Ancient Russia 11th century princes. Kievan Rus in the X-XI centuries. Baptism of Russia. Categories of the population of Kievan Rus X-XI centuries

The formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs was natural result of a long process of decomposition of the tribal system and the transition to a class society.

The process of property and social stratification among the community members led to the separation of the most prosperous part from their midst. The tribal nobility and the prosperous part of the community, subjugating the mass of ordinary community members, needs to maintain their dominance in state structures.

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The embryonic form of statehood was represented by the East Slavic unions of tribes, which united in superunions, fragile. One of these associations was, apparently, the union of tribes headed by Prince Kiy ( 6th century).

According to The Tale of Bygone Years, the Russian princely dynasty originates in Novgorod. In 859, the northern Slavic tribes, who then paid tribute to the Varangians, or Normans (according to most historians, immigrants from Scandinavia), drove them across the sea. However, soon after these events, internecine struggle began in Novgorod. To stop the clashes, the Novgorodians decided to invite the Varangian princes as a force standing above the opposing factions. In 862 Prince Rurik and his two brother were called to Russia by the Novgorodians, laying the foundation for the Russian princely dynasty.

Norman theory of the origin of the statehood of Kievan Rus

Legend about the calling of the Varangian princes served as the basis for the creation of the so-called Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state. Its authors were invited to XVIII v. to Russia, German scientists G.Bayer, G.Miller and A.Schletser. The authors of this theory emphasized the complete absence of prerequisites for the formation of a state among the Eastern Slavs. The scientific inconsistency of the Norman theory is obvious, since the determining factor in the process of state formation is the presence of internal prerequisites, and not the actions of individual, even outstanding ones.

If the Varangian legend is not fiction (as most historians believe), the story of the calling of the Varangians testifies only to the Norman origin of the princely dynasty. The version about the foreign origin of power was quite typical for the Middle Ages.

date of formation The ancient Russian state is conditionally considered 882, when Prince Oleg, who seized power in Novgorod after the death of Rurik (some chroniclers call him the governor of Rurik), undertook a campaign against Kiev. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned there, for the first time he united the northern and southern lands as part of a single state. Since the capital was moved from Novgorod to Kiev, this state is often called Kievan Rus.

Socio-economic development of Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

Agriculture Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

The basis of the economy was arable farming:

in the south - with a plow, or a rake, with a double team;
in the north - a plow with an iron share drawn by horses.

Cultivated mainly cerealsry: rye, wheat, barley, spelt, oats. Millet, peas, lentils, and turnips were also common.

Crop rotations in Kievan Rus:

two-field (the entire mass of cultivated land was divided into two parts: one of them was used for growing bread, the second "rested" - was under fallow);
three-field (in addition to fallow and winter (sown in autumn) fields, there was also a spring field - sown in spring).

In the forest north, the amount of old arable land was not so significant, slash-and-burn agriculture remained the leading form of agriculture.

The Slavs kept a stable set of domestic animals. Bred cows, horses, sheep, pigs, goats, poultry. Crafts played a rather significant role in the economy: hunting, fishing, beekeeping. With the development of foreign trade, the demand for furs increased.

Craft Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

Trades and handicrafts, developing, are more and more separated from agriculture. Actually handicraft production already included more than a dozen types:

weapons,
jewelry,
blacksmith,
pottery,
weaving,
leather.

Russian craft in its technical and artistic level was not inferior to the craft of the advanced European countries. Jewelry, chain mail, blades, locks were famous.

Trade Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

Internal trade in the Old Russian state was poorly developed. The reason is the dominance of subsistence farming.

The expansion of foreign trade was associated with the formation of a state that ensured the security of trade routes and supported them with its authority in international markets.

In Byzantium and the countries of the East, a significant part of the tribute collected by the Russian princes was realized.

Products of crafts were exported from Russia: furs, honey, wax, products of artisans - gunsmiths and gold smiths, slaves.

To Kievan Rus mainly luxury items were imported: grape wines, silk fabrics, fragrant resins and spices, expensive weapons.

Craft and trade were concentrated in cities, the number of which grew. The Scandinavians who often visited Russia called our country Gardarika - the country of cities. In Russian chronicles at the beginning XIII v. more than 200 cities are mentioned. However, urban residents still retained close ties with agriculture and engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding.

The social system of Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

The process of formation in Kievan Rus of the main classes of feudal society is poorly reflected in the sources, so the question of the nature and class basis of the Old Russian state is debatable.

Most scientists support the idea of Academician B.D. Grekov about the feudal nature of the Old Russian state, since the development of feudal relations began to IX v. leading trend in the socio-economic development of ancient Russia.

Feudalism of Kievan Ruscharacterized by:

full ownership of the feudal lord on the land;
incomplete feudal property against the peasants, against whom he applies various forms of economic and non-economic coercion.

The dependent peasant cultivates not only the land of the feudal lord, but also his land plot, which he received from the feudal lord or the feudal state, and is the owner of tools, housing, etc.

The beginning process of the transformation of tribal nobility into owners of the land in the first two centuries of the existence of the state in Russia can be traced, mainly, only on archaeological material. These are rich burials of boyars and combatants, the remains of fortified suburban estates (patrimonies) that belonged to senior combatants and boyars. The class of feudal lords also arose by singling out the most prosperous members of the community, who turned part of the communal arable land into property. The expansion of feudal landownership was also facilitated by direct seizures of communal lands by the tribal nobility. The growth of the economic and political power of landowners led to the establishment of various forms of dependence of ordinary community members on landowners.

Categories of the population of Kievan Rus X-XI centuries:

people or stinks - free peasants dependent only on the stateand grand duke ;
purchases - people who received from the landowner kupu- assistance in the form of a plot of land, a cash loan, seeds, tools or draft power and an obligation to return or work out kupu with interest;
Ryadovichi- people who have concluded a certain agreement with the feudal lord - row and obligated to comply various works according to this row;
serfs or servants - slaves, first of all, captives, but temporary debt servitude, which ceased after payment of the debt, became widespread. Kholops were commonly used as household servants. In some estates there were also so-called plowed serfs, planted on the ground and having their own economy.

The main social unit of the agricultural population continued to be the neighboring community - verv. It could consist of one large village or several small settlements. The members of the vervi were bound by collective responsibility for paying tribute, for crimes committed on the territory of the vervi, by mutual responsibility. The community (vervi) included not only smerds-farmers, but also smerds-artisans (blacksmiths, potters, tanners), who provided the needs of the community in handicrafts and worked mainly to order.

A person who broke ties with the community and did not enjoy its patronage was called an outcast. .

Votchina in Kievan Rus X-XI centuries

The patrimony is the main cell of the feudal economy, which included:

princely or boyar estate and
Vervei communities dependent on it.

In the estate there was a yard and mansions of the owner, bins and barns with "abundance", i.e. stores, servants' dwellings and other buildings.

Special managers were in charge of various sectors of the economy - tiunas and keykeepers, at the head of the entire patrimonial administration was fireman.

As a rule, artisans serving the lordly household worked in the boyar or princely patrimony. Craftsmen could be serfs or be in some other form of dependence on the votchinnik. The patrimonial economy had a natural character and was focused on the internal consumption of the feudal lord himself and his servants. The sources do not allow us to unequivocally judge the dominant form of feudal exploitation in the patrimony. It is possible that some part of the dependent peasants cultivated corvee, another paid the landowner in kind.

The urban population also fell into dependence on the princely administration or the feudal elite. Near cities, large feudal lords often founded special settlements for artisans. In order to attract the population, the owners of the villages provided certain benefits, temporary tax exemptions, etc. As a result, such craft settlements were called freedoms or settlements.

The spread of economic dependence, increased exploitation caused resistance from the dependent population. The most common form was the escape of dependent people. This is also evidenced by the severity of the punishment provided for such an escape - turning into a complete, "whitewashed" serf. Data on various manifestations of the class struggle are contained in Russkaya Pravda. It refers to violations of the boundaries of land holdings, arson of side trees, murders of representatives of the patrimonial administration, and theft of property.

The heyday of the Old Russian state

In the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015). the East Slavic lands on both sides of the Carpathians, the land of the Vyatichi, were annexed to the Old Russian state. The line of fortresses created in the south of the country provided more effective protection of the country from the Pecheneg nomads.

Vladimir sought not only the political unification of the East Slavic lands. He wanted to reinforce this association with religious unity, unifying the traditional pagan beliefs.

Of the numerous pagan gods, he chose six, which he proclaimed the supreme deities on the territory of his state. The figures of these gods (Dazhd-bog, Khors, Stribog, Semargl and Mokosh) he ordered to be placed next to his tower on a high Kiev hill. The pantheon was headed by Perun, the god of thunder, the patron of princes and warriors. The worship of other gods was severely persecuted.

However, the pagan reform, called first religious reform did not satisfy Prince Vladimir. Carried out in a violent way and in the shortest possible time, it could not be successful. In addition, it had no effect on the international prestige of the Old Russian state. The Christian powers perceived pagan Russia as a barbarian state.

The long and strong ties between Russia and Byzantium ultimately led to the fact that Vladimir in 988. was taken Christianity in its Orthodox version.The adoption of Christianity equalized Kievan Rus with neighboring states, had a huge impact on the life and customs of Ancient Russia, political and legal relations.

One of the sons of Vladimir, Svyatopolk (1015-1019), seized power in Kiev and declared himself a Grand Duke. By order of Svyatopolk, three of his brothers were killed - Boris of Rostov, Gleb of Murom and Svyatoslav Drevlyansky.

Yaroslav Vladimirovich, who occupied the throne in Novgorod, understood that he was also in danger. He decided to oppose Svyatopolk, who called on the help of the Pechenegs. Yaroslav's army consisted of Novgorodians and Varangian mercenaries. The internecine war between the brothers ended with the flight of Svyatopolk to Poland, where he soon died. Yaroslav Vladimirovich established himself as the Grand Duke of Kiev (1019-1054).

In 1024, Yaroslav was opposed by his brother Mstislav Tmutarakansky.

As a result of this strife in the horse As a result, the state was divided into two parts:

the area east of the Dnieper passed to Mstislav Tmutarakan,
the territory west of the Dnieper remained with Yaroslav Vladimirovich, Grand Duke of Kiev (1019-1054).

After the death of Mstislav in 1035, Yaroslav (later - the Wise) became the sovereign prince of Kievan Rus.

The time of Yaroslav the Wise is the time of the heyday of Kievan Rus, which has become one of the strongest states in Europe. The most powerful sovereigns at that time sought an alliance with Russia.

The first signs of fragmentation of Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

In the Kievan state, each individual prince was considered only a temporary owner of the principality, which he got in turn of seniority. After the death of the Grand Duke, it was not his eldest son who "sat" in his place, but the eldest in the family between the princes. His vacated inheritance also went to the next in seniority among the rest of the princes. Thus, the princes moved from one area to another, from less to more rich and prestigious. As the princely family increased, the calculation of seniority became more and more difficult. The boyars of individual cities and lands intervened in the relations of the princes. Capable and gifted princes sought to rise above their elder relatives.

After the death of Yaroslav the Wise Russia entered into period of princely strife. However, it is still impossible to speak of feudal fragmentation at this time. It comes when separate principalities are finally formed - lands with their capitals, and their princely dynasties are fixed on these lands. The struggle between the sons and grandsons of Yaroslav the Wise was still a struggle aimed at maintaining the principle of tribal ownership of Russia.

Yaroslav the Wise before his death divided the Russian land between his sons - Izyaslav (1054-1073, 1076-1078), Svyatoslav (1073-1076) and Vsevolod (1078-1093). The reign of the last of the sons of Yaroslav, Vsevolod, was especially restless: the younger princes were fiercely at enmity over the destinies, the Polovtsians often attacked the Russian lands. The son of Svyatoslav, Prince Oleg, entered into allied relations with the Polovtsy and repeatedly brought them to Russia.

By the end of the 11th - the beginning of the 12th century. Kievan Rus turned into a fairly developed state largely due to the development of the national economy: a regular system of land use appeared, new crops were mastered, and cattle breeding developed. Gradually there was a specialization of production and the process of division of labor. Along with the villages, cities also developed: by the beginning of the 12th century. in Russia there were about 300 large cities, their well-being grew.

However, quite serious changes began to take place in the political life of the state. First of all, the 12th century. (his second half) was marked by a gradual decline in the power of Kiev and the decline of the Kiev principality.

The fall of Kiev Domestic politics in Russia

There were several reasons for the weakening of the Kiev principality:

reducing the importance of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", which had great importance for the economy of the region;
the strengthening of the local princes (the growth of their well-being led to the fact that the princes no longer needed significant support from Kiev);
growing military tension in Kiev. The city was constantly attacked by both nomads and other princes who wanted to achieve a great reign. Every year the situation in the principality became more tense.

Despite the increasingly difficult state of affairs, Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich (son of Vladimir Monomakh) made attempts to reunite Russia under the rule of Kiev, which, however, were unsuccessful. Already by the end of the 12th century. the center of Russia was increasingly shifting towards the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Although Kiev did not lose its political influence until the beginning of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, at the end of the 12th century. Vladimir was a serious competitor to the old capital.

The strengthening of individual principalities led to the fact that the country became more fragmented, in the regions their own centers of power began to appear, uniting several nearby principalities under their control. The economic and political life of Russia by the end of the century also lost its centralization.

The development of feudalism in the 12th century.

In the 12th c. in fact, the process of formation of the social structure of society, characteristic of most medieval states, is being completed: society is divided into free and dependent people, social strata appear.

With the development of society and the economy, all greater value landed interests began to play. The princes, who previously owned most of all land holdings, gradually transferred part of their administrative rights to the lands to the boyars and monasteries, so that they could independently collect tribute from the territories entrusted to them, freeing the princes themselves from this. So the system of private, boyar and monastic land tenure began to take shape. Later, the boyars and monasteries, who received land rights, were able to expand their own farms at the expense of princely territories; more and more often peasants, debtors or those who sought protection from the boyar worked on these new, larger farms. Feudalism developed.

Foreign policy

The main direction of foreign policy during this period was that they periodically attacked Russia, as well as attempts to conquer some nearby lands and establish strong contacts with the bordering European principalities.

Life and culture of Russia in the 12th century.

It was formed under the influence of pagan traditions and ancient life, as well as the traditions of recently adopted Christianity. Traditional Russian culture, with all its national features and differences, is just beginning to develop during this period - new crafts are developing, art, architecture.

Main events:

1100 - the congress of princes in Vitichev;
1103 - the beginning of a series of campaigns against (1103-1120);
1110 - the beginning of the creation of The Tale of Bygone Years;
1111 - victory over the Polovtsians at Salnitsa;
1113 - the beginning of the reign of Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125);
1115 - aggravation of relations between Novgorod and Kiev;
1116 - a new victory of the people of Kiev over the Polovtsy;
1125 - the creation of the "Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh;
1125 - the death of Vladimir Monomakh, the throne of Kiev is occupied by Mstislav, the eldest son of Vladimir Monomakh (1125-1132);
1128 - Mstislav takes away independence from the Principality of Polotsk;
1130 - the first princely letters of commendation given to the Novgorod monasteries;
1131 - the beginning of successful campaigns against Lithuania (1131-1132);
1132 - death of Mstislav; this moment is considered the beginning of a period of fragmentation and feudal wars;
1136 - the expulsion of Vsevolod Mstislavich from Novgorod, the beginning of the era of Novgorod's independence;
1139 - unrest in Kiev, the seizure of power by Vsevolod Olgovich;
1144 - the unification of the Galicia-Volyn destinies into a single Galician land;
1146 - reigning in Kiev Izyaslav (1146-1154), the son of Mstislav, whom the people of Kiev invited to inherit the throne after the death of Vsevolod; the beginning of the fierce struggle of the princes for the throne in Kiev;
1147 - the first annalistic mention of Moscow;
1149 - the struggle of the Novgorodians with the Finns for Vod; attempts by the Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky to recapture the Yugra tribute from the Novgorodians;
1151 - the war of the Grand Duke of Kiev Izyaslav in alliance with Hungary against Vladimir, Prince of Galicia;
1152 - foundation of Kostroma and Pereyaslavl-Zalessky;
1154 - reign

The history of Kievan Rus officially begins in 882 - as recorded in the annals, it was then that Oleg from Rurikovich, having killed Askold and Dir, began to rule the principality with its capital in Kiev. His campaigns, as well as the wars of conquest of other princes, led to the fact that the lands under the hand of Kiev became more and more. Kievan Rus in the 9th-12th centuries is a large and developed European state.

Foreign and domestic policy of the ancient Russian state

From the very beginning foreign policy had several directions at once: it was necessary to resist both Byzantium, which spread its expansion to the Northern Black Sea region, and the Khazars, who prevented trade in the eastern direction, and the Pecheneg nomads - they simply devastated Russia with their raids.

Byzantium repeatedly tried to subdue Ancient Russia but not all of her attempts were successful. So, after Oleg’s sea campaign against Tsargrad, a trade agreement beneficial for the East Slavic state was concluded between the countries, however, during the reign of Igor, after his less successful military operations, the conditions changed to less favorable for Russia.

The most successful in terms of foreign policy was the reign of Svyatoslav - he not only defeated the army of the Khazar Khaganate and Volga Bulgaria (having previously captured the Vyatichi), but also conquered the North Caucasian tribes and founded the Tmutarakan principality.

Rice. 1. Svyatoslav Igorevich.

He also concluded an agreement with Byzantium, after which he turned his gaze to the Balkans. However, the conquest of the Bulgarian kingdom in 967 turned an insidious ally against him: the Byzantine ruler supported the Pechenegs, they went to Kiev, but were defeated by Svyatoslav. He again returned to the Danube and, with the support of the Bulgarians, went to Tsargrad. The map of hostilities was constantly changing, either Svyatoslav or the Byzantine side took the upper hand, and at some point the Kiev prince decided to return to his capital, but on the way he was killed by the Pechenegs.

Economy and culture of Kievan Rus

Russia in the 9th early 12th century was a state with feudal land ownership. The owners of the land were not only the princes, but also the boyars and warriors, and a little later the church was added to them. The labor force, on which the economic development of Kievan Rus was based, were serfs, serfs and other categories of the population. They took food rent from them.

As for culture, it was largely formed under the influence of the Byzantine tradition - this applies not only to architecture, but also to painting. His own literature was also formed under the influence of translated literature, but it was ideologically rich and artistically perfect. Most famous works of that time - this is the "Tale of Bygone Years", "Instructions" by Monomakh and, of course, "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".

Kievan Rus was an early feudal state. This meant that it was characterized by signs of a feudal society that were still in the process of formation: feudal landownership was just emerging, the bulk of the population was still free. Gradually, however, new processes characteristic of feudal society gained momentum and won. Boyar land ownership is being formed, free communal peasants (smerds) are increasingly becoming dependent on the feudal lords. Communal landholdings are seized by princes and boyars, donated, distributed, and with them the peasants working on these lands.

By the 10th century, the early feudal state of Kievan Rus had already taken shape both territorially and politically. The borders of the new state existed more theoretically than practically, because. no one drew these boundaries on the ground, and no one guarded them; at best, strong guard posts were set up.

Polyudye became an important mechanism for maintaining control over the state territory - a detour by the prince together with a squad of subject lands from late autumn to early spring. Polyudye was not only a system for collecting tribute - a tax, but also a way of governing the country in the absence of a state apparatus: during the detour, the prince personally resolved conflicts, held court, and settled border disputes. But this did not mean that he could govern himself: in 945, the arbitrary collection of tribute in the Drevlyane land ended in the murder of the Kiev prince Igor and his entourage - the senior squad. From chronicle sources it is known that the widow, the imperious and wise ruler Olga (945-962), avenged the prince. From the “Tale of Bygone Years” by Nestor, we also learn that the Drevlyans had their own capital, Iskorosten, their own prince, Mal, and he had “husbands who held Derevsk land.” Thus, in the ancient Russian state centered in Kiev, under the authority of the first all-Russian princes, local tribal structures were preserved, with which the princes had to reckon and were reckoned with. Therefore, the well-known agreements with the Greeks in the tenth century were concluded by Oleg and Igor (907, 911, 944) on behalf of the "great and bright princes" who led the unions of tribal principalities. Therefore, Princess Olga, having defeated the Drevlyans, carried out a tax reform: she approved Exact size payments to Kiev - charters and lessons and created a system of administrative centers - churchyards, i.e. places where princes and "princely men" stopped to collect tribute and administrative and judicial administration.

Having collected tribute, the princes returned to Kiev. In summer, the collected tribute, along with other goods, was loaded onto ships and sent along the Dnieper - along the famous trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", to the capital of the Byzantine Empire - Constantinople. It is no coincidence that in the agreements between Russia and Byzantium that have come down to our time, most of the articles are devoted to the legal regulation of the trade of Russian merchants in the empire.

A new stage in the development of the ancient Russian state fell on the rule in Kiev of the Grand Dukes Vladimir Svyatoslavovich the Holy (980-1015) and his son Yaroslav Vladimirovich the Wise (1019-1054) - an era when Kievan Rus experienced its highest rise. Under Vladimir, for the first time, the minting of its own coin (zlatniki and silver coins) begins. Yaroslav the Wise, who reigned in Novgorod, before he conquered Kiev, created the oldest part of the "Russian Truth" - the first written code of laws. At the turn of the 10th - 11th centuries, Vladimir gradually liquidated the tribal principalities. New “princely cities” began to appear - Smolensk, Turov, Vladimir-Volynsky, Belgorod, Ryazan, etc. The prince began to plant his children in the volosts there as governors. So, initially, Vladimir sent his son Yaroslav the Wise to Rostov, and here, on the northeastern outskirts of Russia, Yaroslav founded the city of Yaroslavl. Seeing in him a capable organizer and a talented politician, his father moves him to Novgorod.

The type of state that has developed in Russia is often called the early feudal monarchy. But at the same time, it should be borne in mind that Russia in the 10th - early 12th centuries was closer in type of development to the states of Eastern and Northern Europe - Norway, Sweden, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary. These countries differed from the states of Western Europe, first of all, by the absence of private feudal ownership of land and the predominance of centralized exploitation of free communal peasants by a corporation of retinue nobility headed by a prince. The squad in Russia was the main and comprehensive body of state power and administration. With her, princes and kings went to polyudye. The princely senior warriors - the boyars and the younger ones - the gridni ("youths", "children") performed judicial functions, receiving payment from tribute, duties and booty in military campaigns; the population was obliged to feed them during the performance of their official duties as judges and bailiffs. In the 10th - 12th centuries, a skilled warrior, a "priest's grandson", and even a native of smerds, i.e., could become a boyar. simple free community members.

In new cities and fortresses, the prince left his garrisons with governors; tribute flowed here, one third of which went in favor of the governor and his soldiers; judgment was held here. The surrounding population was obliged not only to pay tribute, but also to perform certain official duties - to guard the fortresses, supply them with food, graze princely herds, fish for the princely table, etc. Therefore, in the literature one can find a description of this type of state as a military-feudal, or retinue, and the relationship between power and subjects - as a service organization of society. At the same time, the authorities have not yet completely "torn away from the people." One of the customs in Russia was the feast of the prince. In the era of the formation of statehood in Russia, such feasts were a kind of public institution - a meeting of the prince with his retinue and the “multitude” of the people, where issues of war and peace, collecting tribute from subjects of the lands, receiving ambassadors and concluding agreements with one side or another, sending to these countries are people "for long-distance service." In a solemn atmosphere, the prince not only praised the exploits of his brave combatants, but also created a “righteous court”, endowed the destitute, i.e. directly communicated with subjects and properly responded to public sentiments.

An important institution of ancient Russian statehood was the veche, which played an important political role: it collected funds, resolved defense issues, and invited princes; but its social composition, unfortunately, cannot be precisely determined. At the same time, the veche did not replace princely power and nowhere, with the exception of Novgorod and Pskov, did it develop into a permanent and organized structure of state and government activities.

The territory of Russia itself was considered as the collective property of the ruling great-power family of Rurikovich, each of whose representatives had the right to their share of power and income. In practice, this was expressed in the fact that from the end of the 10th century, the Kiev princes Svyatoslav (957-972), Vladimir and Yaroslav the Wise allocated cities to their children as a “fatherland”, dividing the territory of Russia into volosts, on the terms of transferring part of the tribute from these lands to Kiev . At the same time, the princes retained the hereditary right to power, and in the event of the death of one of them, the rest, the “younger”, princes moved, occupying more and more important and rich reigns - volosts. The supreme ruler in Russia was the one who was the eldest in the family and accordingly occupied the throne in Kiev. After the death of a father, a dispute often flared up among the sons, and even a struggle for possession of the Kiev "table", as was the case in 972 and 1015-1019 and even later. After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, his heirs - the elder Yaroslavichi (Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod) lived together. But after the defeat from the Polovtsy in 1068 on the river. Alte between the brothers, a struggle broke out for Kiev. At several princely congresses, they tried to agree on the principles for dividing the "tables", but each time the descendants of Yaroslav the Wise renewed the strife for a new redistribution of principalities. As a result, it was possible to agree only in 1097 at a congress in Lyubech, when the grandchildren of Yaroslav - Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich, Vladimir Monomakh, Vasilko Rostislavovich, David and Oleg Svyatoslavovichi established a new principle of organizing power: “Let everyone keep his fatherland”: from now on, the principalities of the fathers - “fatherlands ” should have been passed on to children - the heirs of each of the princely lines. After the triumvirate of senior Yaroslavichs left the political scene, the throne of Kiev passed to Izyaslav's son, Svyatopolk. But he turned out to be a bad commander and a greedy ruler, and his death in 1113 served as a signal for an uprising of the townspeople in Kiev. The inhabitants of the city called Vladimir Monomakh (1113 - 1125), who became famous for his many years of struggle against the Polovtsy, to the throne of Kiev. His name is associated with the compilation of a new set of laws - the so-called lengthy edition of the Russkaya Pravda, which reflected the changes in the socio-political development of Russia that occurred at the beginning of the 12th century. With his authority and bold policy, this prince managed to maintain peace and the relative unity of Russia: his children ruled such volosts as Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Suzdal, Novogorod, Vladimir-Volynsky, Turov. Monomakh's son Mstislav (1125-1132) acted just as decisively. By his decree, the subject princes made a successful campaign against Polotsk, and the Vseslavichs who reigned there were imprisoned. But after the death of Mstislav the Great, from the mid-30s of the XII century, the Russian lands finally lose their political unity and disintegrate into virtually sovereign principalities-states.

Baptism of Russia and its historical significance. The reign of St. Vladimir was associated not only with the expansion of borders, but also with serious reforms. Vladimir sets polyudye instead of lessons, i.e. tribute is collected from a specific person; determines the unit of taxation - smoke, ralo (plow); along with the collection of tribute in kind, it allows to give part of it in money; introduces trade duties; as well as conscription introduces and labor - for buildings and repair of fortress walls. Under Vladimir, the official hierarchy was also clearly defined: at the top was Grand Duke Russian land, i.e. the prince of Kiev, then come the bright grand dukes and his boyars, who acted as rulers of the lands (volosts); local princes who had their own patrimony. The peasants were divided into communal peasants (the property of the feudal lord) and smerds (free state peasants), although both of them lived in communities.

The Baptism of Russia in 988 by Prince Vladimir brought about a significant change in the way of life of the Kievan state. It had a corresponding impact on the social structure and organization of power on the throne of Kiev.

Christianity in Russia was adopted in its Eastern (Orthodox) version, which was another important reform of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, who received the nickname Red Sun. Information about the spread of Christianity in Russia dates back to the 9th - 10th centuries, when representatives of the Kiev nobility and warriors began to be baptized, and in the capital in the middle of the 10th century there was already a church of St. Elijah the Prophet. At the same time, it should be noted that different directions of Christian doctrine originally existed in Russia: such words as “cross”, “altar”, “church” are of Western origin. Important here is the fact that the Byzantine Orthodox Church did not use bells and did not know the tithe. The expansion of Kiev's international relations also contributed to the spread of Christianity in Russia. The religious reform carried out by Vladimir was a natural step. In the 9th century, Bulgaria and the Czech Republic adopted Christianity, in the 10th century - Poland, Denmark and Hungary, in the 11th - Norway and Sweden, which in general completed the process of formation of European civilization. The final choice by Russia of the eastern version of Christianity - Orthodoxy was due to both long-standing ties with Constantinople and the traditions of the Eastern Church, its dependence on secular authorities and the admission of worship in their native language. The skillful use of the internal crisis in Byzantium allowed Russian diplomacy to avoid vassalage from the empire when adopting Christianity and to establish the international authority of Russia. Emperor of Byzantium Basil II in 987 was forced to turn to Vladimir for help in the fight against the rebellious commander Varda Foki. The prince undertook to send troops to help and be baptized in exchange for the consent of Vasily II to marry his sister Anna to him. After the defeat of the rebel Phocas (with the help of 6,000 Russian troops), Vasily II was in no hurry to fulfill his obligations. Vladimir did not wait long, invaded the Byzantine possessions in the Crimea and captured Chersonese. This forced Constantinople to hurry with the marriage of Vladimir and Anna and restore peaceful relations with Russia.

Unfortunately, historians do not have a single view on the date and circumstances of these events, this is due to the difficulty of analyzing foreign sources with different chronology systems. But whenever Vladimir and his subjects were baptized (in 988 or later), this step meant, first of all, a major state reform: a new public institution appeared in Russia - the Orthodox Church. In contrast to the secular authorities, the church has retained a unified system of government to this day: territorial (regional) dioceses headed by archbishops are subordinate to the Patriarch, locally - parishes with parish churches and a staff of clergy and monasteries. The Church, being a more mature and organized structure, took over some of its functions in the ancient Russian state. In her hands was the court for family, marriage and inheritance cases, along with the Russkaya Pravda, there was a code of church law translated from the Greek - Nomocanon, or the Pilot Book. The church was in charge of certain categories of the population: healers, clerics, pilgrims. Decrees were announced in the temples, documents, standards of measures and weights were kept. The clergy, as the bearer of knowledge and literacy, acted as school teachers. In turn, the princely power provided the church financially: in the 9th-10th centuries, at the expense of tithes - deductions from princely incomes, from boyars, service people and merchants, as well as from peasants, a tenth of the income; the church became a serious and wealthy institution. And when entire villages with peasants began to donate to churches and monasteries, the church also became a large landowner.

An important function of the church was to care for the poor and the destitute. “... Feeding the poor and many children, strange diligence, orphans and wretched industry, allowance for widows, in fire and in the stream; redemption for the captives, feeding in smoothness, coverings and coffins dying in thinness,” this is how the 13th-century monument “The Rule on Church People” characterizes these duties. In this area, the church authorities encouraged almsgiving, organized almshouses: an unmarried woman with a child could find refuge in the "church house"; pilgrims, as well as holy fools, were under special protection.

By stepping on traditional communal rights and customs, the church strengthened its control over people's behavior in the most conservative and hard-to-reach sphere of family life for state intervention. The priests persuaded the gentlemen to "have mercy on the servants" and patiently accustomed their parishioners to the fulfillment of Christian commandments. Especially a lot of work and patience was demanded from the clergy by high-ranking officials, who, without “shame and disgrace”, had several wives and concubines, played weddings without a wedding, with violent dances, “humming and splashing”, did not recognize posts, arranged pagan games and committed violence right in the temple.

It was no less difficult for the clergy to force yesterday's pagans to "say their sins" to a spiritual father - a "white" or "black" priest, called to control the daily life of parishioners. It was necessary to achieve shame and repentance, and the habit of being aware of one's sins - without scaring away the penitents with the severity of punishment in the next world. According to the sins and righteous deeds of each, after confession, a penance was appointed, and in the event of publicity of any domestic fall, the perpetrators appeared before a closed episcopal court.

The Church actively participated in the territorial expansion of the Orthodox faith. With the expansion of the borders of princely possessions, the Christian faith also expanded: new churches were built, episcopal departments were founded. In turn, the princes sought to secure support from influential church corporations and fought for the right to patronize domestic shrines - such as the relics of princes Boris and Gleb. During the period of feudal fragmentation of Russia, the bishops intervened in the political struggle, supporting their princes in this fratricidal war. Thus, the Vladimir clergy helped Andrey Bogolyubsky in establishing the patronal cult of the Theotokos by moving to the north the revered icon of the Mother of God (the future Vladimir) [Our Lady] and introducing the Feast of the Intercession sanctioned by Constantinople. However, the princes and metropolitans also had conflicts. From the end of the 11th century, monasteries and episcopates began to receive land holdings along with workers. One of the first such landowners at the end of the 11th century was the Kiev Caves Monastery.

With the help of a developed dogma and a harmonious organization, the Russian Orthodox Church sought to sanctify and strengthen the existing social order. No idea can be introduced by force, and if these ideas were pleasing to a narrow ruling stratum, but alien to the vast majority of the population, then they would be doomed to failure. The adoption of a new religion is also a revolution in the worldview of people: to whom Christianity offered a system of values different from that of paganism.

The act of adopting Christianity as the state religion did not, of course, mean its rapid and widespread establishment in society: it was a long and complex process. It was most noticeable in cities where the population was less bound by patriarchal traditions and where there was an active construction of temples. Suffice it to note that if in the second half of the 11th century only 18 churches were built in Russia, then in the second half of the 12th century there were already 112. on his last journey, and with a cross on his chest, and with grave goods, as it should be in pagan customs. In the X-XII centuries, this phenomenon was not isolated, a mixture of pagan and Christian beliefs was observed both in cities and in the countryside, which, in general, was also characteristic of other European states, where the foundations of the Christian doctrine were accompanied by its folklorization and mixed with myths and legends of the past. The combination of church culture and the culture of everyday life was expressed in bilingualism: Church Slavonic was heard in the temple, and Old Russian was spoken in the world. Now each person had two names - baptismal and pagan, sometimes a nickname ("Tolstoy", "Lisping", etc.) accompanied him all his life. According to available sources, the official names of certain persons, primarily the nobility, appeared in Russia in the 15th century, and among the peasants in the 19th century.

The sacred space of the temple and the red corner in the peasant's hut with icons and lamps were opposed by "unclean" places: crossroads, a barn and a bathhouse (domestic "dark forces" lived in it, it was supposed to remove the cross and do fortune telling). Along with prayers, conspiracies for all occasions remained in use for many centuries. The clergy, understanding the mentality, the spiritual world of the parishioners, carefully and gradually connected pagan rituals and the framework of the church calendar: Christmas time became part of the Christmas holiday, and the night of Ivan Kupala "combined" the pagan holiday of the Mermaid and the Nativity of John the Baptist. Christian shrines, like pagan gods, took on many functions of protection from evil spirits, as well as help in everyday life problems. Saints Flor and Laurus guarded the horses, St. Terenty - chickens, St. Saint Nicholas was the patron saint of all travelers, St. Antip helped the sick, etc. Many pagan traditions were revered not only by commoners, but also by great and bright princes. The first Russian Metropolitan Hilarion, glorifying Prince Vladimir, emphasized that he was the successor of the glorious deeds of the Grand Dukes Igor and Svyatoslav, the father of Prince Vladimir, although they were pagans.

Russian princes, just like their subjects, in the 10th-12th centuries had double names, performed pagan military rites (“tons”), and merry feasts with games were held at the princely courts, at which ritual pagan dances were performed. Imprinted in the jewelry works of Kiev masters, on women's bracelets of the 12th century, pagan images and plots organically fit into the world of “high” culture: mythological animals and birds, griffins, lions, the “tree of life” are present in the painting of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, in the decor white-stone Vladimir cathedrals of the XII century.

Thus, the baptism of Russia undoubtedly changed the views and concepts of the world among the majority of the population of the country as a whole, however, the surviving traditions and customs of pagan culture naturally fit into the worldview of the people of that era and were also preserved for subsequent centuries.

The 10th - the first half of the 11th century was a separate period of ancient Russian history. It was the heyday of Kiev. Under Vladimir the First, who is now called differently - who is the "Red Sun", who is "bloody", the vast lands of the East Slavic tribes were united. The rule of these lands came from the Grand Duke of Kiev.

This is the inheritance that went to the son of Vladimir Yaroslav (aka Wise). They write about Yaroslav in textbooks, they know his name. He continued the work of his father, further expanding the borders of Russia, and patronized the spread of new Christian letters and books.

Chroniclers and historians glorified the names of Vladimir and Yaroslav, other Russian princes were lost against their background. And there were enough principalities in Russia at that time - you can see from the picture. And among the other rulers of Russia in the 11th century there were many talented, brave, successful in the military field, and endowed with charisma.

One of these princes was Mstislav Tmutarakansky. Tale in the mind there is an analogy with fairy tales - Tmutarakan. But apparently there were serious reasons for this name, not at all fabulous. About the life of Mstislav, only fragmentary reports have been preserved in Russian chronicles. But the affairs of the prince remained in history, in particular because he could direct the history of Russia in the XI century in a different direction, displacing Yaroslav - these are interesting stories we are getting.

Origin of Mstislav

Mstislav was the son all the same Vladimir I from the Polotsk princess Rogneda. The year of birth is not precisely established, it is assumed that the 983rd. Yaroslav and Mstivlav had another blood brother - Izyaslav, who later became the prince of Polotsk.

The ancestors of the paternal brothers were famous:

Prince Svyatoslav (who ruled in Kiev in 945-972)
great-grandmother - the wise princess Olga.

And with Mstislav, in addition, on the mother's side, his grandfather was an independent Polotsk ruler. His name was Rogvoloda, and obviously he came from those very governors of Rurik, whom, according to The Tale of Bygone Years, he "planted" in Slavic cities. Rogvolod and his daughter Rogneda were most likely of the Varangian (Scandinavian) family.

Prince Vladimir, before being baptized, by the way, led a completely non-Christian lifestyle, and this is not typical in Slavic culture either. Mstislav, in addition to his siblings, had 9 more half-brothers. Prince Vladimir had eight wives in his life and they also write about concubines (although this is highly doubtful to me personally - he himself could have been impaled for this, even if the prince - Russia was not like that in the 11th century).

Under Vladimir, subordination to Kiev was gradually ensured through governors, whom the prince planted in all cities. Vladimir and his numerous sons made governors. So the kids became princes in their childhood, under the supervision of the boyars, educators and advisers, of course. So from a young age, the Rurikovichs were taught to carry their princely burden.

Mstislav and the Tmutarakan Principality

It is not known when Mstislav became the prince-governor of the Tmutarakan principality, which was located on the Taman Peninsula. Chronicles often mention the name of Mstislav in association with Tmutarakan, which indicates that he spent a long time in that autonomous possession of Russia.

In Tmutarakan, Prince Mstislav started a family. His wife's name was Maria, she was most likely from a local noble Alanian family. And he is also the real grandson of his grandfather Svyatoslav Igorevich, and it was not without reason that they called him Brave and Daring. Military campaigns, battles and personal fights were the passion of the prince. He was always in the saddle, in pursuit of military victories, glory and booty. Legends about those gray times painted the ideal prince-leader also generous. Mstislav, brought up in their atmosphere, clearly aspired to be like that. The latter was already rare among monarchs in Russia in the 11th century.

This is how Mstislav Tmutarakansky went down in history for his military exploits, and not as a statesman.

Being a prince on the Taman Peninsula was generally not easy, which probably also influenced the character of Mstislav. Power on Taman has changed more than once since ancient times. Once the Scythians lived here, then the Sarmatians, Greeks, Jews came here. They began to be replaced by various Turks: Bulgar Turks, Khazars. The last Khaganate located here was defeated by Svyatoslav Igorevich, Mstislav's grandfather.

Russia in the 11th century. Yaroslav the Wise and Mstislav

But not without confrontation between the two brothers did not share something. Or rather, no war. And there was a fight, in the year 1024 AD. near the city of Listvin, near Chernigov, in rain and thunderstorms. Against the striking force of Yaroslav the Wise - the Varangians - Mstislav put up a Chernigov squad in the center of the army. It was the northerners who took the blow of the Varangians, and then Mstislav himself arrived in time with his squad. They defeated the Varangians.

Yaroslav, together with the leader of the Varangians, fled from the battlefield, but not to Kiev, but to Novgorod. Russia split in two again. Yaroslav retained his influence and power in Novgorod, Mstislav remained the ruler of Chernigov and Tmutarakan lands. Yaroslav's governors sat in Kiev.

Mstislav did not dare to capture Kiev, although he was definitely capable of doing so. Maybe he just didn’t want to, because the “monomakh hat” is heavy. Yaroslav - he is wise, waited a couple of years, gathered a squad in the north and appeared in Kiev.

This time, the brothers had enough endurance from further bloodshed, making peace. But this world thus consisted of two parts:

the entire left bank of the Dnieper with Seversk land, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl and other cities went to Mstislav. Tmutarakan Rus also remained behind him. Mstislav, who essentially became the ruler of a neighboring state, made Chernigov his residence.
under the control of Yaroslav remained Kiev with the right-bank lands, the entire North of Russia, headed by Novgorod.

Therefore, in fact, at that time one can speak of a single state only conditionally, although in the following years the brothers lived peacefully with each other.