through suffering.

Famous comedy writers:Aristotle, Archilochus.

In antiquity, tragedies were much more popular as carrying high moral ideals.

The paradox of ancient musical art: music contains the most references in literary and historical sources, many sculptural and fresco images of people playing music, and musical samples are almost gone. Those that have been deciphered do not give an idea of ​​the greatness of the musical art in Greece.

Middle Ages (5th - 16th centuries).

Worldview, psychology, ideals.

outlook ordinary people developed in line with those moods that the church imposed. Medieval man felt himself worthless before the power of the punishing Creator, he felt his endless sinfulness, which was strengthened by the ministers of the church in their own interests (monetary requisitions).

Attitude to life: as a test, suffering, waiting for the Last Judgment.

Characteristic features of medieval art: 1). asceticism, weak emotionality (especially in the first half of medieval art); 2). symbolism, conventionality (this is especially strongly reflected in the icon painting of the early stages of the Middle Ages) 3). irreconcilable antitheses (good-evil, God-devil); 4). the absence of personality as a creative ideal - everything is created in the name of God (therefore, for a very long time, music and painting of the Middle Ages were anonymous, i.e. without indicating the authors); 5). the introduction of a person to the comprehension of the mysteries of divine being -task of the medieval creator(this influenced the strict selection of genres and means of expression0.

Music in the church.

Strict style - a rigid system of composing a melody (even quarts were considered dissonances and jumps to these intervals were forbidden for a long time). Singing in the church remained for a long time monodic, i.e. monophonic. Later, with the development of musical art, there appeared counterpoints, suggesting the presence of several voices and their rearrangement. The earliest form of polyphony is organum(the end of the 9th century, the masters of this genre are Leonin and Perotin).

Gregorian chant - the most important meta of the Middle Ages, reflecting the unity of consciousness in the face of God. GH is a male choral singing in unison of a detached character in Latin (for a long time, services in the church were held only in this language, incomprehensible to ordinary people). GH were created from a variety of chants that existed at that time, ordered by the pope Gregory 1 at the turn of the 6th-7th centuries.

Sequence "Dies irae" ("Day of Wrath") - genre of medieval monody, expanding strict church melodies. The systematization of sequences is creditedNotker Zaika."Dies irae" appeared around the 13th century as a reflection of the peak of the worldview of the Middle Ages with the expectation of the Last Judgment and formidable retribution for sins. This sequence was very often cited in the world musical literature either as a sign of the Middle Ages, or as a symbol of the inevitable, the inevitable (Rakhmaninov, Tchaikovsky) or even the demonic (Berlioz, "Fantastic Symphony", 5th movement, "The Witches' Sabbath").

Notation.

For a long time, the chorales were not recorded, being in the oral tradition. Then they began to use nevma, denoting not a note, but a whole tune. Gradually, rulers began to appear, the number of which varied from 1 to 18. The stave was improved in the 11th century Guido Aretinsky, which, instead of many options, legalized 4 lines.

The most important genre of the late Middle Ages is Mass( the first of those that have come down to us - 1364. G. de Macho) - a cyclic vocal or vocal-instrumental work based on the texts of the Catholic liturgy of the same name. The 5 parts of the mass are ordinariumand are binding and unchangeable. Parts dedicated to certain holidays and Sundays areproprium- variable part of the mass.Proprium Parts: 1). Kyrie eleison (Kyrie eleison - “Lord, have mercy”);2). Gloria (Gloria - "Glory");3). Gredo (Credo - "I believe");4). Sanctus, Benedictus (Sanctus, Benedictus - "Holy, Blessed");5). Agnus Dei (Agnus Dei - "Lamb of God"). The genre of the mass reached its highest perfection in the work ofO.Lasso And D. Palestrino.

Music in a medieval castle (court culture).

Appealed to a person, cultivated admiration for beautiful lady(the image is often fictional, collective). In line with secular castle art, vocal and instrumental genres developed. courtly love("courteous") - assumed the observance of certain rules of versification, behavior and musical accompaniment.

Genres of courtly culture(poetic and musical): 1). canzone(a kind of lyric poem); 2). server(song about knightly exploits); 3). alba(song at dawn); 4). pasturella or pasturel(song in the bosom of nature, praising simple love shepherds); five). ballata(song epic - narrative content) 6). rondo (round dance song).

The Art of the Vagants, Troubadours and Trouvers.

Art de trobar (the art of inventing) - the art of free singers of love, which originated in Provence in the 11th and 12th centuries.Troubadours were often wealthy people (for example, knights) who wandered around native land and composed songs (albs, canzones, etc.) in honor of beautiful lady. Some troubadours were of humble origin and made a living performing their songs.Trouvers(from root trover - find, invent) appeared in the north of France in the 13th century. About 2000 songs have survived, some of the most famous composers of love songs are known, for example,Adam de la Al. In Germany the singers of love were calledminnesingers.In the work of these singers, in addition to the theme of love, there were also moral and instructive motives. Minnesingers establishedsinging competitions (meistersang), who demonstrated their vocal and poetic skills. He reflected the competition of German singers in his operaR. Wagner "Nuremberg Meistersingers". History knows the names of such German minnesingers asTannhäuser(Wagner has an opera of the same name),Wolfram von Eschenbach, Walther von Vogelweide.

In addition to troubadours and minnesingers, there were wandering singers of a different nature - they werepeople from the people, whose art was acutely social and controversial, condemned politics and the church, the texts of these wandering artists often contained frivolous, vulgar stories, which is explained by the origin of these artists and the fact that they worked for the needs of a low-level public. In different countries, these wandering artists were called differently:shpilmans(gamers) in Germany,jugglers in England, buffoonsin Russia. Often a generalized term is used for these musicians -VAGANTS, denoting wandering singers and composers of free poetic texts. Often, half-educated students (schoolchildren) who could not pass the difficult exams and left universities, embarked on wanderings, earning their bread by teaching the received wisdom (Latin, mathematics) to those who could pay, often became vagants. But the vagantes could also steal, cheat, and kill, depending on how strong the moral foundations of each of these representatives were. Excommunicated or runaway monks, impoverished nobles also became vagants. Thus, the contingent was predominantly intellectual and observing the underside of life - the greed and deceit of the ministers of the church, racial riots. The life of many brave vagants ended either in prison or at the stake, as, for example,Hugh of Orleans.

Notable works based on texts by Vagants:

"In the French side" in the processing of D. Tukhmanov;

“Carmina Burana” by K.Orff.

rebirth (15th - 16th centuries; in Italy - from the 14th century).

Worldview, psychology, the subject of rebirth.

Revival of ancient forms of art (sculpture, painting. Architecture). Close attention to a person = greater psychological content in paintings and sculptures, greater accuracy in the transfer of anatomy and perspective. Time of great discoveries (H. Collumb, Magelan), formation of the European nation.

Art Nova. GREAT NAMES:

Painting, sculpture, architecture:

bernini, Leonardo da Vinci, Rafael Santi, Michelangello Buanorotti, Jan van Eyck, P. Veronese, Giotto, Lucas Cranach, A. Durer, Titian, I. Bosch.

Literature, poetry:

Dante("The Divine Comedy"), petrarch(sonnets), Boccacho (freestyle plays), E. Rotterdam("Praise of stupidity"), T.Mor (poetry), F. Rabelais("Gargantua and Pantagruel"), Lope de Vega (plays, theatrical art).

Music has acquired its own meaning, ceasing to be only applied (that is, to accompany festivities and rituals), music began to appear on its own. As a kind of professional art.

The heyday of Renaissance polyphony in the work of composers of the Dutch school - F. Landino, G. Dufay, Okegema, J. Despres, Obrecht.

Development instrumental performance, the development of genres only for instrumental playing (viola, lute).

Genres of secular musical art:

madrigals, chanson, villanels, frottolas, ballads, motets.

Unusual composer of the Renaissance - Gesualdo da Venosa(late 16th - early 17th century), who created a complex chromatic style and bold tonal juxtapositions that reflected the conflicting moods of the composer's musical compositions. Venosa - the greatest master of the madrigal (songs in mother tongue). The gloomy story of the murder of his wife and child is also connected with him, after which the composer committed suicide. This story was based on the Soviet composer's opera A. Schnittke (opera "Gesualdo").

Baroque (2nd half of the 17th - first half of the 18th century).

The meaning of the term Baroque.

Translated from Portuguese - "pearl irregular shape» - whimsical, strange = invention of new genres and instruments, detailing the nuances of music.

Worldview, psychology.

Characteristic features of the time: one). “The connecting thread has broken. How can I connect the pieces of them? .. "( Shakespeare,"Hamlet") = "torn" picture of the world (invention microscope And telescope expanded people's ideas about the world); 2). acceleration of the pace of life (God is the eternal watchmaker; added tempo dynamic notation into works; Madonnas in the paintings do not sit, but “soar” in chairs); 3). time is understood as an alternation contrast processes; 4). mixture of tragic and comic, violation of the laws of ancient Greek tragedy(Shakespeare's plays, for example. In tragedies they always contain a comic farce, and in comedies there is seriousness); 5).trend to violation of the canons, ingenuity; 6). freedom in the interpretation of any genre.

Features of musical art.

one). destruction of ideas about the logic of the old voice leading, the introduction of parallelisms, tritones, unexpected transitions to distant keys (especially in music J.S. Bach).

2). development polyphonic art (in translation - polyphony) - a type of music in which each of the voices has a certain independent trajectory of movement, and at the same time, obeys certain rules for composing counterpoint;

3). music is proclaimed an independent art.

Composers: J.S. Bach, G.F. Handel(Germany); G.Caccini, C. Monteverdi, O.Chesti (Italy); earlier polyphonic composers: Gabrieli, Frescobaldi, Kunau, Buxtehude, Pahebel.

Genres of musical works:

1). fugue(in translation - “running”) - a genre of polyphonic music in which a certain number of voices (from 3 to 10) consistently carry out a theme, and then begin to rearrange relative to each other according to the rules of contrapuntal technique;

2). toccata(from "tokkare" - to strike) - a genre of prelude-improvisational nature, often an introduction to the strict part of the work (for example, fugue);

3). invention (translated("invent", "invent") - free name of plays of free-imitation construction;

4). opera(in translation - "labor", "creation") - a genre of stage art that combines singing, instrumental performance, ballet, decorative and staging skills.

5). suite(in translation - “row”, “sequence”) - a sequence of mandatory (4 old dances) and optional plays;

6). oratorio(in translation - eloquence) - a monumental work for the choir, soloists and orchestra on a certain plot basis, intended for concert performance;

7). cantata - a composition for singers-soloists, an orchestra and, possibly, a choir, consisting of completed numbers-episodes, intended for concert performance. Cantatas are smaller than oratorios in terms of the scale of the plot and in terms of duration in time;

8). sonata(translated as "to sound") - in the Baroque era - any instrumental work for four instruments with an obligatory keyboard player who performed the basso continua part;

9). concert(in translation - “competition”, “competition”) - a virtuoso work for orchestra and soloist (in the Baroque era, various groups of the orchestra competed - large and small, not all composers had a pronounced solo part of the soloist),

Musical instruments:

clavichord, harpsichord, violin(Amati, Guarneri, Stradivari), viola, cello.

Classicism (2nd half of the 18th century - 1st half of the 19th century).

The direction that has developed in France and has become the leading one for this country and Germany.

Worldview, psychology.

The mind is at the head of everything. The desire for a rational solution of conflicts, edification in plays, literary works (return to ancient forms of harmony in plays). New forms of city design as a reflection of a new psychology: straight paths, bushes cut to fit certain geometric shapes, etc.

Appearance encyclopedists(J.-J. Rousseau, D. Diderot etc.), who systematized vast knowledge in the first encyclopedias.

Features of musical art.

The orderliness of the form of the main genres, bringing their diversity to a common standard. Classic - translated as "exemplary".

Active development of instrumental genres.

domination sonata form - one of the most complex musical forms, comparable in dramatic complexity to the novel. Sonata form suggests the presence exposure, development And reprises, in which there is a display, development and return of themes to their original tonality.

Genres:

1). symphony(in translation - "consonance") - usually - a 4-part cycle for a symphony orchestra, in which at least one of the parts is written in sonata form.

2). sonata(translated as "to sound") - A 3-movement piece for piano or for solo instrument(s) and piano, in which at least one of the movements is written in sonata form.

3). quartet(in translation - “fourth”) - a 4-part work for 4 instruments (most often these are strings - violin, viola, cello, double bass), in which at least one of the parts is written in sonata form.

4). concert(in translation - "competition", "competition") - a 3-part virtuoso work for orchestra and soloist, in which at least one of the parts is written in sonata form.

5). theme with variations a genre designed to demonstrate the composer's or performer's virtuosity in handling a theme (composers or performers often improvised at concerts on a theme given by the audience). The theme could be borrowed from any composition (even from an opera) one's own or someone else's.

Composers:

D. Scarlatti (early classicism), J. Haydn("father" of the genres symphony, sonata and quartet - that is, he brought these genres into an exemplary, classical form), W. Mozart,L. van Beethoven.

Romanticism (2nd half of the 19th century).

Worldview, psychology.

1). A romantic is a person with a heightened perception of the events of the outside world, vulnerable, sensitive, prone to dramatization or idealization of events.

2). The contradiction of the inner and outer worlds;

3). feeling of loneliness;

4). Feeling the hostility of the outside world;

five). Admiration for nature, endowing it with animated qualities;

6). Interest in folk culture (processing of folk melodies, use of folk texts).

Features of musical art.

one). increased emotionality of music or its meditative-reflective character;

2). significant connection with literary and artistic images (from program headings to leitmotifs that have specific figurative expressions);

3). tendency to choose small forms (impromptu, musical moments, ecossaises) = confidence of the statement, designed for a small circle of the closest, understanding people;

4). feeling of improvisation;

five). complex emotional and dramatic basis of music;

6). complication of texture (often of a mixed type with several solo voices in the form of a dialogue - Schumann, Chopin) and harmony (transitions to distant keys, complication of the composition of harmonic functions).

Writers:

G. Heine, E. Hoffman, V.Hugo, O. Balzac, A. Dumas.

Composers:

Early Romanticism: K.-M. Von Weber, F. Mendelssohn, F. Schubert, G. Rossini.

Mature romanticism:R. Schubert, F. Chopin, B. Smetana, R. Wagner, G. Verdi.

Late romanticism:A. Dvorak, R. Wagner, G. Verdi, G. Mahler, G. Puccini.

Multistyle (XX century).

Worldview, psychology.

1. socio-historical cataclysms (World Wars, revolutions);

2. NTCP(scientific and technical progress);

3. plurality of attitudes;

4. pluralism - permissiveness; everything is relative, even the eternal categories of goodness, beauty and truth = cynicism, cruelty of perception;

5. general acceleration of the pace of life.

The difference between directions and style: style manifests itself in all forms of art, direction- in one or more (for example, in literature and painting). Style has a more comprehensive meaning than a direction and can give a name to an entire era (for example, the Middle Ages and the Baroque).

Features of musical art.

1. close connection of all types of art, the transition of the properties of one art to the properties of another(for example, symbolist poets often called their poems music or musical genres);

2. transformation and rethinking (change) of musical genres;

3. invention of new genres and techniques.

Composers:

Foreign:

C. Debussy, M. Ravel, A. Schoenberg, A. Berg, A.Webern, K.Orff, B.Bartok, D. Millau, F. Poulenc, J.Taifer, P. Hindemith, P. Boulez, D. Lighetti, K. Penderetsky.

Domestic:

S. Prokofiev, D. Shostakovich, G.Sviridov, V. Gavrilin, A. Schnittke, S. Gubaidulina, Ustvolskaya.

Modern times (21st century, Ural and Russian composers):

O. Viktorova, V. Yakimovsky, O. Payberdin, V. Kobekin, A. Zhemchuzhnikov, D. Pavlov, L. Tabachnik, L. Gurevich.

The name of this period was given by the historians of the Renaissance, defining the middle "gap" between the ideal Antiquity and the revival of its traditions in the 14-16 centuries. The term "Middle Ages" for a long time had a negative and dismissive character.

Comedy is not in the sense that the text contains something funny, but according to the ancient principle: it starts badly and ends well (in a tragedy it is the other way around).

The number of styles and trends is huge, if not endless. They do not have clear boundaries, smoothly pass one into another and are in continuous development, mixing and opposition. That is why it is often so difficult to distinguish one from the other. Many of the styles in art coexist at the same time and therefore there are no “pure” works (painting, architecture, etc.) at all.

However, the understanding and ability to distinguish between styles largely depends on the knowledge of history. When we understand the history of the formation and transformation of Western European art, the features and historical features of each style will become more clear.

1. Art of the Ancient World: before 5th century AD

Ancient Egypt

The art of Ancient Egypt, as well as the art of Mesopotamia that preceded it, is de facto not Western European. But it had a significant impact on the Minoan and, indirectly, on the ancient Greek civilization. Characteristic features of Egyptian art is the great importance of the funeral cult, for the sake of which many works of art were created, which had a more utilitarian function for contemporaries.

Ancient Greece

Antique ancient Greek art laid the foundation for the development of all European art in the future, creating a number of reference samples (for example, the Parthenon and Venus de Milo). The Greeks created ideal examples of classical sculpture. Significant (but having a much lesser impact on subsequent generations) was the genre of vase painting. Painting samples Ancient Greece have not been preserved.

Characteristics of the pictorial language - ideal appearance, calculated anatomical canon, harmony and balance, the golden section, taking into account optical distortions. Over the next centuries, art will turn several times to the heritage of Ancient Greece and draw ideas from it.

Ancient Rome

Ancient Roman art was influenced by both ancient Greek and local Italic Etruscan art. The most significant monuments of this period are powerful architectural structures (for example, the Pantheon), as well as an elaborate sculptural portrait. A large number of picturesque frescoes have also come down to us.

Early Christian art will take from Roman iconography and types of architectural structures, significantly reworking them under the influence of a new ideology.

2. Middle Ages: V - XV (XVI) centuries.

The art of the Middle Ages is characterized by a decline in visual means compared to the previous era of antiquity. The onset of the Dark Ages, when a large number of both skills and monuments were lost, led to a greater primitiveness of works of art.

An additional aspect is the priority of the spiritual rather than the bodily, which led to a weakening of interest in material objects and to a more noticeable generalization, coarsening of works of art.

Byzantium

Byzantine mosaic (5th century)

Byzantine art was at first the heir of late Roman art, enriched by a rich Christian ideology. Characteristic features of the art of this era is sacralization, as well as the exaltation of the emperor. From new genres: excellent achievements in the genre of mosaics and icon painting, from old ones in temple architecture.

Early Middle Ages

Art of the Early Middle Ages (until about the 11th century) created in the Dark Ages, when the situation is complicated by the migrations of barbarian peoples through the territories of the former Roman Empire.

Almost all of the surviving monuments from this period are illuminated manuscripts, although architectural objects and small arts and crafts can also be found.

Romanica

Romanesque art (XI-XII centuries) continued until it was replaced by Gothic. This was a period of increasing prosperity for Europeans, and for the first time one can see a common European style, consistently found from Scandinavia to Spain.

Painting in the crypt of the Basilica of Saint Isidore

Characteristic features: vigorous and direct forms, bright colors. The main genre is architecture (thick-walled, with the use of arches and vaults), but stained-glass windows and enamel work also become an important genre. Sculpture develops.

Gothic

Fragment of stained glass window

Gothic (XIII-XVI years)- The next international style that swept Europe. It originated in France as the next step in the development of architectural techniques. The most recognizable detail of Gothic is the lancet arch, the stained glass window. Sacred painting is actively developing.

Proto-Renaissance

In Italian culture XIII-XIV centuries Against the backdrop of still strong Byzantine and Gothic traditions, features of a new art - the future art of the Renaissance - began to appear. Therefore, this period of its history was called the Proto-Renaissance.

Fresco "Kiss of Judas", Giotto

There was no similar transitional period in any of the European countries. In Italy itself, proto-Renaissance art existed only in Tuscany and Rome. In Italian culture, the features of the old and the new were intertwined. "The last poet of the Middle Ages" and the first poet of the new era, Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) created the Italian literary language.

3. Rebirth: the beginning XV - 90s of the XVI centuries.

The onset of the Renaissance radically changes the ideology. The sacred fades into the background, interest in the human personality, individuality is actively manifested (due to this, the portrait genre flourishes). Artists and sculptors look back at the art of antiquity, trying to follow its standards and objectives.

There is an opening of a perspective construction, as well as chiaroscuro. Painters simultaneously combine high technicality and skills in depicting nature with humanistic ideals, faith in beauty and attempts to create ideal balanced harmonious works.

The Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli

Thanks to the appeal to antiquity, not only forgotten genres appear in art, but also characters - ancient gods, which become as popular as the image of Christian characters.

Late Renaissance (Mannerism)

Mannerism is the final stage of the Renaissance ( mid-16th - 90s of the 16th century) transitional to the Baroque era. Mannerism is characterized by a loss of the harmony of the Renaissance, a crisis of personality, an appeal to more gloomy, twisted or dynamic interpretations.

"Descent from the Cross" Jacopo Pontormo.

4. New time: XVII - early XIX centuries .

Baroque

Baroque (XVII-XVIII centuries), which gravitated towards the solemn "grand style", at the same time reflected ideas about the complexity, diversity, and variability of the world.

"Young Man with a Basket of Fruit", Caravaggio

Most character traits baroque - catchy flamboyance and dynamism. The main directions, channels of the Baroque: verism (naturalistic authenticity and reduced, everyday themes, interpretation of the motif), classicism, "expressive baroque". Baroque architecture is characterized by spatial scope, unity, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms.

Rococo

Rococo - direction in art XVIII century, mostly courtly "cute" art.

Dancing Camargo Nicola Lancre

Characteristically striving for lightness, grace, sophistication and whimsical ornamental rhythm, fantastic ornaments, lovely naturalistic details.

Classicism

Classicism originates in XVII century and develops in parallel with the Baroque.

Then it reappears during the period of the French Revolution (in Western historiography, this period is sometimes called neoclassicism, since another classicism was in France before the onset of the Baroque era. There was no such thing in Russia, and therefore it is customary to call it exclusively “classicism”). was popular until the beginning of the 19th century.

"Cupid and Psyche", Antonio Canova

The style is characterized by adherence to the principles of ancient (Greek and Roman art): rationalism, symmetry, purposefulness and restraint, strict correspondence of the work to its form.

Romanticism

Ideological and artistic direction end of the 18th 18th - 1st half of the 19th centuries As a style of creativity and thinking, it remains one of the main aesthetic and worldview models of the 20th century. Romanticism originated first in Germany and then spread throughout the Western European cultural region.

"Wanderer Above the Sea of ​​Fog" by Caspar David Friedrich

Romanticism is an aesthetic revolution. It is characterized by the assertion of the inherent value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. It spread to various spheres of human activity. In the 18th century, everything that was strange, fantastic, picturesque, and existing in books, and not in reality, was called romantic.

Sentimentalism

The mindset in Western European and Russian culture and the corresponding literary trend. The works written within the framework of this artistic direction focus on the reader's perception, that is, on the sensuality that arises when reading them. In Europe there was from the 20s to the 80s of the XVIII century, in Russia - from the end XVIII to the beginning of the XIX century.

Pre-Raphaelitism

Direction in English poetry and painting in second half of the 19th century, formed in the early 1850s to fight against the conventions of the Victorian era, academic traditions and blind imitation of classical models.

The name "Pre-Raphaelites" was supposed to denote a spiritual relationship with the Florentine artists of the early Renaissance, that is, the artists "before Raphael" and Michelangelo.

Historicism (eclecticism)

The direction in architecture that dominated Europe and Russia in 1830s-1890s It is characterized by the use of elements of the so-called "historical" architectural styles(Neo-Renaissance, Neo-Baroque, Neo-Rococo, Neo-Gothic, Neo-Russian style, Neo-Byzantine style, Indo-Saracenic style, Neo-Moorish style).

5. Modern times: the second half of the 19th century a - today

Realism

Aesthetic position, according to which the task of art is to capture reality as accurately and objectively as possible. Originated in second half of the 19th century and was widespread until the 20th.

"Death of Mazzini", S. Lega

In the field of artistic activity, the meaning of realism is very complex and contradictory. Its boundaries are changeable and indefinite; stylistically it is multifaceted and multivariate.

Impressionism

Direction in art the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries, which originated in France and then spread throughout the world, whose representatives sought to develop methods and techniques that made it possible to most naturally and vividly capture real world in its mobility and variability, to convey their fleeting impressions.

"Impression. Rising Sun, Claude Monet

Usually, the term "impressionism" refers to a direction in painting (but this is, first of all, a group of methods), although its ideas have also found their embodiment in literature and music, where impressionism also appeared in a certain set of methods and techniques for creating literary and musical works, in which the authors sought to convey life in a sensual, direct form, as a reflection of their impressions.

Modernism and avant-garde

These trends in art XX century sought to find something completely new, to establish non-traditional beginnings in art, by the continuous renewal of artistic forms, as well as by the conventionality (schematization, abstraction) of style.

Due to the fact that there are still no theories and typologies of modernism and avant-garde (avant-garde) as literary and artistic phenomena, the range of opinions on the relationship between these two concepts varies from their complete opposition to complete interchangeability.

"Icon" of the world avant-garde - "Black Square", Kazimir Malevich

Generally modern times in art can be described as a desire for everything new and unconventional. There is a strong mixture of schools and styles.

The following styles also belong to the era of modern times:

• Modern
• art deco
• post-impressionism
• Fauvism
• Cubism
• Expressionism
• Surrealism
• Primitivism
• Pop Art

Chronology (from the Greek χρόνος - time and λόγος - teaching) is the science of measuring time, an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the ways of calculating the time of various peoples in different historical periods. Its purpose is to give the historian correct information about the time of historical events or to determine exact dates.

Today we know that the great historian of Ancient Greece Herodotus lived in 484-425. BC e., in 490 BC. e. Persian troops were defeated at Marathon, Alexander the Great died in 323 BC. e., March 15, 44 BC. e. Gaius Julius Caesar was assassinated in the 1st century. BC e. created by Virgil and Horace. How is it established exactly when the events so remote from us took place? After all, even the historical sources that have come down to us often do not have a date. And from more distant eras, written sources have not been preserved.

Historical chronology has various methods that allow you to quite reliably establish the date of a historical event. The main condition for establishing a reliable date for a source is an integrated approach, i.e., the use of data from paleography, diplomacy, linguistics, archeology, and, of course, data from astronomical chronology. If when dating historical fact not to take into account all the components of the study - a mistake is inevitable. This makes it difficult to establish the chronology of ancient history.

To measure time, phenomena repeating in nature were used: the periodic change of day and night, the change lunar phases and the change of seasons. The first of these phenomena determines the unit of time - the day; the second is a synodic month, the average duration of which is 29.5306 days; the third is a tropical year, equal to 365.2422 days. The synodic month and the tropical year do not contain an integer number of solar days, so all these three measures are incommensurable. An attempt to harmonize, at least to some extent, the day, month and year led to the fact that in different eras three types of calendars were created - lunar (they were based on the duration of the synodic month), solar (based on the duration of the tropical year) and lunisolar (combining both periods). They became the basis of the lunisolar calendar.

Each country in antiquity had its own methods of reckoning and, as a rule, there was no single era, that is, the counting of years from a certain event. In the states of the Ancient East, the year was designated by outstanding events: the construction of temples and canals, military victories. In other countries, time was counted according to the years of the king's reign. But such records were not accurate, since there was no sequence of recording events in the history of the country as a whole; sometimes these recordings were completely stopped due to military or social conflicts.

But even these ancient records can be correlated with modern chronology only if it is possible to connect them with an accurately dated (most often astronomical) phenomenon. The most reliable chronology is verifiable by solar eclipses. So, for example, on this basis, all the events in the history of Western Asia, starting from 911 BC. e., are dated most accurately, the error, as a rule, does not exceed 2 years.

The chronology of Ancient Egypt was conducted according to the records of the reign of the pharaohs, starting from the era of the Early Kingdom of the 21st-28th centuries. BC e. However, in these records, as well as in the royal lists of Mesopotamia, there are a lot of inaccuracies, errors sometimes reach 300 or more years. The Egyptian historian Manetho, who lived at the end of the 4th c. BC e., carefully studied and largely clarified the lists of the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt based on the archives of the pharaohs, and its chronology in the world historical science are still in use.

The same can be said about the chronology of Ancient China. In China, as in Egypt, Greece and Rome, special historical works were created, where chronological information was necessarily given. The outstanding historian of Ancient China, Sima Qian, wrote Historical Notes.

In his work, he paid great attention to chronology, gave a chronological framework for the history of Ancient China - from the legendary date of the creation of the world to the end of the 2nd century BC. BC e. However, he did not indicate the sources and grounds for the dating of events, which is why the dates cannot be recognized as unconditionally reliable.

The most reliable chronological systems of antiquity are the counting of years in Greek and Roman history. In Greece, there was a common Greek system of chronology for the Olympics. According to legend, the first Olympiad took place in 776. Then the Games were held in succession every four years. The connection of dating and events of Greek history can also be traced with the dating of the reign of the archons - officials in Athens (these notes have partially survived to this day).

The authenticity of the Greek chronology can be considered proven under the condition of constant comparison of data from different historical sources, the results of archaeological excavations, and numismatic material. So, for example, thanks to the method of comparative analysis, it was established that Alexander the Great died in the 114th Olympiad, that is, in 323 BC. e.; a year after his death, his teacher, the great philosopher of antiquity, Aristotle (384-322 BC), died.

The chronology of Rome also has its own definite starting point. The Roman era begins from 753 BC. e. - from the legendary date of the founding of Rome. Archaeological excavations of recent times have confirmed this date. But even in the 1st c. BC e. The Roman historian Marcus Terentius Varro used the method of comparative analysis of Greek dating by archons and the Olympiads with Roman dating by consuls. Thus he calculated the year of the founding of Rome, referring it to the third year of the sixth Olympiad (754-753 BC).

In 46 BC. e. in Rome, Julius Caesar adopted the solar calendar developed by the Alexandrian astronomer Sosigenes. In the new calendar, three consecutive years contained 365 days (simple years), and every fourth (leap year) - 366. New Year started on January 1st. The duration of the year was 365 days, 6 hours, i.e., it was 11 min 14 s longer than the tropical one. This calendar, called the Julian, was made obligatory for all Christians at the Nicene Ecumenical Council in 325.

A new attempt to create a chronology system was made only in the 4th century. n. e. Dionysius the Insignificant (he was nicknamed so for his small stature) proposed to start a new chronology from the date of the birth of Jesus Christ, considering the birthday of Christ on December 25, 753 from the founding of Rome.

The new era was not immediately recognized in the world. For a long time, the countdown here coexisted with the countdown from the "creation of the world": 5508 BC. e. - according to the dating of the eastern christian church. The Muslim era even now begins from the date of the journey of the prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina (622 AD) - according to the Muslim calendar, only the XIV century is now going on.

Gradually, the reckoning from the beginning of our era (from the conditional date of the birth of Jesus Christ) was accepted by most peoples of the world.

But the difference between the tropical and calendar years gradually increased (every 128 years by 1 day) and by the end of the 6th century. was 10 days, as a result of which the spring equinox began to fall not on March 21, but on 11. This complicated the calculations church holidays, and the then head of the Catholic Church, Pope Gregory XIII, carried out in 1582 a reform of the Julian calendar according to the project of the physician and mathematician Aloisio Lilio. A special papal bull prescribed after Thursday, October 4, to skip 10 days in the account and count the next day as Friday, October 15. In order for the equinox not to move in the future, it was prescribed to exclude 3 days from every four hundred Julian calendar years, so the leap year system also changed. Of the "secular" years, leap years remained those in which the first two digits were divisible by 4 without a remainder - 1600, 2000, 2400, etc. The Gregorian calendar is more accurate than the Julian; the difference of one day accumulates in it for 3280 years. During the XVI-XVIII centuries. it has been adopted in most European countries.

The calendar of the ancient Slavs was lunisolar; the count of days in it within months began from the new moon. Two years had 354 days (12 lunar months 29 and 30 days), and the third year - 384 days (354 + 30). The beginning of the year fell on the spring new moon (around March 1). The names of the months were associated with the change of seasons and agricultural work: grass (when the first spring grass sprouted), sickle (harvest time), leaf fall, jelly, etc. With the introduction of Christianity Orthodox Church adopted the Julian calendar and the era from the "creation of the world" ("the creation of the world" the church, according to the Byzantine tradition, timed to 5508 BC). The New Year (since 1492) began on September 1st. This system of counting time lasted until the end of the 17th century, when Peter I reformed the calendar. He moved the beginning of the year to January 1 and introduced the era from the birth of Christ. Now it is accepted in historical science and is called new era(n. e.).

The introduction of the generally accepted era and the beginning of the year in January facilitated trade, scientific and cultural ties for Russia. However, the Julian calendar was preserved, and already in the 19th century. Russia felt serious inconvenience due to calendar isolation. In private, the Gregorian calendar was used in the ministries of foreign affairs, finance, communications, internal affairs, in the commercial and navy, as well as in astronomical meteorological services. The Gregorian calendar was opposed by the government and the Orthodox Church, since its canons and accounting of chronological cycles were associated with the Julian calendar.

The calendar reform was carried out after October revolution 1917 Decree of the Council of People's Commissars determined that after January 31, 1918, not February 1, but February 14 should be considered. Now we celebrate the New Year twice: on January 1 according to the new style and on January 13 according to the old style.

The development of chronology continues on the basis of the systematic use of the achievements of archaeological, paleographic, linguistic and other methods of research, which will ultimately make it possible to clarify the still controversial dating of the history of many countries.

Date reduction

• 1. Translation of the dates of the Byzantine era.
  • a) September dates. If the event occurs during the months of January to August, subtract 5508 years; if the event occurs in the months from September to December, subtract 5509 years.
  • b) March year dates. If the event occurs in the months from March to December, subtract 5508 years, and if it occurs in January and February, subtract 5507 years.
• 2. Translation of dates from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian.
  • a) Dates are translated by adding to the day of the month:
    • 10 days for the 16th century (since 1582) - XVII century,
    • 11 days for the XVIII century. (since March 1, 1770),
    • 12 days for the 19th century (since March 1, 1800),
    • 13 days for the XX century. (since March 1, 1900) - XXI century,
    • 14 days for XXII century. (since March 1, 2100).
  • b) In the XXI century. the difference between the Julian and Gregorian calendars will be 13 days, as in the 20th century, since the year 2000, which ends the 20th century, will also be a leap year according to the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The difference will increase only in the XXII century.
  • c) The number of days changes when converting dates from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar due to the additional day that ends February leap year(February 29), so the difference increases from March 1.
  • d) Ages end in years with two zeros at the end, and the next century starts from the 1st year - 1601, 1701, 1801, 1901, 2001 (3rd millennium), etc.

Years before the new era.
4 thousand years. Unification of small states in the Nile Valley. First pyramid. Sumero-Akkadian kingdom in Mesopotamia. The invention of cuneiform. The Harappan civilization emerges in the Indus Valley. In the Huang He valley, silkworms are bred and bronze is smelted; there is nodular and picture writing.
2.5-2 thousand years. Minoan civilization. Assyrian state with its capital in Nineveh. The Phoenicians create an alphabetic letter, open the way to the Red Sea. Trypillian agricultural culture in the Dnieper region.
2 thousand years. Aryan tribes penetrate into India, and the Achaean Greeks - into Hellas.
1.5 thousand years. In China, the state of Shang (Yin) arises.
1400 Exodus of Jews from Egypt led by Moses.
OK. 15th century Separation of the Proto-Slavic tribes from the Indo-European unity.
XV-XIII centuries Achaean Greek period.
1300-1200 The Hittites discover a way to obtain iron. 970-940 The reign of King Solomon, the construction of the Jerusalem temple.
IX-VIII centuries The first mention of the state of the Persians.
800 Founding of Carthage by the Phoenicians.
776 First Olympic Games.
753 Legendary date of the founding of Rome.
660 First emperor of Japan.
560 Birth of the Buddha.
551 Birth of Confucius.
489 - 4th c. n. e. State of Greater Armenia.
461 "Golden Age" of Pericles in Greece. Construction of the Parthenon.
334-325 Conquests of Alexander the Great in the East.
317-180 AD Mauryan Empire in India.
264-146 AD Three Punic Wars Rome with Carthage and the destruction of Carthage.
246 Construction of the Great Wall of China begins.
146 Subordination of Greece to Rome.
73-71 years Roman slave revolt led by Spartacus.
49-44 years Dictatorship of Julius Caesar in Rome.
6 BC - 4 AD e. Probable date of birth of Jesus Christ.

Years of the new era.
I century. The emergence of Christianity.
OK. 29 AD Crucifixion of Jesus Christ by order of the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate.
I-II centuries The first mention of the Slavs among ancient authors.
132-135 AD The beginning of the dispersion of Jews around the world.
164-180 AD A plague ravages the Roman and Chinese empires.
3rd-9th centuries Maya civilization in America.
395 Division of the Roman Empire into East and West.
4th-5th centuries Introduction of Christianity in Georgia and Armenia.
476 Fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Beginning of the Middle Ages.
482 Baptism of the Franks. First kingdom of the Franks.
570 Birth of Muhammad, founder of Islam.
630 Formation of an Arab state.
End of the 7th century Formation of the Bulgarian state.
711-720 Arab conquest of Spain.
732 Battle of Poitiers. Stopped the advance of the Arabs in Europe.
VIII-X centuries Khazar Khaganate.
The first chronicle information about Novgorod.
d. The legendary date of the founding of Kyiv.
IX century The formation of Kievan Rus.
Late 9th - early 10th century Formation of the Czech state.
X century Formation of the Old Polish state.
1054 Rupture between Orthodoxy and Catholicism.
1096-1099 First crusade.
1136-1478 Novgorod feudal republic.
1147 The first mention of Moscow.
1206-1227 The reign of Genghis Khan. The emergence of the state of the Mongols.
1236-1242 Tatar-Mongolian invasion of Russia and European countries.
1242 Alexander Nevsky defeated the German knights on Lake Peipus.
Ser. 10th century - 1569 Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia.
1325 Aztec kingdom founded in Mexico.
1348-1349 The plague wipes out half the population of England.
1370-1405 The reign of the great emir Timur the conqueror.
1378 Victory of the Moscow army over the Tatars on the Vozha River.
1380 Battle of Kulikovo - the defeat of the Tatars under the leadership of Dmitry Donskoy.
1389 Battle of Kosovo (defeat of the Serbs by the Turks).
1410 Defeat of the Teutonic Order by the Polish-Lithuanian-Russian army (Grunwald).
1431 Burning of Joan of Arc by the Inquisition.
1445 Gutenberg Bible. Beginning of printing in Europe.
1453 The fall of Constantinople and Byzantium under the blows of the Turks.
1478 Beginning of the Inquisition in Spain.
1480 "Standing on the Ugra". The end of the Tatar-Mongol yoke.
1492 Expulsion of the Arabs from Spain. Discovery of America by Columbus.
1517 Martin Luther opposes the authority of the popes. Beginning of the Reformation.
1531-1533 Pizarro's conquest of the Inca state.
1533-1584 The reign of Ivan the Terrible.
August 24, 1572 St. Bartholomew's Night (Massacre of the Huguenots in France).
1588 The death of the "Invincible Armada" (Spanish fleet).
1596 Union of Brest. Formation of the Greek Catholic ("Uniate") Church. 1604-1612 "Time of Troubles".
Liberation of Moscow by the militia of Minin and Pozharsky.
d. The election of Mikhail Romanov to the kingdom.
1620 The Pilgrim Fathers establish a colony across the ocean in New England.
The beginning of the bourgeois revolution in England is considered the beginning of the New Age.
1640 Beginning of the bourgeois revolution in England. 1644 Manchus take over China.
1654 Decision on the transfer of Ukraine under the rule of the Tsar of Russia (Pereyaslav Rada).
1667-1671 Peasant war under the leadership of Stepan Razin.
1682-1725 The reign of Peter I.
1701-1703 War of the Spanish Succession. The strengthening of England at sea.
June 27, 1709 Battle of Poltava.
1762-1796 The reign of Catherine I.
1773-1775 - Peasant war under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev.
1775-1783 American Colonial Wars of Independence. US education.
July 24, 1783 Georgievsky treatise on the transition of Georgia under the protection of Russia.
July 14, 1788 The storming of the Bastille and the start of the French Revolution.
1793-1795 Accession of Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia to Russia.
1812 Napoleon's army invades Russia. Battle of Borodino.
1815 Napoleon defeated at the Battle of Waterloo.
1837 Accession of Queen Victoria in England.
1853-1856 Crimean War. Defense of Sevastopol.
February 19, 1861 The abolition of serfdom in Russia.
1861-1865 American Civil War between North and South. Abolition of slavery.
1862 Unification of Germany by Bismarck.
1867 Creation of the dual Austro-Hungarian Empire.
1877-1878 - Russian-Turkish war, the liberation of the Bulgarians, Serbs, Romanians.
1896 Coronation of Nicholas P. Catastrophe on the Khodynka field.
1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War. The death of the Varyag, the fall of Port Arthur.
Mr. "Bloody Sunday". The beginning of the revolution in Russia. Manifesto October 17th.
Mr. First State Duma.
1911-1913 Revolution in Imperial China.
1914 Archduke Ferdinand is assassinated and World War I begins.
1917 February revolution in Russia, the overthrow of the autocracy.
1917 Victory of the October Revolution in Petrograd. Education of the RSFSR.
1417 Formation of the Ukrainian People's and Soviet Republics.
1918 Revolution in Germany, formation of independent Poland and Czechoslovakia.
1918 End of the First World War. Beginning of the Civil War in Russia.
1919 Treaty of Versailles between the Allies and Germany.
1919-1923 Kemalist revolution in Turkey, the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.
December 30, 1922 Formation of the USSR.
1929 Beginning of collectivization in the USSR. World economic crisis.
1931-1933 Great famine in the USSR.
January 30, 1933 Establishment of the Nazi dictatorship in Germany.
1436-1939 Rebellion of General Franco and Civil War in Spain.
1437-1938 Mass repressions in the USSR.
d. "Kristallnacht" (the massacre of Jews in Germany).
d. Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Beginning of World War II.
June 22, 1941 German attack on the USSR.
The Battle of Moscow - the first defeat of the Wehrmacht
d. Signing of the declaration of 26 states on the struggle against Germany.
1442-1943 Battle of Stalingrad. Fighting in North Africa.
The Battle of Kursk. The landing of allied troops in Italy.
d. Landing of the allied troops in Normandy.
May 8-9, 1945 Unconditional surrender of Germany.
1945 Japanese surrender. End of World War II.
1445-1946 Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals.
1947 US adoption of the Marshall Plan.
1448 Proclamation of the State of Israel.
1949 NATO formed. Proclamation of the GDR, the FRG, the PRC.
1950-1953 War in Korea.
1955 Signing of the Warsaw Pact.
October 4, 1957 Launch of the first artificial Earth satellite in the USSR.
April 12, 1961 First manned flight into space. Yu. A. Gagarin (USSR).
1961-1973 War in Vietnam.
1966-1976 "Cultural Revolution" in China.
1968 Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia.
July 21, 1969 First man on the moon (N. Armstrong, USA).
1975 Helsinki Agreement on Security and Cooperation in Europe.
1980-1988 Iran-Iraq war.
1985 Beginning of "perestroika" in the USSR.
April 26, 1986 Accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.
1991 Referendum on the fate of the USSR (70% - for the preservation of the Union). Putsch GKChP.
d. Belovezhskaya agreements and the collapse of the USSR.
1991-1992 The collapse of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia.
d. Beginning of "shock therapy" in Russia.
1994 Start of the war in Chechnya.
Union of Russia and Belarus. Withdrawal of Russian troops from Chechnya.
The collapse of the ruble (default) in Russia.
The bombing of Yugoslavia by NATO aircraft. Operation Desert Storm.
BN Yeltsin's resignation. His successor is V. V. Putin.
d. Election of VV Putin as President of the Russian Federation.
September 11, 2001 Massive terrorist attack in New York. Thousands of dead.
d. US and allied invasion of Iraq. Fall of Hussein's regime.
d. "Orange Revolution" in Ukraine.
g. Catastrophic tsunami in Indonesia. Hurricane Katrina in the USA.
d. Crisis of power in Ukraine.

Some historical dynasties
Starting with the legendary Jimmu, a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, who ascended the throne on February 11, 660 BC. e., Japan had 134 emperors.
Beginning with the Apostle Peter, the first bishop of Rome, who was executed around the year 65, there have been 344 popes on the Holy See, of which 39 are not recognized (“anti-popes”).

Historical periodization is an indispensable thing both in science and in there are certain eras that cover specific time periods. Their names were invented quite recently, after a person was able to look in retrospect, evaluate and divide past events into stages. Now we will consider all the eras in order, find out why they were named that way and how they are characterized.

Why is there a historical chronology?

This technique was developed by researchers for a reason. First, each separate period is characterized by special cultural trends. Each era has its own worldview, fashion, the structure of society, the type of business building, and much more. Considering the epochs of mankind in order, one can also pay attention to the fact that each of them is characterized by separate types of art. This is music, and painting, and literature. Secondly, in the history of mankind there really were so-called turning points, when morality changed radically, new laws were established. This, of course, entailed a change in passions that manifested themselves in art. Such changes could be influenced by revolutions, wars, scientific discoveries, the teachings of the great philosophers and church leaders. And now, before we consider all the historical eras in order, we note that our society has experienced such a cardinal change quite recently. Scientific and technological progress has completely turned our ideas about communication, sources of information, and even about work. And the reason for this is the Internet, without which ten years ago everyone did, and today it is a part of everyone's life.

antique period

We will omit the history of primitive society, since at that time there was simply no single ideology, religion, or at least a writing system. Therefore, when the epochs of mankind are considered in order, they start precisely from the ancient period, because at that time the first states, the first laws and morality, as well as the art that we are still studying, appeared. The period began around the end of the 8th century BC. e. and lasted until 476 - the date of the fall. At this time, not only a polytheistic religion appeared with a clear fixation of all deities, but also a writing system - Greek and Latin. Also during this period, such a concept as slavery was born in Europe.

Middle Ages

Even when the school considers the epochs in order, special attention is paid to the study of the Middle Ages. The period began at the end of the 5th century, but there is no date for its end, at least an approximate one. Some believe that it ended in the middle of the 15th century, others believe that the Middle Ages lasted until the 17th century. The era is characterized by a huge upsurge of Christianity. It was during these years that the great Crusades. Along with them, the Inquisition was born, which exterminated all opponents of the church. In the Middle Ages, such a form of slavery as feudalism arose, which existed in the world for many centuries later.

Renaissance

It is customary to single out this era as a separate one, but many historians believe that the Renaissance is, so to speak, the secular side of the Middle Ages. The bottom line is that in the end people began to cry out for humanity. Some ancient rules and morality returned, the Inquisition gradually lost its positions. This was manifested both in art and in the behavior of society. People began to attend theaters, there was such a thing as a secular ball. The Renaissance, like Antiquity, originated in Italy, and today numerous monuments of architecture and art are proof of this.

Baroque

When we consider directly the eras of human history in order, the baroque, although it did not last long, took an important branch in the development of art. Below we will consider it in more detail, but for now we note the following. This era was the logical conclusion of the Renaissance. We can say that the craving for secular entertainment and beauty has grown to incredible proportions. An architectural style of the same name appeared, which is characterized by pomposity and pretentiousness. A similar trend manifested itself in music, and in drawing, and even in people's behavior. lasted from the 16th to the 17th century.

Classicism

In the second half of the 17th century, mankind decided to move away from such lush idleness. Society, like the art that it created, became canonized and adjusted to clear rules. Classicism began to appear in the design of buildings and interiors. Right angles, straight lines, austerity and asceticism came into fashion. Theater and music, which were at their peak cultural development were also subject to new reforms. There were certain styles that directed the authors in one direction or another. Below we will consider the eras in art in order and learn in more detail what classicism was.

Romantic period

In the 18th century, people seemed to have become infected with a mania for beauty and unearthly fantasies. This period is considered the most mysterious in the history of mankind, ephemeral and original. A trend has appeared in society, according to which each person is a separate spiritual and creative person, with his own inner world, experiences and joys. As a rule, when historians present cultural eras in chronological order, one of the most important places dedicated to romanticism. During this period, which lasted until the 19th century, unique masterpieces of music (Chopin, Schubert, etc.), literature (famous French novels) and painting appeared.

Education

In parallel with romanticism in art, society itself improved. When they list all the eras in order, as a rule, it is the Enlightenment that is put behind classicism. Along with the development of science and art at the end of the 17th century, the level of intelligence began to rise in society at a tremendous speed. This was expressed in the rejection of orthodox religious norms. Instead of sacred knowledge, logic and a bright mind came. This greatly undermined the authority of the aristocracy and the ruling dynasties, which largely referred to the help of the church. The Age of Enlightenment marked the birth of a new philosophy based on mathematics and physics. There were a number of astronomical discoveries that refuted many religious dogmas. The Age of Enlightenment touched not only Europe, but also Russia, as well as the Far East, and even America. During this period, serfdom was abolished in many powers. It is also worth noting that in the 18-19th centuries, for the first time, women began to take part in scientific and state meetings.

Newest time

We briefly listed all the historical eras in order and came to the 20th century. This period is famous for the flourishing of various numerous coup d'état and regime change. Therefore, from a historical point of view, this era is called Since the beginning of the 20th century, we can say that society has become completely equal. Slavery was eradicated all over the world, clear borders of states were established. Such conditions have become the optimal environment for the development of not only art, but also science. We now live in this era, therefore, in order to consider it in detail, it is enough just to look around.

Brief summary

After we've submitted all the eras world history in order, described them, having learned what our society was like in a particular century, we turn to the study of beauty. Indeed, in parallel with the formation of laws and borders of states, art was formed, which for many is the main determining factor for dividing the history of mankind into separate periods. Below we will present the eras in art in order, characterize them and be able to compare a clear picture of how our society was formed from the very beginning of time. To begin with, we will list the main “eras” in a generalized way, and then we will divide them into separate industries. After all, musical periods do not always coincide in time with the periods of the same name in literature or, say, in painting.

Art: eras in chronological order

• Ancient period. From the moment the first rock paintings appeared, ending with the 8th century BC. e.
• Antiquity - from the 8th century BC. e. until the 6th century AD e.
• Medieval: and Gothic. The first dates from the 6th-10th centuries, and the second - from the 10th-14th centuries.
• Renaissance - famous 14-16th century.
• Baroque - 16-18th century.
• Rococo - 18th century.
• Classicism. It was formed against the background of other directions from the 16th to the 19th century.
• Romanticism - the first half of the 19th century.
• Eclecticism - the second half of the 19th century.
• Modernism - early 20th century. It is worth noting that modern is the general name for this creative era. In different countries and in different areas of art, their own trends were formed, which we will discuss below.

What the pen will tell about ... At the origins of writing

Now let's look at the literary eras in chronological order: the ancient stage (Antiquity and the East), the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, Classicism, Sentimentalism, Romanticism, Realism, Modernism and modernity. For the first time, literary creations began to appear in Greece, Rome, and also in It was in these powers that the first writing arose. Myths began to appear in the ancient world - about Hercules, about Zeus and other gods, about titans and giant birds. Later, the first philosophers, thinkers and writers appeared. This is Homer, Sappho, Aeschylus, Horace. This genre is now called lyrics, but such stories are often referred to as a historical reliable source. The world of the Ancient East is famous only for its instructive poems. However, let's not forget that it was in this part of the world that the most important book of mankind, the Bible, appeared in ancient times.

Middle Ages and Renaissance

There is no clear boundary between these periods, and it is not needed. After all, in the years when Europe was just beginning to form as state system, people were not up to art. The first manifestations of creativity in the Middle Ages were stifled by the church. Therefore, the literary heritage that we have inherited since those years is only a knightly epic. Here you can name "The Song of My Sid", "The Song of Roland" and "The Song of the Nibelungen". A few centuries later, the Renaissance comes, and such names as Shakespeare, Dante, Boccaccio, Cervantes become known to the world. Their stories can be called free, since there is no clear structure, and a person and his feelings are in the center of events. That's what it is main characteristic the era of the Renaissance.

Formation of strict canons

When we list the eras in order, century after century, everything falls into place, except for Classicism. It seems to exist outside of time, space, against the background of other currents. From the moment the classics became the basis for the work of European authors, a number of patterns appeared in the writing of literary works. They were clearly divided into satire, tragedy, comedy, epic, fable. We can say that since then the boundaries of creativity have been established, which we still use today (pay attention at least to cinema).

Sentimentalism and romanticism

These two currents seem to complement each other. They are famous for their novels, which describe the experiences of the characters, their state of mind, tastes and interests. Among the authors of romanticism, such names as Balzac, Dickens, Hoffmann, Victor Hugo, the Bronte sisters, Mark Twain, W. Scott and many others are written in red letters. In the later years of Romanticism, authors such as Oscar Wilde and Edgar Allan Poe worked. Their stories are already devoid of sentimentality, but filled with deep philosophy.

Realism and modernism, as well as contemporary literature

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, many currents in literature appeared. In our country, they were called the Silver Age, in others they were simply named in accordance with the style of a particular work. Symbolism and decadence became the most popular. Representatives of these trends were such authors as Verlaine, Baudelaire, Rimbaud, Blok. Acmeism was very popular in Russia. Its main representative was Anna Akhmatova. Since then, literature has become as realistic as possible. People have given up inner experiences and illusions. From the beginning of the 20th century to the present day, the authors describe any events from the most realistic point of view, taking into account all the innovations of progress.

art

Now it's time to consider all the eras in painting in order. We note right away that there are much more of them here than in the literature, therefore we will turn to each of them briefly and concisely.

• Cave painting.
• Art of Ancient Egypt and the Middle East.
• Cretan-Mycenaean culture.
• Antique drawings and writing.
• Middle Ages: Icon Painting and Gothic Illustrations on Religious Themes.
• Renaissance. Prominent representatives are Michelangelo, da Vinci and others.
• From the 18th century, the Baroque style appeared in painting. Pronounced in the paintings of Caravaggio.
• Classicism, which fine arts formed from the 16th century, embodied in the works of Poussin and Rubens.
• Romanticism manifested itself in the paintings of Delacour and Goya.
• Impressionism appeared at the end of the 19th century. Van Gogh is considered its brightest representative, and along with him are Gauguin, Lautrec Munch and others.
• In the 20th century, painting was divided into socialist realism and surrealism. The first trend developed exclusively in Russia. The second conquered the whole world. It is clearly visible in the paintings of S. Dali, P. Picasso and other artists of this time.