| In the period from the 9th century to the 16th century. Russian-Polovtsian wars (XI - XIII centuries)

Russian-Polovtsian wars (XI - XIII centuries)

The departure of the Pechenegs from the Northern Black Sea region caused a void, which sooner or later someone had to fill. The new masters of the steppes from the second half of the 11th century were the Polovtsians. Since that time, the titanic Russian-Polovtsian struggle unfolded, which was fought on the widest front from Ryazan to the foothills of the Carpathians. Unprecedented in scale, it stretched over a century and a half and had a significant impact on the fate of the Old Russian state.

Like the Pechenegs, the Polovtsians did not set the task of capturing Russian territories, but limited themselves to plunder and withdrawal. And the population ratio Ancient Rus and the steppe nomads were far from in favor of the latter: according to various estimates, about 5.5 million people lived on the territory of the Old Russian state, while the Polovtsians numbered several hundred thousand.

The Russians had to fight the Polovtsy already in the new historical conditions of the collapse of a single state. Now in the war with nomads, the squads of individual principalities usually took part. Boyars were free to choose a place of service and could at any time go to another prince. Therefore, their troops were not particularly reliable. There was no unity of command and weapons. Thus, the military successes of the Polovtsians were directly related to internal political changes in the Old Russian state. For a century and a half, nomads made about 50 major raids on Russian lands. Sometimes the Polovtsians became allies of the princes waging an internecine struggle.

The Russian-Polovtsian wars can be roughly divided into three stages. The first covers the second half of the 11th century, the second is associated with the activities of Prince Vladimir Monomakh, the third falls on the second half of the 12th - early 13th century.

Wars with the Polovtsy, the first stage (second half of the 11th century)

The first attack of the Polovtsians on Russian soil dates back to 1061, when they defeated the army of the Pereyaslavl prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich. Seven years later, a new raid was made. The joint forces of the Grand Duke of Kiev Izyaslav and his brothers Svyatoslav of Chernigov and Vsevolod Pereyaslavsky came out to meet him.

Battle of the Alta River (1068).

The opponents met in September on the banks of the Alta River. The battle took place at night. The Polovtsi turned out to be luckier and defeated the Russians who fled from the battlefield. The consequence of this defeat was a mutiny in Kiev, as a result of which Izyaslav fled to Poland. The invasion of the Polovtsians was stopped by Prince Svyatoslav, who, with a small squad, boldly attacked a large army of nomads near Snovsk and won a decisive victory over them. Until the 90s of the XI century, the chronicles are silent about large raids, but the "small war" periodically continued.

Battle of Stugna (1093).

The onslaught of the Polovtsians especially intensified in the 90s of the XI century. In 1092, the nomads captured three cities: Pesochen, Perevoloka and Priluk, and also ravaged many villages on both sides of the Dnieper. In the raids of the 90s, the Polovtsian khans Bonyak and Tugorkan became famous. In 1093 the Polovtsian troops laid siege to the town of Torchesk. To meet them came Grand Duke Kiev Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich with a squad of 800 soldiers. On the way, he joined forces with the princes Rostislav and Vladimir Vsevolodovich. But by joining forces, the princes were unable to work out joint tactics. Svyatopolk self-confidently rushed into battle. The rest, referring to the lack of forces, offered to enter into negotiations with the Polovtsi. In the end, the hot-headed Svyatopolk, wishing to win, won over the majority to his side. On May 24, the Russian army crossed the Stugna River and was attacked by the superior forces of the Polovtsians. Unable to withstand the blow, the Russians fled to the river. Many died in the stormy waters from the rains (including the Pereyaslavl prince Rostislav Vsevolodovich). After this victory, the Polovtsians captured Torchesk. To stop their invasion, the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk was forced to pay tribute to them and marry the daughter of the Polovtsian Khan Tugorkan.

Battle of Trubezh (1096).

The marriage of Svyatopolk to the Polovtsian princess briefly tempered the appetites of her relatives, and two years after the Battle of Stugna the raids resumed with renewed vigor. Moreover, this time the southern princes did not manage to agree on joint actions at all, since the Chernigov prince Oleg Svyatoslavich evaded the fight and preferred to conclude not only peace with the Polovtsy, but also an alliance. With the help of the Polovtsy, he drove from Chernigov to Pereyaslavl Prince Vladimir Monomakh, who in the summer of 1095 had to single-handedly repel the raids of the nomads. The next year, Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich expelled Oleg from Chernigov and besieged his army in Starodub. This strife was immediately taken advantage of by the Polovtsians, who moved to Russia on both sides of the Dnieper. Bonyak appeared in the vicinity of Kiev, and the princes Kurya and Tugorkan besieged Pereyaslavl.

Then Vladimir and Svyatopolk quickly moved to defend their borders. Not finding Bonyak at Kiev, they crossed the Dnieper and unexpectedly for the Polovtsians appeared near Pereyaslavl. On July 19, 1096, the Russians swiftly wade across the Trubezh River and attacked the Tugorkan army. Not having time to line up for battle, it suffered a crushing defeat. During the pursuit, many Polovtsian soldiers were killed, including Khan Tugorkan (Svyatopolk's father-in-law), along with his son and other noble military leaders, died.

Meanwhile, Bonyak, having learned about the princes leaving for the Dnieper, almost captured Kiev with an unexpected raid. The Polovtsians plundered and burned the Pechersk Monastery. However, having learned about the approach of the regiments of Svyatopolk and Vladimir, the Polovtsian Khan quickly left with his army in the steppe. After successfully repelling this raid, the Torks and other border steppe tribes began to go into the service of the Russians. Victory on the banks of Trubezh had great importance in the ascent of the military leader Vladimir Monomakh, who becomes a recognized leader in the fight against the Polovtsian danger.

Wars with the Polovtsy, second stage (second half of the 12th century)

The external threat made it possible to temporarily slow down the process of the disintegration of state unity. In 1103, Vladimir Monomakh convinced Svyatopolk to organize a large-scale campaign against the nomads. From that time on, the offensive stage of the struggle against the Polovtsians began, the inspiration of which was Vladimir Monomakh. The 1103 campaign was the largest military operation against the Polovtsians. It was attended by the armed forces of seven princes. The united troops on boats and on foot reached the Dnieper rapids and turned from there into the depths of the steppes, to the town of Suten, where one of the large groups of nomads was located, led by Khan Urusoba. It was decided to set out in early spring, while the Polovtsian horses did not have time to gain strength after a long winter. The Russians destroyed the advanced patrols of the Polovtsi, which made it possible to ensure the surprise of the attack.

Battle of Suteni (1103).

The battle between the Russians and the Polovtsians took place on April 4, 1103. At the beginning of the battle, the Russians surrounded the Polovtsian vanguard, led by the hero Altunopa, and completely destroyed it. Then, emboldened by their success, they attacked the main Polovtsian forces and inflicted complete defeat on them. According to the chronicle, never before had the Russians won such a famous victory over the Polovtsians. In the battle, almost the entire Polovtsian elite was destroyed - Urusoba and nineteen other khans. Many Russian prisoners were released. This victory marked the beginning of the offensive operations of the Russians against the Polovtsians.

Battle of Louben (1107).

Three years later, the Polovtsy, having recovered from the blow, made a new raid. They captured a lot of booty and prisoners, but on the way back they were overtaken by the squads of Svyatopolk across the river Sula and defeated. In May 1107, Khan Bonyak invaded the Pereyaslav principality. He captured herds of horses and laid siege to the city of Luben. The princely coalition headed by princes Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh came out to meet the invaders.

On August 12, they crossed the Sula River and decisively attacked the Polovtsians. They did not expect such a rapid onslaught and fled from the battlefield, abandoning their wagon train. The Russians pursued them as far as the Khorol River and took many prisoners. Despite the victory, the princes did not strive to continue the war, but tried to establish peaceful relations with the nomads. This, in particular, was evidenced by the fact that after the Battle of Luben, Russian princes Oleg and Vladimir Monomakh married their sons to Polovtsian princesses.

Battle of Salnitsa (1111).

However, hopes that family ties would strengthen Russian-Polovtsian ties and bring peace with the nomads did not come true. Within two years, hostilities resumed. Then Monomakh again convinced the princes to unite for joint action. He again proposed a plan of offensive actions and the transfer of the war into the depths of the Polovtsian steppes, characteristic of his general strategy. Monomakh managed to achieve coordination of actions from the princes and in 1111 organized a campaign, which became the pinnacle of his military successes.

The Russian army marched out through the snow. The infantry, which Vladimir Monomakh attached special importance to, rode on sleds. After four weeks of the campaign, Monomakh's army reached the Donets River. Never since the time of Svyatoslav have the Russians gone so far into the steppe. The two largest Polovtsian strongholds were taken - the cities of Sugrov and Sharukan. Having freed many prisoners there and seized rich booty, Monomakh's army set off on the return journey. However, the Polovtsians did not want to let the Russians out of their possessions alive. On March 24, the Polovtsian cavalry blocked the path of the Russian army. After a short fight, she was driven back. Two days later, the Polovtsians tried again.

The decisive battle took place on March 26 on the banks of the Salnitsa River. The outcome of this bloody and desperate, according to the chronicle, battle was decided by the timely strike of the regiments under the command of princes Vladimir and Davyd. The Polovtsi suffered a crushing defeat. According to legend, heavenly angels helped Russian soldiers to smite their enemies. The Battle of Salnitsa was the largest Russian victory over the Cumans. She contributed to the growing popularity of Vladimir Monomakh - the main hero of the campaign, the news of which reached "even to Rome."

After the death of the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk in 1113, the Polovtsian khans Aepa and Bonyak made a major raid in the hope of internal turmoil. The Polovtsian army laid siege to the Vyr fortress. But having learned about the approach of the Russian squads, it hastily retreated, not accepting the battle. Apparently, the factor of moral superiority of Russian soldiers affected.

In 1113, the Kiev throne was occupied by Vladimir Monomakh. During his reign (1113-1125), the fight against the Polovtsians was fought exclusively on their territory. In 1116, the Russian princes under the command of the son of Vladimir Monomakh Yaropolk (an active participant in previous campaigns) moved into the depths of the Don steppes, again captured Sharukan, Sugrov. Another center of the Polovtsians was taken - the town of Balin. After this campaign, the Polovtsian domination in the steppes came to an end. When in 1120 Yaropolk undertook another "preventive" campaign, the steppes were empty. By that time, the Polovtsi had already migrated to the North Caucasus, away from the Russian borders. The northern Black Sea region was cleared of aggressive nomads, and Russian farmers could safely harvest. This was the period of the revival of state power, which brought peace and tranquility to the lands of Ancient Russia.

Wars with the Polovtsy, third stage (second half of XII - early XIII century)

After the death of Vladimir Monomakh, Khan Atrak dared to return to the Don steppes from Georgia. But the Polovtsian raid on the southern Russian borders was repelled by Prince Yaropolk. However, soon the descendants of Monomakh were removed from power in Kiev by Vsevolod Olgovich - a descendant of another grandson of Yaroslav the Wise - Oleg Svyatoslavovich. This prince entered into an alliance with the Polovtsians and used them as a military force in his campaigns against the Galician princes and Poland. After the death of Vsevolod in 1146, a struggle broke out for the Kiev throne between the princes Izyaslav Mstislavovich and Yuri Dolgoruky. During this period, the active participation of the Polovtsians begins in internecine strife.

Here the regiments of the Polovtsian Khan Aepa distinguished themselves. So, Yuri Dolgoruky five times led the Polovtsian troops to Kiev, trying to seize the capital of Ancient Russia.

Long-term strife brought to naught the efforts of Vladimir Monomakh to defend the Russian borders. The weakening of the military power of the ancient Russian state allowed the Polovtsians to strengthen and create a large union of tribes in the 70s of the XII century. It was headed by Khan Konchak, whose name is associated with a new surge of the Russian-Polovtsian confrontation. Konchak constantly fought with the Russian princes, plundering the southern borderlands. The most brutal raids were in the vicinity of Kiev, Pereyaslavl and Chernigov. The Polovtsian onslaught intensified after Konchak's victory over the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich in 1185.

Hike of Igor Svyatoslavich (1185).

The prehistory of this famous campaign, sung in "The Lay of Igor's Host", is as follows. In the summer of 1184, the Kiev prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, at the head of the princely coalition, made a campaign against the Polovtsy and inflicted a crushing defeat on them in the battle on the Orel River on July 30. 7 thousand Polovtsians were captured, including their leader, Khan Kobyak, who was executed as punishment for previous raids. Khan Konchak decided to take revenge for the death of Kobyak. He came to the borders of Russia in February 1185, but was defeated in the battle on March 1 on the Khorol River by the troops of Svyatoslav. It seemed that the times of Vladimir Monomakh were returning. One more joint blow was needed for the final crushing of the revived Polovtsian power.

This time, however, history did not repeat itself. The reason for this was the inconsistency of the actions of the princes. Influenced by the successes of Svyatoslav, his ally, Prince of Novgorod-Seversk, Igor Svyatoslavich, together with his brother Vsevolod, decided to get the laurels of the triumphant without anyone's help and set off on a campaign on his own. Igor's army, numbering about 6 thousand people, moved into the depths of the steppes and turned out to be alone with all the forces of Konchak, who did not miss the chance given to him by the reckless prince.

Having retreated after the vanguard battle, the Polovtsians, according to all the rules of their tactics, lured the Russian army into a trap and surrounded them with much superior forces. Igor decided to make his way back to the Seversky Donets River. It should be noted the nobility of the brothers. Having cavalry to break through, they did not abandon their infantry to the mercy of fate, but ordered the cavalry soldiers to dismount and fight on foot, so that they all would break out of the encirclement together. "If we run, we will kill ourselves, and ordinary people let us forsake it, it will be a sin for us that we give them up to our enemies; or we will die, or we will live together, "the princes decided. The battle between Igor's squad and the Polovtsians took place on May 12, 1185. Before the battle, Igor turned to the soldiers with the words:" Brothers! This is what we were looking for, so we dare. Shame is worse than death! "

The fierce battle lasted for three days. On the first day, the Russians repelled the Polovtsian onslaught. But the next day one of the regiments broke down and ran. Igor rushed to the retreating to return them to the ranks, but was captured. The bloody battle continued after the capture of the prince. Finally, the Polovtsians, due to their numbers, managed to grind the entire Russian army. The death of a large army exposed a significant line of defense and, according to Prince Svyatopolk, "opened the gates to the Russian land." The Polovtsians were quick to take advantage of their success and made a number of raids on the Novgorod-Seversk and Pereyaslavl lands.

The exhausting struggle with the nomads, which lasted for more than one century, cost enormous sacrifices. Due to the constant raids, the fertile outskirts of the southern regions of Russia were depopulated, which contributed to their decline. Constant hostilities in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region led to the displacement of old trade routes to the Mediterranean region. Kievan Rus, which used to be a transit corridor from Byzantium to Northern and Central Europe, now remains aloof from new routes. Thus, the Polovtsian raids not least contributed to the decline of Southern Russia and the movement of the center of the Old Russian state to the northeast, to the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

By the beginning of the 90s of the XII century, the raids had subsided, but after the death of the Kiev prince Svyatoslav in 1194, a new period of strife began, into which the Polovtsians were drawn. The geography of their attacks is expanding. The Polovtsi make repeated raids on the Ryazan principality. By the way, the Ryazan prince Roman "with the brethren" organized the last major Russian campaign against the Polovtsy in history in April 1206. During this period, the Polovtsians are already completely moving to the second stage of nomadism - with permanent winter roads and summer roads. The beginning of the 13th century is characterized by a gradual fading of their military activity. The chronicle dates the last Polovtsian foray into the Russian lands (the vicinity of Pereyaslavl) in 1210. Further development of Russian-Polovtsian relations was interrupted by a hurricane from the east, as a result of which both the Polovtsians and Kievan Rus disappeared.

Based on materials from the portal "Great Wars in the History of Russia"

Content of the article:

The Polovtsy (Polovtsy) are a nomadic people who were once considered the most militant and powerful. The first time we hear about them is in history lessons at school. But the knowledge that the teacher can give within the framework of the program is not enough to understand who they are, these Polovtsians, where they came from and how they influenced the life of Ancient Russia. Meanwhile, they haunted the Kiev princes for several centuries.

The history of the people, how it came into being

The Polovtsy (Polovtsy, Kipchaks, Kumans) are nomadic tribes, the first mention of which dates back to 744. Then the Kipchaks were part of the Kimak Kaganate, an ancient nomadic state that formed on the territory of modern Kazakhstan. The main inhabitants here were kimaks, who occupied the eastern lands. The lands near the Urals were occupied by the Polovtsians, who were considered relatives of the Kimaks.

By the middle of the 9th century, the Kipchaks had achieved superiority over the Kimaks, and by the middle of the 10th century they had swallowed them up. But the Polovtsians decided not to stop at this, and by the beginning of the 11th century, thanks to their belligerence, they came close to the borders of Khorezm (the historical region of the Republic of Uzbekistan).

At that time, the Oghuz (medieval Turkic tribes) lived here, who, due to the invasion, had to move to Central Asia.

By the middle of the 11th century, almost the entire territory of Kazakhstan was subordinated to the Kipchaks. The western limits of their possessions reached the Volga. Thus, thanks to an active nomadic life, raids and a desire to conquer new lands, the once small group of people occupied vast territories and became one of the strongest and richest among the tribes.

Lifestyle and social organization

Their socio-political organization was a typical military-democratic system. The entire people were subdivided into clans, the names of which were given by the names of their elders. Each genus owned land and summer nomadic routes. The heads were the khans, who were also the heads of certain kurens (small divisions of the clan).

The wealth obtained during the campaigns was divided among the representatives of the local elite participating in the campaign. Ordinary people, unable to feed themselves, fell into dependence on the aristocrats. Poor men were engaged in cattle grazing, while women served at the local khans and their families.

There are still disputes about the appearance of the Polovtsians, and the study of the remains continues using modern capabilities. Today scientists have some portrait of these people. It is assumed that they did not belong to the Mongoloid race, but looked more like Europeans. The most characteristic feature is blondness and reddishness. Scientists from many countries agree on this.

Independent Chinese experts also describe the Kipchaks as people with blue eyes and "red" hair. There were, of course, dark-haired representatives among them.

War with the Polovtsy

In the 9th century, the Cumans were allies of the Russian princes. But soon everything changed, at the beginning of the 11th century, Polovtsian detachments began to regularly attack the southern regions of Kievan Rus. They ravaged houses, took away prisoners, who were then sold into slavery, and took away livestock. Their incursions have always been sudden and violent.

In the middle of the 11th century, the Kipchaks stopped fighting the Russians, as they were busy with the war with the steppe tribes. But then they again took up their own:

• In 1061, the Pereyaslavl prince Vsevolod was defeated in a battle with them and Pereyaslavl was completely ruined by the nomads;
• After this, wars with the Polovtsy became regular. In one of the battles in 1078, the Russian prince Izyaslav was killed;
• In 1093, the army, gathered by three princes to fight the enemy, was destroyed.

These were difficult times for Russia. Endless raids on the villages ruined the already simple farming of the peasants. Women were taken captive, and they became servants, children were sold into slavery.

In order to somehow protect the southern borders, the inhabitants began to arrange fortifications and settle the Turks there, who were military force princes.

Hike of the Seversky Prince Igor

Sometimes the Kiev princes went to the enemy with an offensive war. Such events usually ended in victory and caused great damage to the Kipchaks, cooling their ardor for a short time and allowing the border villages to restore their strength and life.

But there were also unsuccessful campaigns. An example of this is the campaign of Igor Svyatoslavovich in 1185.

Then he, united with other princes, went out with an army to the right tributary of the Don. Here they faced the main forces of the Polovtsi, a battle ensued. But the numerical superiority of the enemy was so palpable that the Russians were immediately surrounded. Retreating in this position, they came to the lake. From there Igor rode to the aid of Prince Vsevolod, but could not carry out his plan, as he was captured, and many soldiers died.

It all ended with the fact that the Polovtsy were able to destroy the city of Rimov, one of the large ancient cities of the Kursk region and defeat the Russian army. Prince Igor managed to escape from captivity and returned home.

His son remained in captivity, who returned later, but in order to get freedom, he had to marry the daughter of a Polovtsian khan.

Polovtsi: who are they now?

At the moment, there are no unambiguous data on the genetic similarity of the Kipchaks with some peoples living now.

There are small ethnic groups considered to be distant descendants of the Polovtsians. They are found among:

1. Crimean Tatars;
2. Bashkir;
3. Kazakhs;
4. Nogaytsev;
5. Balkars;
6. Altaians;
7. Hungarians;
8. Bulgarians;
9. Polyakov;
10. Ukraintsev (according to L. Gumilyov).

Thus, it becomes clear that the blood of the Polovtsians flows today in many nations. The Russians were no exception, given their rich joint history.

To tell about the life of the Kipchaks in more detail, it is necessary to write more than one book. We have touched upon the most striking and important pages of it. After reading them, you will better understand who they are - the Polovtsians, than they are known and where they came from.

Videos about nomadic peoples

In this video, the historian Andrei Prishvin will tell you how the Polovtsians arose on the territory of ancient Russia:

The Cumans belonged to the nomadic tribes. According to different sources, they had other names: Kipchaks and Komans. The Polovtsian people belonged to the Turkic-speaking tribes. At the beginning of the 11th century, they expelled the Pechenegs and Torks from the Black Sea steppes. Then they went to the Dnieper, and when they reached the Danube they became the owners of the steppe, which began to be called the Polovtsian. The religion of the Polovtsians was Tengrianism. This religion is based on the cult of Tengri Khan (the eternal radiance of the sky).

The daily life of the Polovtsians practically did not differ from other tribal peoples. Their main occupation was cattle breeding. By the end of the 11th century, the type of nomadism of the Polovtsians changed from taborny to a more modern one. For each separate part of the tribe, plots of land were attached - for pastures.

Kievan Rus and Cumans

Starting from 1061 and up to 1210, the Polovtsians made constant raids on the Russian lands. The struggle between Russia and the Polovtsy lasted quite a long time. There were about 46 major raids on Russia, and this does not include smaller ones.

The first battle of Russia with the Polovtsy was on February 2, 1061 near Pereyaslavl, they burned down the surroundings and robbed the nearest villages. In 1068, the Cumans defeated the troops of the Yaroslavichs, in 1078 Izyaslav Yaroslavich died in a battle with them, in 1093 the Cumans defeated the troops of 3 princes: Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh and Rostislav, and in 1094 they forced Vladimir Monomakh to leave Chernigov. In the future, several retaliatory campaigns were made. In 1096, the Polovtsians suffered their first defeat in the fight against Russia. In 1103 they were defeated by Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh, then they served in the Caucasus to Tsar David the Builder.

The final defeat of the Polovtsi by Vladimir Monomakh and the Russian army of many thousands took place as a result of a crusade in 1111. To avoid final destruction, the Polovtsians changed their nomadic place, crossing the Danube, and most of their troops, along with their families, went to Georgia. All these "all-Russian" campaigns against the Polovtsy were led by Vladimir Monomakh. After his death in 1125, the Polovtsians took an active part in the internecine wars of the Russian princes, participated in the defeat of Kiev as allies in 1169 and 1203.

The next campaign against the Polovtsians, also referred to as the massacre of Igor Svyatoslavovich with the Polovtsians, described in "The Lay of Igor's Regiment" took place in 1185. This campaign of Igor Svyatoslavovich was an example of one of the failed ones. After some time, some of the Polovtsians adopted Christianity, and a period of calm began in the Polovtsian raids.

The Polovtsi ceased to exist as an independent, politically developed people after the European campaigns of Batu (1236 - 1242) and made up the majority of the population of the Golden Horde, passing on their language to them, which formed the basis for the formation of other languages ​​(Tatar, Bashkir, Nogai, Kazakh, Karakalpak , Kumyk and others).

In the middle of the 11th century, Kievan Rus faced a serious threat from the Polovtsians. These nomads came from the Asian steppes and conquered the Black Sea region. The Polovtsy (or Cumans) ousted their predecessors, the Pechenegs, from these places. The new steppe inhabitants differed little from the old ones. They lived by robberies and invasions of neighboring countries, in which a sedentary population lived.

New threat

The appearance of the nomads coincided with the beginning of the process of the political disintegration of Russia. The East Slavic state was united until the 11th century, when its territory was divided into several small principalities. Each of them was ruled by an independent native. The struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsians was complicated by this fragmentation.

The rulers often quarreled among themselves, organized internecine wars and made their own country vulnerable to the steppe people. In addition, some princes began to hire nomads for money. Having their own small horde in the army became an important advantage on the battlefield. All these factors combined led to the fact that Russia for almost two centuries was in a state of constant conflict with the Polovtsians.

First blood

For the first time, nomads invaded the territory of Russia in 1054. Their appearance coincided with the death of Yaroslav the Wise. Today he is considered the last Kiev prince who ruled all of Russia. After him, the throne passed to the eldest son Izyaslav. However, Yaroslav had several more offspring. Each of them received an inheritance (part of the state), although formally they obeyed Izyaslav. The second son of Yaroslav, Svyatoslav, ruled in Chernigov, and the third, Vsevolod Yaroslavich, received Pereyaslavl. This city was located just east of Kiev and was closest to the steppe. That is why the Polovtsians often attacked the Pereyaslavl principality in the first place.

When the nomads found themselves on Russian soil for the first time, Vsevolod managed to come to an agreement with them by sending an embassy with gifts to the uninvited guests. Peace was concluded between the parties. However, it could not be durable, since the steppe inhabitants lived by robbing their neighbors.

The Horde invaded again in 1061. This time, many peaceful, defenseless villages were plundered and destroyed. Nomads never stayed in Russia for a long time. Their horses were afraid of winter, in addition, the animals needed to be fed. Therefore, the raids were carried out in the spring or summer. After a break for autumn and winter, the southern guests returned.

The defeat of the Yaroslavichi

The armed struggle of the Russian princes with the Cumans was at first unsystematic. The rulers of the lands could not fight the huge hordes alone. This state of affairs made an alliance between the Russian princes vital. The sons of Yaroslav the Wise knew how to negotiate with each other, so in their era there were no problems with coordination of actions.

In 1068, the united squad of the Yaroslavichs met with the steppe army, led by Sharukan. The battle took place on the bank of the Alta River near Pereyaslavl. The princes were defeated, they had to flee in haste from the battlefield. After the battle, Izyaslav and Vsevolod returned to Kiev. They had neither the strength nor the means to organize a new campaign against the Polovtsians. The apathy of the princes led to an uprising of the population, tired of the constant raids of the steppe people and seeing the inability of their rulers to oppose something to this terrible threat. The people of Kiev called a people's veche. Residents of the city demanded from the authorities to arm ordinary citizens. When this ultimatum was ignored, the disaffected ransacked the governor's dwelling. Prince Izyaslav had to hide with the Polish king.

Meanwhile, the Polovtsian raids on Russia continued. In the absence of Izyaslav, his younger brother Svyatoslav in the same 1068 defeated the steppe inhabitants in the battle on the river Snov. Sharukan was taken prisoner. This first victory allowed the nomads to be temporarily paralyzed.

Polovtsi in the service of princes

Although the Polovtsian raids ceased, the steppe inhabitants continued to appear on Russian soil. The reason for this was that nomads began to be hired by Russian princes who fought with each other in internecine conflicts. The first such incident took place in 1076. The son of Vsevolod Yaroslavovich Vladimir Monomakh, together with the Polovtsy, devastated the lands of the Polotsk prince Vseslav.

In the same year, Svyatoslav, who had previously occupied Kiev, died. His death allowed Izyaslav to return to the capital and again become a prince. Chernigov (hereditary inheritance of Svyatoslav) was occupied by Vsevolod. Thus, the brothers left their nephews Roman and Oleg without lands, which they should have received from their father. Children of Svyatoslav did not have their own squad. But the Polovtsy went to fight with them. Often the nomads went to war at the call of the princes, without even asking for a reward, since they received the reward during the robberies of peaceful villages and cities.

However, such an alliance was dangerous. Although in 1078 the Svyatoslavichs defeated Izyaslav in the battle on Nezhatina Niva (the Kiev ruler died in battle), very soon Prince Roman himself was killed by the Polovtsy, whom he called for him.

Slaughter on the Stugna

At the end of XI - beginning of XII centuries. the main fighter against the steppe threat was Vladimir Monomakh. The Polovtsi decided to reassert themselves in 1092, when Vsevolod, who then ruled in Kiev, fell seriously ill. Nomads often attacked Russia when the country found itself without power or it was weakened. This time the Polovtsians decided that Vsevolod's illness would not allow the people of Kiev to gather their strength and repel the attack.

The first invasion went unpunished. The Kumans, having met no resistance, calmly returned to their winter nomadic places. The campaigns were then led by Khan Tugorkan and Khan Bonyak. The powerful onslaught of the steppe dwellers after a long hiatus became possible after the hordes, scattered for several years, united around these two leaders.

Everything favored the Polovtsians. Vsevolod Yaroslavich died in 1093. An inexperienced nephew of the deceased, Svyatopolk Yaroslavovich, began to rule in Kiev. Tugorkan together with his horde laid siege to Torchesk - an important city in Porosye on the southern borders of Rus. Soon the defenders learned of the approaching help. Russian princes for a while forgot about mutual claims to each other and gathered their squads for a campaign in the steppe. In this army were the regiments of Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich, Vladimir Monomakh and his younger brother Rostislav Vsevolodovich.

The united squad was defeated in the battle on the Stugna River, which took place on May 26, 1093. The first blow of the Polovtsians fell on the Kievites, who wavered and fled from the battlefield. The Chernigovites were defeated behind them. The army was pressed against the river. The soldiers had to hurry across the river in their armor. Many of them simply drowned, including Rostislav Vsevolodovich. Vladimir Monomakh tried to save his brother, but he could not help him get out of the seething stream of Stugna. After the victory, the Polovtsians returned to Torchesk and finally took the city. The defenders of the fortress surrendered. They were taken prisoner, and the city was set on fire. The history of Kievan Rus was overshadowed by one of the most devastating and terrible defeats.

Backstab

Despite heavy losses, the struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsians continued. In 1094, Oleg Svyatoslavovich, who continued to fight for his father's inheritance, laid siege to Monomakh in Chernigov. Vladimir Vsevolodovich left the city, after which it was given to the nomads for plunder. After the concession of Chernigov, the conflict with Oleg was settled. However, soon the Polovtsians besieged Pereyaslavl and appeared under the walls of Kiev. The steppe dwellers took advantage of the absence of strong squads in the south of the country, who left to the north to participate in another civil strife on the Rostov land. In that war, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, the Murom prince Izyaslav, died. Meanwhile, Tugorkan was already close to starving out Pereyaslavl.

At the very last moment, a squad returned from the north came to the rescue of the city. It was led by Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich. The decisive battle took place on July 19, 1096. The Russian princes finally defeated the Polovtsians. This was the first major success of the Slavic weapons in the confrontation with the steppe people over the past 30 years. Under a powerful blow, the Polovtsians rushed scatteringly. In this pursuit, Tugorkan died along with his son. The next year after the victory at Trubezh, the Russian princes gathered at the famous congress in Lyubech. At this meeting, the Rurikovichs settled their own relations. The hereditary inheritance of the late Svyatoslav finally returned to his children. Now the princes could come to grips with the problem of the Polovtsians, on which Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich insisted, who formally continued to be considered the eldest.

Hiking to the steppe

At first, the struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsians did not go beyond the borders of Russia. The squads gathered only if the nomads threatened the Slavic cities and villages. This tactic was ineffective. Even if the Polovtsians were defeated, they returned to their own steppes, regained strength and after a while again crossed the border.

Monomakh understood that a fundamentally new strategy was needed against the nomads. In 1103 the Rurikovichs met at the next congress on the shores of Lake Dolob. At the meeting, a general decision was made to go with the army to the steppe, to the enemy's lair. This is how the military campaigns of the Russian princes began to the places of the nomadic Polovtsians. The campaign was attended by Svyatopolk Kievsky, Davyd Svyatoslavovich Chernigovsky, Vladimir Monomakh, Davyd Vseslavovich Polotsky and Monomakh's heir Yaropolk Vladimirovich. After a general gathering in Pereyaslavl, the Russian army set off for the steppe in the early spring of 1103. The princes were in a hurry, hoping to overtake the enemy as quickly as possible. Polovtsian horses needed a long rest after previous campaigns. In March, however, they were still fragile, which should have played into the hands of the Slav squad.

The history of Kievan Rus has not yet known such a military campaign. Not only cavalry marched south, but also a large foot army. The princes counted on him in case the cavalry got too tired after a long journey. The Polovtsi, having learned about the unexpected approach of the enemy, began hastily to gather a united army. Khan Urusoba stood at its head. Another 20 steppe princelings led their detachments. The decisive battle took place on April 4, 1103 on the banks of the Suteni River. The Polovtsi were defeated. Many of their princes were killed or captured. Urusoba also died. The victory allowed Svyatopolk to rebuild the city of Yuryev on the Ros River, which was burned down in 1095 and was empty without residents for many years.

In the spring of 1097, the Polovtsians went on the offensive again. Khan Bonyak led the siege of the city of Luben, which belonged to the Pereyaslavl principality. Svyatopolk and Monomakh together defeated his army, meeting him on the Sula River. Bonyak ran. Nevertheless, the world was fragile. Subsequently, the military campaigns of the Russian princes were repeated (three times in 1109 - 1111). They were all successful. The Polovtsi had to move away from the Russian borders. Some of them even moved to the North Caucasus. For two decades Russia forgot about the threat of the Polovtsians. It is interesting that in 1111 Vladimir Monomakh organized a campaign by analogy with Crusade Catholics to Palestine. The struggle of the Eastern Slavs and Polovtsians was also religious. The nomads were pagans (in the annals they were called "filthy"). In the same year 1111, the Russian army reached the Don. This river became her last frontier. The Polovtsian cities of Sugrov and Sharukan were captured and plundered, in which the nomads hibernated as usual.

Long Neighborhood

In Vladimir Monomakh became the prince of Kiev. Under him and his son Mstislav (until 1132) Russia was for the last time a single and cohesive state. The Polovtsi did not bother Kiev, Pereyaslavl, or any other East Slavic cities. However, after the death of Mstislav Vladimirovich, disputes began between numerous Russian princes over the rights to the throne. Someone wanted to get Kiev, someone fought for independence in other provinces. In the wars among themselves, the Rurikovichs again began to hire the Polovtsians.

For example, who ruled in Rostov, five times, together with the nomads, besieged the "mother of Russian cities." The Polovtsians were actively involved in internecine wars in the Galicia-Volyn principality. In 1203, under the command of Rurik Rostislavovich, they captured and plundered Kiev. Then in the ancient capital the prince Roman Mstislavovich Galitsky ruled.

Trade protection

In the XI-XII centuries. Polovtsians did not always invade Russia at the call of one of the princes. During periods when there were no other ways to rob and kill, nomads unauthorizedly attacked Slavic settlements and cities. At Kiev prince For Mstislav Izyaslavovich (ruled 1167-1169), for the first time in a long time, a campaign was organized and carried out into the steppe. The squads went to the places of nomadism not only in order to secure the border settlements, but also to preserve the Dnieper trade. For many centuries, merchants used the Way from the Varangians to the Greeks, along which Byzantine goods were delivered. In addition, Russian merchants sold northern riches in Constantinople, which brought great profits to the princes. Hordes of robbers were a constant threat to this important trade in goods. Therefore, the frequent Russian-Polovtsian wars were also conditioned by the economic interests of the Kiev rulers.

In 1185, the prince of Novgorod-Seversky undertook another campaign in the steppe. The day before, there was a solar eclipse, which contemporaries regarded as a bad sign. Despite this, the squad still went to the lair of the Polovtsi. This army was defeated, and the prince was captured. The events of the campaign formed the basis for "The Lay of Igor's Host." This text is today considered the most significant monument of Old Russian literature.

The emergence of the Mongols

For almost two centuries, relations between the Slavs and Polovtsians fit into a system of regular alternation of war and peace. However, in the 13th century, the established order collapsed. In 1222, the Mongols first appeared in Eastern Europe. The hordes of these ferocious nomads had already conquered China and were now heading west.

Campaign 1222-1223 was trial and actually was intelligence. However, even then both the Polovtsians and the Russians felt their helplessness in front of the new enemy. These two peoples used to be constantly at war with each other, but this time they decided to go together against an unexpected enemy. In the battle on Kalka, the Polovtsian-Russian army suffered a crushing defeat. Thousands of warriors died. However, after the victory, the Mongols suddenly turned back and went to their native lands.

It seemed that the storm was over. Everyone began to live as before: the princes fought with each other, the Polovtsy plundered border settlements. A few years later, the unreasonable relaxation of the Polovtsians and Russians was punished. In 1236, the Mongols, under the leadership of Genghis Khan's grandson Batu, began their great western campaign. This time they went to distant countries in order to conquer them. First, the Polovtsians were defeated, then the Mongols plundered Russia. The horde reached the Balkans and only there turned back. New nomads settled in the former. Gradually, the two peoples assimilated. However, as an independent force, the Polovtsians disappeared precisely in the 1230-1240s. Now Russia had to deal with a much more terrible enemy.

Polovtsian stone statue. Archaeological Museum-Reserve "Tanais", Myasnikovsky district, Nedvigovka farm. XI-XII centuries Alexander Polyakov / RIA Novosti

The formation of the Polovtsian ethnos took place according to the same laws for all the peoples of the Middle Ages and antiquity. One of them is that by no means always the people who gave the name to the entire conglomerate are the most numerous in it - due to objective or subjective factors, they are promoted to a leading place in the emerging ethnic massif, becoming its core. Half-ts did not come to an empty place. The first component that joined the new ethnic community here was the population that was previously part of the Khazar Kaganate - the Bulgarians and Alans. A more significant role was played by the remnants of the Pechenezh and Guz hordes. This is confirmed by the fact that, firstly, according to anthropology, outwardly the nomads of the X-XIII centuries almost did not differ from the inhabitants of the steppes of the VIII - early X centuries, and secondly, an unusual variety of funeral rites is recorded on this territory ... A custom that came exclusively with the Polovtsians was the construction of sanctuaries dedicated to the cult of male or female ancestors. Thus, from the end of the 10th century in this region, there was a mixing of three kindred peoples, a single Turkic-speaking community was formed, but the process was interrupted by the Mongol invasion.

Polovtsi - nomads

The Polovtsi were a classic nomadic pastoralist people. There were cattle, sheep, and even camels in the herds, but the main wealth of the nomad was the horse. Initially, they led a year-round so-called camp nomadic wandering: finding a place rich in food for livestock, they located their dwellings there, but when the food was depleted, they set off in search of a new territory. At first, the steppe could provide for everyone painlessly. However, as a result of demographic growth, the urgent task has become the transition to a more rational economy - seasonal nomadism. It presupposes a clear division of pastures into winter and summer, the folding of territories and routes assigned to each group.

Polovtsian silver bowl with one handle. Kiev, X-XIII centuries Dea / A. Dagli Orti / Getty Images

Dynastic marriages

Dynastic marriages have always been a tool of diplomacy. The Polovtsians were no exception here. However, the relationship was not based on parity - the Russian princes willingly married the daughters of the Polovtsian princes, but did not send their relatives in marriage. An unwritten medieval law worked here: the representatives of the ruling dynasty could only be married to an equal. It is characteristic that the same Svyatopolk married the daughter of Tugorkan, having suffered a crushing defeat from him, that is, being in an obviously weaker position. However, he did not give up his daughter or sister, but he himself took a girl from the steppe. Thus, the Polovtsians were recognized as an influential, but not equal force.

But if the baptism of the future wife seemed even a godly deed, then “betrayal” of one's faith was not possible, which is why the Polovtsian rulers were unable to get the daughters of Russian princes to marry themselves. There is only one known case when a Russian princess (the widowed mother of Holy Glory Vladimirovich) married a Polovtsian prince - but for this she had to run away from home.

Be that as it may, by the time of the Mongol invasion, the Russian and Polovtsian aristocracy were closely intertwined with kinship ties, the cultures of both peoples were mutually enriching.

Polovtsi were a tool in internecine feud

The Polovtsi were not the first dangerous neighbor of Russia - the threat from the steppe always accompanied the life of the country. But unlike the Pechenegs, these nomads met not with a single state, but with a group of principalities at war with each other. At first, the Polovtsian hordes did not strive to conquer Russia, contenting themselves with small raids. Only when in 1068 the combined forces of the three princes were defeated on the river Lete (Alta) did the power of the new nomadic neighbor become apparent. But the danger was not realized by the rulers - the Polovtsians, always ready for war and plunder, began to be used in the struggle against each other. Oleg Svyatoslavich was the first to do this in 1078, bringing in the "nasty" to fight Vsevolod Yaroslavich. Later, he repeatedly repeated this "technique" in the internecine struggle, for which he was named by the author of "The Lay of Igor's Regiment" Oleg Gorislavich.

But the contradictions between the Russian and Polovtsian princes did not always allow them to unite. Vladimir Monomakh was especially active against the established tradition. In 1103, the Dolob Congress took place, at which Vla-dimir managed to organize the first expedition to the territory of the enemy. The result was the defeat of the Polovtsian army, which lost not only ordinary soldiers, but also twenty representatives of the highest nobility. The continuation of this policy led to the fact that the Polovtsians were forced to migrate away from the borders of Russia.

Warriors of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich capture the Polovtsian vezhes. Miniature
from the Radziwill Chronicle. XV century vk.com

After the death of Vladimir Monomakh, the princes again began to bring the Polovtsians to fight with each other, weakening the military and economic potential of the country. In the second half of the century, there was another surge of active confrontation, which was led in the steppe by Prince Konchak. It was to him that Igor Svyatoslavich was taken prisoner in 1185, which is described in the "Lay of Igor's Regiment". In the 1190s, raids became less and less, and at the beginning of the XIII century, the military activity of the steppe neighbors also subsided.

Further development of relations was interrupted by the Mongols who came. The southern regions of Rus were endlessly exposed not only to raids, but also to the "drives" of the Polovtsians, which ruined these lands. After all, even a simple re-movement of the army of nomads (and there were cases when they went here and with the entire economy) destroyed crops, the military threat forced the traders to choose other paths. Thus, this people contributed a lot to the displacement of the center of the country's historical development.

Polovtsian anthropomorphic statue from the collection of the Dnepropetrovsk Historical Museum The female stele holds the vessel. Drawing by S. A. Pletneva "Polovets stone sculptures", 1974

Polovtsi were friends not only with Russians, but also with Georgians

His active participation Polovtsians were noted in history not only in Russia. Expelled by Vladimir Monomakh from the Seversky Donets, they partially migrated to the Ciscaucasia under the leadership of Prince Atrak. Here Georgia turned to them for help, which was constantly exposed to raids from the mountainous regions of the Caucasus. Atrak willingly entered the service of King David and even intermarried with him, having given his daughter in marriage. He did not bring with him the entire horde, but only a part of it, which later remained in Georgia.

From the beginning of the XII century, the Polovtsians actively penetrated the territory of Bulgaria, which was then under the rule of Byzantium. Here they were engaged in cattle breeding or tried to enter the service of the empire. Apparently, these include Peter and Ivan Aseni, who rebelled against Constantinople. With the tangible support of the Cuman detachments, they managed to defeat Byzantium, in 1187 the Second Bulgarian Kingdom was founded, the head of which was Peter.

At the beginning of the 13th century, the influx of Polovtsians into the country increased, and the eastern branch of the ethnos had already participated in it, bringing with it the tradition of stone sculptures. Here, however, they quickly Christianized, and then disappeared among the local population. For Bulgaria, this was not the first experience of "digesting" the Turkic people. The Mongol invasion "pushed" the Polovtsians to the west, gradually, from 1228, they moved to Hungary. In 1237, more recently, the mighty prince Kotyan turned to the Hungarian king Bela IV. The Hungarian leadership agreed to the provision of the eastern outskirts of the state, knowing about the strength of the approaching army of Batu.

The Polovtsi wandered in the territories assigned to them, causing discontent in neighboring principalities, which were subjected to periodic robberies. Bela's heir Stefan married one of Kotyan's daughters, but then executed his father-in-law under the pretext of treason. This led to the first uprising of freedom-loving settlers. The next riot of the Polovtsians was caused by an attempt at their violent Christianization. Only in the XIV century they completely settled, became katol-kami and began to dissolve, although they still retained their military specifics and even in the XIX century they still remembered the prayer "Our Father" in their native language.

We do not know anything about whether the Polovtsians had a written language

Our knowledge about the Cumans is rather limited due to the fact that this people never created their own written sources. We can see a huge number of stone statues, but we will not find any inscriptions there. We get information about this people from its neighbors. The 164-page notebook of the late 13th - early 14th century missionary-translator "Alfabetum Persicum, Comanicum et Latinum Anonymi ...", better known as "Codex Cumanicus", stands apart. The time of the appearance of the monument is determined by the period from 1303 to 1362, the place of writing is the Crimean city of Kafu (Feodosia). By origin, content, graphic and linguistic features, the dictionary is divided into two parts, Italian and German. The first is written in three columns: Latin words, their translation into Persian and Polovtsian languages. The German part contains dictionaries, grammar notes, Polovtsian riddles and Christian texts. The Italian component for historians is more substantial, since it reflected the economic needs of communication with the Polots. In it we find such words as "bazaar", "merchant", "money changer", "price", "coin", a listing of goods and crafts. In addition, it contains words that characterize a person, city, nature. The list of Polovtsian titles is of great importance.

Although, in all likelihood, the manuscript was partially rewritten from an earlier original, it was not created at one time, why it is not a "slice" of reality, but it still allows us to understand what the Polovtsians were doing, what goods they were interested in, we can see their borrowing of Old Russian words and, which is very important, to reconstruct the hierarchy of their society.

Polovtsian women

A specific feature of the Polovtsian culture was the stone statues of the ancestors, which are called stone or Polovtsian women. This name appeared because of the emphasized breast, which always hangs on the stomach, which obviously carried a symbolic meaning - feeding the genus. Moreover, a fairly significant percentage of male statues have been recorded, which depict a mustache or even a beard and at the same time have a breast identical to a woman's.

The 12th century is the period of the heyday of the Polovtsian culture and the mass production of stone statues; there are also faces in which a striving for portraits is noticeable. Making idols out of stone was expensive, and the less wealthy members of society could only afford wooden figures, which unfortunately did not come down to us. The statues were placed on the tops of mounds or hills in square or rectangular sanctuaries built of flagstone. Most often, male and female statues - the ancestors of the kosh - were placed with faces to the east, but there were also shrines with a cluster of figures. At their foot, archaeologists found the bones of rams, and once discovered the remains of a child. It is obvious that the cult of ancestors played a significant role in the life of the Polovtsians. For us, the importance of this feature of their culture is that it allows us to clearly define where the people roamed.

Earrings of the Polovtsian type. Yasinovataya, Donetsk region. Second half of XII - XIII century From the article by O. Ya. Privalova “Rich nomadic burials from Donbass”. "Archaeological Almanac". No. 7, 1988

Attitude towards women

In Polovtsian society, women enjoyed considerable freedom, although they also had a significant part of the responsibilities at home. There is a clear gender division of the spheres of activity both in craft and in cattle breeding: women were in charge of goats, sheep and cows, men were in charge of horses and camels. During military campaigns on the shoulders of the weaker sex all the worries about the defense and economic activities of the nomads were heaped. Perhaps sometimes they had to become the head of the kosha. At least two female burials were found with rods from precious metals, which were symbols of the leader of a larger or smaller association. At the same time, women did not stay away from military affairs. In the era of military democracy, girls took part in general campaigns, the defense of a nomad during the absence of a husband also presupposed the presence of military skills. A stone statue of a heroic girl has reached us. The size of the statue is one and a half to two times higher than the common one, the chest is "tucked up", in contrast to the traditional image, covered with armor elements. She is armed with a saber, a dagger, and a quiver for arrows, nevertheless her headdress is undoubtedly female. This type of warrior is reflected in Russian epics under the name Polyanyts.

Where did the Polovtsians go

Not a single nation disappears without a trace. History knows no cases of complete physical extermination of the population by alien invaders. The Polovtsians did not go anywhere either. In part, they went to the Danube and even ended up in Egypt, but the bulk remained in their native steppes. For at least a hundred years, they retained their customs, albeit in a modified form. Apparently, the Mongols forbade the creation of new sanctuaries dedicated to the Polovtsian soldiers, which led to the emergence of "pit" places of worship. In the hill or mound, depressions were dug, not visible from afar, inside which the scheme of the placement of the statues, traditional for the previous period, was repeated.

But even with the end of this custom, the Polovtsians did not disappear. The Mon-Gols came to the Russian steppes with their families, and did not resettled with the whole tribe. And the same process took place with them as with the Polovtsians centuries earlier: having given a name to the new people, they themselves dissolved in it, assimilating its language and culture. Thus, the Mongols became a bridge from the modern peoples of Russia to the summer-written Polovtsy.