Language and history. Language - what is it and what is its role in the history of the people High-quality cosmetics for skin rejuvenation

Even Soviet linguists proceeded from the position that the language and history of the people are closely related to each other.

In this regard, they continued the scientific tradition, which was laid down with the understanding of language as a time-changing phenomenon and which went through the entire subsequent development of the science of language, enriched with understanding social role language. This latter demanded that the historical approach to the study of language should cease to be confined to the actual linguistic framework and be placed in connection with the history of society. In other words, we are now talking not just about the history of language, but about the history of language as a social phenomenon.

Thus, the provision on the connection between language and society remains an unshakable basis for the scientific study of the language. But this provision should not be interpreted too narrowly and one-sidedly. First, language learning cannot be limited only to the historical aspect. Secondly, when studying the language and history of the people in close connection with each other, one should not forget about the specificity of the laws of development, which are inherent, on the one hand, to the language, and on the other hand, to the bearer of this language, the people. Thus, in linguistics, the problem of the connection between language and history should be considered from the point of view of how the structure of language reacts to the facts of general history (what refraction these facts receive in the structure of language). And, thirdly, the question of the connection between the history of the language and the history of the people cannot be limited to only one direction and only the influence of the history of society on the development of the language can be traced. Undoubtedly, various types of contacts of languages (which are determined by historical and territorial factors), the processes and forms of crossing languages, the relationship between language and culture, the permeability of various spheres of languages, the relationship of language to the social structure of society, etc. are also directly related to this problem. etc.

Since the time when language was recognized as a historically changing phenomenon, its connection with the history of the people and the need to study it for the purposes of history and inseparably with it have been repeatedly emphasized. Already one of the very first founders of comparative historical linguistics - Rasmus Rask wrote: “Religious beliefs, customs and traditions of peoples, their civil institutions in ancient times - everything that we know about them - at best can give us only a hint of kinship and origin of these peoples. The appearance in which they first appear before us may serve for some conclusions about their previous state or about the ways in which they reached the present. But no means of knowing the origin of peoples and their family ties in hoary antiquity, when history leaves us, is as important as language ”1. With even greater certainty, the historical aspect of language was emphasized by J. Grimm: “Of all human inventions,” he noted, “which people carefully guarded and, according to tradition, passed on to each other, which they created in accordance with their inherent nature, language, like<201>It is believed that it is the greatest, noblest and most inalienable property. Arising directly from human thinking, adapting to it, walking in step with it, the language has become a common property and heritage of all people, without which they cannot do without, just as they cannot do without air, and to which they all have an equal right ... "2.

J. Grimm expressed his view of the close connection between language and history with the utmost clarity: “Our language is also our history” 3.

In its subsequent development, the science of language constantly turned to this essentially methodological position, but modified it in accordance with the general linguistic concepts of one direction or another. So, A. Schleicher put it in connection with his theory of two periods in the life of language (development and decay), the young grammarians brought the historical study of language to the fore, but, interpreting it as an individual psychological phenomenon, they were torn away from society. On the contrary, it was the social essence of language that emphasized in every possible way the sociological trend in linguistics. The representative of this direction J. Vandries wrote in this regard:

“Language does not exist outside of those who think and speak it. It is rooted in the depths of individual consciousness: from there it takes its strength to be embodied in the sounds of human speech. But individual consciousness is only one of the elements of collective consciousness that dictates its laws to the individual. The development of languages, therefore, is only one of the types of development of society ”4. From here is done general conclusion and about the methods of language learning: "Only by studying the social role of language, you can get an idea of what language is" 5 .

A vulgarized approach to the social essence of language (which undoubtedly has its origin in some provisions of the sociological school) distinguished the theories of Acad. N. Ya.Marr, who sought to establish a direct<202>parallelism between categories of language and forms of production, bases and superstructures 6.

Meanwhile, as E. Benveniste writes, “when they try to compare language and society systematically, an obvious discrepancy arises” 7 . “Therefore, - as it were, picks up the thought of E. Benveniste M. Cohen, - it is correct to assert that as soon as they try to establish direct correspondences between the linguistic and social structure, they come to negative conclusions” 8.

Soviet linguists also proceed from the position that the language and history of a people are closely related to each other.

In this respect, they continue the scientific tradition, which was laid down with the understanding of language as a time-changing phenomenon and which went through all the subsequent development of the science of language 9, enriched with an understanding of the social role of language. This latter demanded that the historical approach to the study of language cease to be confined to the actual linguistic framework and be placed in connection with the history of society. In other words, we are now talking not just about the history of language, but about the history of language as a social phenomenon.

Thus, the provision on the connection between language and society remains an unshakable basis for the scientific study of the language. But this provision should not be interpreted too narrowly and one-sided. First, language learning cannot be limited only to the historical aspect. Secondly, when studying the language and history of the people in close connection with each other, one should not forget about the specificity of the laws of development inherent, on the one hand, to the language,<203>and on the other hand, to the bearer of this language - to the people. Thus, in linguistics, the problem of the connection between language and history should be considered from the point of view of how the structure of language reacts to the facts of general history (what refraction these facts receive in the structure of language). And, thirdly, the question of the connection between the history of the language and the history of the people cannot be limited to only one direction and only the influence of the history of society on the development of the language can be traced. Undoubtedly, various types of contacts of languages (which are determined by historical and territorial factors), the processes and forms of crossing languages, the relationship between language and culture, the permeability of various spheres of languages, the relationship of language to the social structure of society, etc. are also directly related to this problem. etc.

Below, the problem of the connection between language and history will be considered in this broad plan - in terms of individual most essential aspects. It seems most appropriate to start with different types contacts languages.

Any word, any phrase in a language cannot arise from anywhere. Each word is a piece of people's life, some important thing or concept for them. Every joke that appeared in the language is like a smile of the whole people. Each song, even the simplest one, reflects what worried people.

For example, when collective farms appeared in our country, peasants were called collective farmers. This word was then generally called all the inhabitants of the village. And during the Great Patriotic War the abusive word "fritz" appeared in the Russian language. This is German name, and then all the Germans were perceived as enemies.

Now in Russian the word "mouse" means not only a rodent animal, but also a device for a computer. This shows the technical progress in the country.

And what a treasure folk history kept in Russian sayings, proverbs, anecdotes, jokes and jokes! Take, for example, the proverb "They teach the ABC, they shout at the whole hut." True, in the past it was customary in schools to read letters and words aloud to the whole class in order to memorize them. The noise was incredible then.

Songs reflect a lot of the country's history. They used to sing about how fun it is to ride a troika of horses with bells. Now the songs are already dedicated to cars and fast riding motorcycles. They used to sing about the separation of a girl from her beloved, who went to war. Or how he promised to marry, but deceived, and the girl committed suicide. And now love has become different, and the songs are different.

Language is a real chronicle of the history of the people. It is like a book on which you can read the most important events in the life of the people, their sorrows and joys.

Language and Society. Language and culture. Language and history of the people

The importance of language in the life of every person and society as a whole is undeniably high. Language is used as a permanent and basic means of communication between people.

Moreover, such a tool as a language performs many functions, the main of which is a way of transmitting information and a way of formulating one's own thoughts. It is also important to note that one of the eight known meanings of language is people.

This is an outdated meaning that carries a deep implication and meaning of such a concept as language. The many meanings of language are due to its important role in ensuring the organization of people and the formation of modern society.

Without language, there can be no question of human development, both as an individual and a group of people who form what we used to call society.

Language and Society

Language is, first of all, a product of collective labor, and it is noteworthy that it was created in order to bring people together. This shows its fundamental relationship with society as a whole.

By itself, human speech has a socio-historical nature. In order to create something new or change the old, in order to convey your thoughts, feelings, knowledge, or simply to influence each other, speech is needed.

The existence of language as a key instrument of communication is due to historical motives, which means that as soon as a society stops using a certain language, it becomes dead. Speech, on the other hand, is a permanent phenomenon that was invented and developed by man, but is unable to disappear due to historical events.

The key role of language lies in the fact that he, like nothing else, contributes to the knowledge of laws human development and the surrounding world and the assimilation of the acquired knowledge, which are necessary for any kind of progress.

Such advantages of modern civilization as a constantly enriching culture and development of society are due precisely to this means of language.

It is with his help that the cultural heritage of the world and different nations transmitted from generation to generation, thanks to the language, the achievements of mankind related to science, technology, art and culture are in use by modern people and continue to progress.

Language and history of the people

The language is closely related to the history of its people. First, the language tells us about those historical changes, about the progress that our native country has experienced.

It is this means of communication that reflects the development of a particular people, learning about the transformations that have occurred in it, we become familiar with the historical heritage of his country.

Language and culture

The features of each language are due to the mentality and history that a particular nation has experienced. Here, the connection of the language with the culture of the people is traced, because it is he who can show the cultural heritage that a particular country possesses.

That is why you should understand that your own language should be treated with care, it must be valued and protected. After all, it contains a spiritual and cultural heritage, and distorting it or impoverishing it, we disdain our ancestors and ourselves.

It is worth thinking about the culture of speech more often, because it is extremely important in order to feel confident and educated.

The language of the people is, perhaps, the most accurate reflection of their mentality and culture. Moreover, language is recognized as a historically changing phenomenon. Its connection with the history of the people is obvious, therefore, the language of the people is often used to study its history. One of the first pioneers of comparative historical linguistics was Rasmus Rusk. He believed that religious beliefs, customs of peoples, their civil institutions and other components of society are important in the study of history. However, all these means of knowledge gave only hints of the origin of their peoples, while language is the most important means of transmitting information that has come down to us from antiquity.

Language is not only a system of signs, but also a historically developed form of the culture of a people. According to W. Humboldt, language is not a dead clockwork, but a living creation, emanating from itself. A natural language does not arise as a result of a mathematical calculation of a group of linguists, but as a result of centuries-old efforts of people belonging to one national community to make their speech generally understandable within the framework of a national community.

The Russian language has evolved over many centuries. Its vocabulary and grammatical structure did not form immediately. The dictionary gradually included new lexical units, the appearance of which was dictated by new needs of social development. The grammatical structure gradually adapted to a more accurate and subtle transmission of thought following the development of national social and scientific thinking... So the needs cultural development became the engine of the development of the language, and the language reflected and preserved the history cultural life nation, including those stages of it that are already a thing of the past.

Thanks to this, the language is for the people a unique means of preserving national identity, the largest historical and cultural value. As V. Humboldt wrote, language, no matter what form it takes, is always the spiritual embodiment of the individual life of a nation, and moreover, language is the breath, the very soul of the nation.

The question of the origin of the Russian language is usually considered in close connection with the appearance of writing in Russia. The prevailing traditional point of view on the origin of Old Russian writing, which has developed in the past and has long dominated for a long time, was expressed in the following. The letter appeared in Russia in connection with the adoption of Christianity, following the official baptism of Russia at the end of the 10th century. Then, for the first time, handwritten books written in Cyrillic in the Old Slavonic language appeared.

Sources: ycilka.net, www.nado5.ru, www.testsoch.info, www.sdamna5.ru, referat54.ru

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UDC 82.085

S.A. PROKHOTSKAYA

Volga Academy public service them. P.A. Stolypin,

Saratov

INTERCONNECTION OF LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

The language of any nation is its historical memory, embodied in the word. It is in the language and through the language that such important features and traits as national psychology, the character of the people, the way of thinking, and the original uniqueness are revealed. artistic creation, moral condition and spirituality. And therefore, the culture of the language can and should be comprehended in its own ecological aspect - as a part of a healthy surrounding “speech environment of existence”.

The language of any people is its historical memory expressed in words. It is in language and through language that we reveal such most important peculiarities and features as national psychology, people "s character, the way he thinks, his specific ways of creative work, his moral and spiritual state. Consequently the culture of language can and must be regarded in ecolioogical aspect as an integral part of "speech-environmental existence".

The language of any nation is its historical memory, embodied in the word. The millennial spiritual culture, the life of the Russian people were uniquely and uniquely reflected in the Russian language, in its oral and written forms, in monuments of various genres - from ancient Russian chronicles and epics to works of modern fiction. And, therefore, the culture of the language, the culture of the word appears as an inextricable link of many, many generations.

The native language is the soul of a nation, its primary and most obvious feature. In the language and through the language, such important features and traits as national psychology, the character of the people, the way of thinking, the original uniqueness of artistic creativity, moral state and spirituality are revealed.

Emphasizing the spirituality of the Russian language, KD Ushinsky wrote: “In their language, the people, for many millennia and in millions of individuals, put their thoughts and feelings together. The nature of the country and the history of the people, reflected in the human soul, were expressed in the word. Man disappeared, but the word he created remained an immortal and inexhaustible treasure for native language... Inheriting the word from our ancestors, we inherit not only means

transmit our thoughts and feelings, but we inherit these very thoughts and these feelings. "

To know the expressive means of the language, to be able to use its stylistic and semantic wealth in all their structural diversity - every native speaker should strive for this.

The protection and protection of natural resources, the health of the people are now recognized as an important national matter. Monuments of material culture are protected and restored - part of the spiritual historical heritage. Our language needs the same careful approach. The Russian literary language must be protected from being clogged with vulgarisms and jargonisms, from stylistic "decline" and stylistic "averaging", that is, leveling or stamping. It must be protected from unnecessary foreign language borrowings, from all sorts of inaccuracies, and even more so - from mistakes and inaccuracies, in a word, from everything that leads to its impoverishment, and, consequently, to impoverishment or mortification of thought.

That is why the culture of the language can and should be comprehended in its own ecological aspect - as part of a healthy surrounding "speech environment of existence", freed from errors and inaccuracies, unwanted leveling and "dis-

tillingness ”, negatively affecting the life of the language, on the general spirituality and morality.

The culture of speech in its traditional sense is the degree of knowledge of the literary language (its norms, stylistic, lexical and grammatical-semantic resources) in order to communicate more effectively in various communication conditions. An ecological approach to issues of culture of speech, verbal communication presupposes a responsible attitude to national linguistic traditions, fostering an effective love for the native language, caring for its past, present and future. All this constitutes the essence of the ecological aspect of speech culture, if it is understood broadly and generally.

The subject of linguistic ecology is the culture of thinking and speech behavior, education of linguistic taste, protection and "recovery" literary language, determination of ways and means of its enrichment and improvement, speech aesthetics. The linguo-ecological approach presupposes a careful attitude to the literary language both as a culture and as an instrument of culture. LV Shcherba rightly compared a language with a destroyed stylistic structure with a completely out of tune musical instrument, "with the only difference that the instrument can be tuned immediately, and the stylistic structure of the language has been created over the centuries." But it is worth thinking about the fact that every word lost, distorted or misunderstood by us is a world lost for us, a link in our culture.

Unfortunately, we are weaning from the beauty of the word, as we are weaning from the beauty and arrangement of our home, from the beauty of a melodic Russian melody, a traditional rite ... And is it really so bad to become on the path of this "weaning" as a conscious guardian of the native language, its beauty and imagery ? Of course not. For a very long time we scattered our native stones, not caring about the future. It's time to collect them. The ecology of the language and - more broadly - the ecology of culture is becoming one of the most urgent tasks of our time, which

where the greening of science, human behavior and thinking itself are an important sign of the times.

The history of the term (and concept) ecology itself dates back to the 60s of the 19th century. As you know, the term ecology, or otology (from the Greek oikos "dwelling", "habitat" and logos "teaching") was proposed in 1866 by the famous German naturalist Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919). He was one of the greatest biologists of the 19th century, a reformer of science, a supporter of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin. He wrote the fundamental "General morphology of the organism" and many other works. He was one of the first to propose a “family tree” of the entire animal world and formulated the famous biogenetic law, according to which ontogeny (individual development of an individual) is, as it were, a brief repetition of phylogenesis (the most important stages in the evolution of the entire group to which this individual belongs).

Nowadays, the ecology of culture or, more broadly, spiritual ecology is being actively formed. It is associated with the preservation (or revival) of accumulated values, as well as with the rational regulation of technical progress, which should not negatively affect a person. “The preservation of the cultural environment is a task no less important than the preservation of the surrounding nature. If nature is necessary for a person for his biological life, then the cultural environment is just as necessary for his spiritual, moral life, for his “spiritual settledness”, for his attachment to his native places, for his moral self-discipline ... ”.

Historian-archaeologist VL Yanin revealed the content of the concept of "ecology of culture" in a very figurative and accurate way. According to him, if a tree is uprooted, then a new one can be grown in its place; but if we destroy cultural monuments, we erase from geographic map historical toponymic names, then we destroy the genetic code of our historical memory. Such losses break the connection between times and generations and lead, ultimately, to

denouncing morality. Moreover, if the monuments of architecture can be restored (although it will already be a "remake", according to the terminology of the restorers), then the burned-out manuscripts and lost books cannot be restored.

Speech culture is included in the ecology of culture as an important component. Indeed, if culture is the totality of the achievements of society in the field of science, education, art, and so on, then these achievements are fixed, as a rule (although not exclusively), in the language and in the word. Connection common culture with such a form of language as its literary processed, fixed in writing and in oral samples, the "cultural" variety (literary language) is absolutely beyond doubt. Arising at a certain historical stage and in certain cultural and historical conditions, the literary language itself serves as evidence and indicator of the level of spiritual development of the people in a given period of time.

It must be said that the modern era brings a lot of new things into the Russian literary language of our days, especially in such areas as vocabulary and phraseology, the combination of words, their stylistic coloration, and the like.

Among the factors and conditions for the development of the modern Russian language (internal and external), we can highlight three. The impacts on the everyday "speech environment" of each of them are both unequal and ambiguous at the same time.

Firstly, it is the common people of the literary language, which has led and is leading to a constant renewal of literary norms, to their liberation from obsolete elements and features that contradict the spirit of folk speech, tendencies of general linguistic development, towards democratization.

Secondly, this is a wide and active introduction of the modern educated reader to the work of writers such as

B. Nabokov, B. Zaitsev, I. Shmelev, M. Aldanov, acquaintance with the works of N. Berdyaev,

S. Bulgakov, P. Struve, P. Sorokin, V. Rozanov, G. Fedotov, E. Trubetskoy, P. Florensky, D. Andreev and many others. Everything

it certainly affects the modern literary language, raising its authority, fostering the linguistic taste of speakers and writers.

Finally, this is the flourishing of all genres of modern journalism, the development of mass media that directly reflect the breath of time, active processes taking place both in society and in language. Here it is necessary to say about the development of various types and genres of oral public speech, looking for support in the traditions of national Russian eloquence, in the examples of oratory of the past and present.

In the modern literary language, there is an intensive convergence of traditional book-written and oral means with everyday-spoken elements, urban vernacular, social and professional dialects. However, a certain emancipation of literary norms should not lead to their loosening or stylistic decline. As a normal and inevitable process, such emancipation creates conditions for the richness and diversity of all means of expression and, consequently, for the improvement of speech culture. At the same time, we are well aware that modern oral and written speech is stylistically reduced and coarse. The language of fiction tends to be impersonal and standardized (including the standards of the latest modernism and the underground). The language of science suffers from unnecessary complexity, an abundance of not always justified foreign language borrowings in the field of terminology. The journalism sometimes suffers from verbosity, indistinctness and inexpressiveness. The public is legitimately alarmed by the argotic elements that have poured into our press and are used in a monotonous manner to "revive" texts. For example: to pump the rights, in the law (often in the headings of articles), hang noodles, powder the brains, for free, hang out and much more. Such deliberate coarsening of speech, of course, is not directly related to the normal processes of democratization.

literary language and is, rather, a reflection and indicator of insufficient high level speech and general culture of speakers and writers, lack of linguistic taste.

The state of the modern literary language worries writers, journalists, scientists, wide circles educated people, everyone who is not indifferent to the fate of the Russian

speech who is seriously concerned about the state of her culture.

LITERATURE

1. Culture of Russian speech / Ed. L.K.Graudina and E.N.Shiryaeva. M., 1998.

2. Oganesyan S.S. Culture of speech communication // Russian language at school. 1998. No. 5.

3. Skvortsov L.I. Language, communication and culture // Russian language at school. 2000. No. 1.

Language and history. Language development

1. Development and history of the language. Aspects of linguistics.

2. Variation in language.

3. The conditionality of the history of the language by the history of the people.

4. Interaction of languages and language contacts.

5. Internal and external laws of language development.

6. The nature of the progress in the language.

1. The study of language as a historically developing object and the main features of linguistic changes is an important aspect of the study of the forms of existence of a language; it is closely related to the description of its essential characteristics. It is natural in this connection that a true understanding of the nature of language is impossible without comprehending the various types of movement that are observed in it. Although, in general, the concept of movement in language cannot be reduced to the concept of linguistic variability, language dynamism is most clearly manifested when considering language in time, historical perspective... Comparing two successive stages in the development of one and the same language, we will certainly find some discrepancies between them.

The functioning and development of a language presuppose each other: a functioning language develops, a developing language functions. If a language ceases to be used, it dies.

It is important to note that not only the language is developing, but also the laws governing its functioning. This feature was noticed even by young grammarians. So, for example, palatalization changed the posterior lingual g, k, x into hissing - w, h, w. This is how the forms hand - handle, leg - leg, etc. arose. In modern Russian, the form weaves is possible, and does not talk (from the verb to weave).

Language manifests a twofold dependence on its evolution; on the one hand, from the environment in which it exists, and on the other, from the internal structure and mechanism of functioning.

Despite the variety of reasons causing linguistic changes, they all have one remarkable feature: along with the tendency to change and improve the language, there is a strong tendency to preserve the language in a state of communicative fitness, which is often reflected in opposition to the beginning transformations. All the processes of restructuring in the language are opposed by the processes of inhibition, aimed at consolidating and preserving the existing language means and preventing the onset of changes. This tendency towards conservatism is a socially positive feature of the language, since it provides a cultural connection between generations. Conservatism is associated with special rates of development of the language, which are not the same for different parts of its structure - phonetics, vocabulary, grammar. So, for example, significant changes in vocabulary occur every 5 years, and noticeable changes in syntax - after 100 years. This is the specificity of the nature of the dynamic stability of languages, which allows, with significant changes in individual parts of the system, to maintain, nevertheless, stability for a long time.

Variability of language a - both the prerequisite and the result of speech activity, the condition and consequence of the normal functioning of the language. Consequently, language is an integral unity of stable and mobile, stable and changing, statics and dynamics.

This duality is rooted primarily in the reasons for the functional order: it is associated with its role and position in human society. On the one hand, in order to satisfy the new needs that constantly arise in human society in connection with the general progress of science, culture and technology, the language must not only be reproduced, but also, adapting to new needs, be modified. Neither side of the tongue is

It is found ultimately outside renewal and outside improvement. On the other hand, all such upcoming shifts should be not only socially motivated and tested, but also socially limited. The interests of society require that no transformations taking place in the language violate the possibilities of mutual understanding between members of the collective belonging to different generations or social groups. The succession of generations, therefore, acts as a force that prevents the onset of any sharp leaps and sudden cardinal changes. Linguistic changes are made gradually, evolutionarily.

Thus, the variability of the language is associated with the fact that the language exists and develops as purposeful I functioning system.

The development of language can be studied primarily by comparing two aspects of language analysis - synchronic and diachronic. We considered these categories in more detail in the lectures dedicated to I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay and F. de Sos-sur.

Synchrony is the state of a language system at a certain point in its development.

The unit of synchronous analysis is synchronous slice. This is a period in which a certain subsystem of the language does not undergo noticeable changes (for vocabulary - 5 years, for syntax - 100). According to the figurative description of E. Coceriu, a synchronous cut is a "photograph of a moving train", that is, the language is constantly evolving, but the scientist recorded some stage of this movement.

In diachrony, one phenomenon or one section of the language subsystem is analyzed, the development of the language as a whole is studied by the history of the language.

Let us consider their ratio following I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay.

Development is a continuous extension of homogeneous phenomena that are in direct causal dependence.

History is an intermittent development, the periods of which are connected by mediated causation, the transition of language from one state to another.