There are two forms of activity: external(practical, visible to other people) and internal(thinking, invisible to outsiders). For a long time, psychology dealt exclusively with internal activities. It was believed that external activity only expressed internal(or "the activity of consciousness"). It took a long time to come to the conclusion that both of these forms of activity represent a community through which a person interacts with the world around him. Both forms have a fundamentally identical structure, that is, they are motivated by needs and motives, accompanied by experiences, and guided by goals. Internal activity differs from external only in that it includes not real objects, but their images. In addition, the result of internal activity is expressed not in a real product, but in a mental form.

The unity of these two forms of activity manifests itself in their mutual transitions into each other through the processes of interiorization and exteriorization.

Process of internalization expresses the ability of the psyche to operate with images of objects and phenomena that are currently absent in a person's field of vision. This ability appears in a person due to his previous experience of operating with objects, knowledge of the patterns of relationships between objects and phenomena. real world. In the process of operating with real objects (external activity), a person in practice masters the experience of relations with them, or, in other words, forms his own internal plan of action with similar objects. In such cases, it is said that external operation (or action) is internalized, "grows" into the human psyche, becomes a mental (internal) action. In the psychological literature there is a successful example of internalization associated with teaching a child to count. First, he counts the sticks (the real object of operation), shifting them on the table (external activity). Then he does without sticks, limiting himself only to external observation of them. Eventually sticks become completely unnecessary and counting turns into a mental action (internal activity). Numbers and words (mental objects) become the object of operation.

Thanks to internalization, a person can predict, foresee future phenomena and states of objects in the surrounding world. The subtle mechanism of internalization in psychology has not yet been studied. But one thing is clear, that internal mental activity is the result of internalization of external physical activity.

exteriorization activity characterizes the ability of a person to carry out external actions (operations) on the basis of the transformation of the existing internalization of internal patterns, due to the previously formed internal ideal plan of action. Exteriorization is the embodiment of prior experience into physical external actions. Thus, the interiorization and exteriorization of a person's activity is a "two-way street" where his real life takes place.

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There are two forms of activity: external(practical, visible to other people) and internal(thinking, invisible to outsiders). For a long time, psychology dealt exclusively with internal activities. It was believed that external activity only expressed internal (or "activity of consciousness"). It took a long time to come to the conclusion that both of these forms of activity represent a community through which a person interacts with the world around him. Both forms have a fundamentally identical structure, i.e., they are motivated by needs and motives, accompanied by experiences, and guided by goals. Internal activity differs from external only in that it includes not real objects, but their images. In addition, the result of internal activity is expressed not in a real product, but in a mental form.

The unity of these two forms of activity is also manifested in their mutual transitions into each other through the processes of interiorization and exteriorization.

Process interiorization expresses the ability of the psyche to operate with images of objects and phenomena that are currently absent in a person's field of vision. This ability appears in a person due to his previous experience of operating with objects, knowledge of the patterns of relationships between objects and phenomena of the real world. In the process of operating with real objects (external activity), a person in practice masters the experience of relations with them, or, in other words, forms his own internal plan of action with similar objects. In such cases, one says that the external operation (or action) is internalized, " is growing» into the human psyche, becomes a mental (internal) action. In the psychological literature there is a successful example of internalization associated with teaching a child to count. First, he counts the sticks (the real object of operation), shifting them on the table (external activity). Then he does without sticks, limiting himself only to external observation of them. Eventually sticks become completely unnecessary and counting becomes a mental activity (internal activity). Numbers and words (mental objects) become the object of operation.

Thanks to internalization, a person can predict, foresee future phenomena and states of objects in the surrounding world. The subtle mechanism of internalization in psychology has not yet been studied. But one thing is clear, that internal mental activity is the result of internalization of external physical activity.

exteriorization activity characterizes a person's ability to carry out external actions (operations) on the basis of the transformation of the existing ones, notices the internalization of internal patterns, due to the previously formed internal ideal plan of action. Exteriorization is the embodiment of prior experience into physical external actions. Thus, the interiorization and exteriorization of a person's activity is a "two-way street" where his real life takes place.

Activity is a holistic process that combines external physical (objective) and internal mental (subjective) components in an inseparable unity. In essence, they seem to be completely different and incompatible. modern science still cannot explain the psychological nature and mechanism of their connection.

External and internal components of activity have a functional specialization. On the basis of the external components of activity, real contacts of a person with objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, their transformation, reconstruction of their properties, as well as the generation and development of mental (subjective) phenomena are carried out. The internal components of activity perform the function of motivation, goal setting, planning, orientation (cognition), decision making, regulation, control and evaluation.

In real activity, the ratio of internal and external components can be different. Given the dependence on this, two types of activity are distinguished: external (practical) and internal (mental).

Any physical labor can serve as an example of external activity.

Learning activity is an example of internal activity.

In this case, we are talking only about the relative predominance of certain components. In a "pure" form, their existence in humans is impossible. At the same time, we assume that under certain circumstances, in particular after the physical death of a person, the internal (mental) components of activity are capable of independent existence. At least, there are no facts contradicting this assumption. Human activity has the ability to develop. It is expressed in the fact that as exercises and trainings, the activity becomes more perfect, the time for its implementation decreases, energy costs decrease, the structure transforms, the number of erroneous actions decreases, their sequence and optimality change. At the same time, there is a change in the ratio of external and internal components of activity: external components are reduced and reduced while increasing the share of internal components. There is a kind of transformation of activity in form. From external, practical and deployed in time and space, it becomes internal, mental and reduced (folded). This process in psychology is called internalization. It is in this way that the generation and development of the psyche takes place - on the basis of the transformation of activity. At the same time, internal activity is only a component of integral activity, its side. Therefore, it is easily transformed and expressed in external components. The transition of internal components of activity to external ones is commonly called exteriorization. This process is an essential attribute of any practical activity. For example, thought, as a mental formation, can easily be transformed into practical action. Thanks to exteriorization, we can observe through the external components of activity any mental phenomena(processes, properties, state): intentions, goals, motives, various cognitive processes, abilities, emotional experiences, character traits, self-esteem, etc. But for this you need to have a very high level psychological culture.

In its origin and essence, activity is not an innate, but an educated function of a person. In other words, he does not receive it according to the laws of genetics as a given, but masters it in the process of training and education. All human (and not individual) forms of behavior are social in origin. The child does not invent them, but assimilates them. Under the guidance of adults, he learns to use objects, behave correctly in certain life situations, satisfy his needs in a socially accepted way, etc. It is in the course of mastering various types of activity that he himself develops as a subject and as a person. The social nature of objective activity is also expressed in the functional plan. When it is performed, a person is directly or indirectly related to other people who act as her co-accomplices and accomplices. This can be seen especially clearly and clearly in the conditions of joint activity, where the functions of its participants are distributed in a certain way. Considering that another person is always co-present in objective activity, it can be called collaborative activity.

2. External and internal activities

According to A.N. Leontiev distinguishes between external and internal activity. External - this is an activity with objects of the material world or their designations, it is called, respectively, material and materialized. Internal is activity at the level of consciousness, in the ideal plan - it is operated with images, symbols, ideas. The familiarization of a person with human culture occurs as a result of the appropriation by him of those methods of action by which the object was created. He masters tools, joins the world of things and their functions, absorbs the experience of mankind, the world of human culture. In other words, initially the activity is carried out by a person in the external objective plane. At the same time, he draws methods for performing activities either from observation, imitating other people, or gets an idea about them from books and stories, that is, he appropriates them from other people in the process of cooperation and communication. And then internalization takes place - the transfer of the assigned actions to the internal plan, turning them into their own schemes of actions, thoughts, ideas. Thus, higher mental functions can only be born by the interaction of people as interpsychic (the prefix "inter" - "between"), and only then become individual, while they can lose or modify their original external form. In parallel, there is a change in the very form of reflection of reality: there is a reflection by the subject of reality of his own activity, himself. As a result, consciousness is generated (produced). Thus, the process of internalization does not consist in the fact that external activity moves to the internal plan, it is a process in which the internal plan is formed. Summarizing, we define internalization as a transition, as a result of which processes external in their form are transformed into processes that occur in the mental plane ; at the same time, they undergo a specific transformation - they are generalized, verbalized, reduced and, most importantly, they become capable of further development, which goes beyond the boundaries of the possibilities of external activity. . L.S. Vygotsky understands internalization as the "growing" of external objective actions into the internal plan. In the process of internalization, he singled out two main interconnected points:

1. tool (instrumental) structure of human activity;

2. the inclusion of individual activity in the system of relationships with other people.

3. Mastering human activities

In historical terms, human activity arises as a joint activity, from which individual activity is later separated. The development of individual activity is carried out through the formation of skills, abilities and habits.

Skills are partially automated actions. In the first period of skill formation, there is an initial acquaintance with the movement and mastery of it, important role at the same time, the internal picture of the movement plays; in the second - traffic automation; in the third - the final polishing of the movement - standardization (stereotyping) and stabilization (skill strengthening). In the case of acquired skills, we can only speak of their partial automatism. Physiologically, automation consists in changing the regulatory role of consciousness: at the beginning of a new action, it is strictly regulated by consciousness, as this action is repeated, conscious control decreases and is replaced by sensory control. Skills are formed as a result of exercises as multiple purposeful repetitions of actions. At the same time, as the exercises progress, the quality of actions changes: there is a combination of movements, mental control is replaced by sensory control, or one type of sensory control is replaced by another.

The execution of automated actions is still accompanied by control. This is especially noticeable if you have to perform actions brought to automatism in changed conditions.

Skills are ways to successfully perform actions that correspond to the goals and conditions of the activity. There are educational, hygienic, labor, sports, professional and other skills. Skills are formed as a result of coordination of skills, combining them into systems. This means that mastery of activities at the skill level follows the skill level. Skill is such a mastery of an activity that ensures the accuracy and flexibility of performing an action that guarantees a reliable planned result. The action itself in the skill structure is controlled by its target. Distinctive feature skills is the ability to change the sequence of actions performed, the nature of operations without compromising the result. A skillful person in different, even in changed adverse situations, is able to achieve a high result of activity.

Skills and skills are developed as a result of repeated exercises (repetitive actions), require diligence and patience.

The vital importance of skills and abilities is extremely high. They reduce the physical and mental effort required to perform actions, thus releasing energy, relieving tension.

Stable habits form habitual behavior. A habit is a need to perform certain actions. The physiological basis of the habit is formed by a dynamic stereotype, formed as a system of conditioned reflex connections in response to certain repetitive conditions. A dynamic stereotype is a fairly stable formation, and its “breaking” as a change in habit can be very painful. Thus, the noted adaptation problems when changing jobs, moving to another place of residence, transferring schoolchildren to another class, another school - all of them represent a change in habit, a “breaking” of a dynamic stereotype. In such cases, it is useful to know the features nervous system(plasticity - rigidity) in order to create an appropriate setting for the upcoming changes.

The work to be done requires it. In addition, he has an adequate self-esteem of his qualities, which shows the coincidence in many respects of his self-esteem and the assessment of his employees. When analyzing the influence of the leader's personality on the moral and psychological climate of the team, it is necessary to consider the psychological controllability of the team of the Center for Employment. Describing the team, we note that ...

Only a few out of the whole mass. Let us now consider social relations in capitalist society. Public relations in a capitalist society they also limit the assimilation of an individual style of activity. In this society, there is a limitation of the worker's desire to assimilate the most productive system of movements, operations that give the worker the greatest satisfaction. ...

... - through an individual style of activity - a set of methods characteristic of a particular individual that ensure the success of any action. 2. Temperament and style of activity An individual style of activity is an expedient system of methods and techniques for performing an activity, corresponding to the characteristics of temperament, ensuring its best results. ...

Profit through the sale of goods for the home, repair and construction with the provision of the most comfortable conditions for customer service. 1.3 Individual personality traits that affect the efficiency of labor activity Temperament is a regular ratio of stable individual characteristics personalities characterizing various aspects of the dynamics of mental activity. ...

but leading role In the development of concrete psychological views on the origin of internal mental operations, the introduction of the concept of internalization into psychology played.

As you know, internalization is called a transition, as a result of which processes external in their form with external, material objects are transformed into processes that occur in the mental plane, in the plane of consciousness; at the same time, they undergo a specific transformation - they are generalized, verbalized, reduced and, most importantly, they become capable of further development, which goes beyond the boundaries of the possibilities of external activity. This, to use a brief formulation of J. Piaget, is a transition "leading from the sensorimotor plane to thought."

The process of interiorization has now been studied in detail in the context of many problems - ontogenetic, psycho-pedagogical and general psychological. At the same time, serious differences are revealed both in the theoretical foundations of the study of this process and in its theoretical interpretation. For J. Piaget, the most important basis for research on the origin of internal mental operations from sensorimotor acts, apparently, consists in the impossibility of deriving the operator schemes of thought directly from perception. Operations such as unification, ordering, centering initially arise in the course of performing external actions with external objects, and then continue to develop in terms of internal mental activity according to its own logical and genetic laws. Other initial positions determined the views on the transition from action to thought P. Janet, A. Wallon, D. Bruner.

In Soviet psychology, the concept of internalization ("growing") is usually associated with the name of L. S. Vygotsky and his followers, who own important studies of this process. Last years the successive stages and conditions of a purposeful, "non-spontaneous" transformation of external (materialized) actions into internal (mental) actions are studied in particular detail by P. Ya. Gal'perin.

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to the problem of the origin of internal mental activity from external activity differ fundamentally from the theoretical concepts of other contemporary authors. These ideas were born from an analysis of the characteristics of specifically human activity - labor activity, productive, carried out with the help of tools, activity that is originally social, i.e., which develops only in conditions of cooperation and communication between people. Accordingly, Vygotsky singled out two main interrelated moments that should be taken as the foundation of psychological science. This is the instrumental ("instrumental") structure of human activity and its inclusion in the system of relationships with other people. It is they who determine the characteristics of psychological processes in humans. The tool mediates the activity that connects a person not only with the world of things, but also with other people. Thanks to this, his activity absorbs the experience of mankind. Hence it follows that mental processes of a person (his "higher psychological functions") acquire a structure that has as its obligatory link socio-historically formed means and methods transmitted to him by the people around him in the process of cooperation, in communication with them. But it is impossible to convey a means, a way of performing this or that process, except in an external form - in the form of action or in the form of external speech. In other words, higher specific human psychological processes can be born only in the interaction of a person with a person, that is, as interpsychological, and only then begin to be performed by the individual independently; at the same time, some of them further lose their original external form, turning into intrapsychological processes.

Another very important proposition was added to the proposition that internal mental activities originate from practical activity that has historically developed as a result of the formation of a human society based on labor, and that in individual individuals of each new generation they are formed in the course of ontogenetic development. It consists in the fact that at the same time there is a change in the very form of mental reflection of reality: consciousness arises - reflection by the subject of reality, his activity, himself. But what is consciousness? Consciousness is consciousness, but only in the sense that individual consciousness can exist only in the presence of social consciousness and language, which is its real substratum. In the process of material production, people also produce a language that serves not only as a means of communication, but also as a carrier of socially developed meanings fixed in it.

Former psychology considered consciousness as a kind of metapsychological plane of the movement of mental processes.

But consciousness is not given initially and is not generated by nature: consciousness is generated by society, it is produced. Therefore, consciousness is not a postulate and not a condition of psychology, but its problem is the subject of concrete scientific psychological research.

Thus, the process of internalization does not consist in the transfer of external activity into a pre-existing internal "plane of consciousness"; it is the process in which this inner plan is formed.

As you know, after the first cycle of works devoted to the study of the role of external means and their "growing", L. S. Vygotsky turned to the study of consciousness, its "cells" - verbal meanings, their formation and structure. Although in these studies meaning appeared from the side of its, so to speak, reverse movement and therefore as something that lies behind life and controls activity, for Vygotsky the opposite thesis remained unshakable: it is not meaning, not consciousness that lies behind life, but behind consciousness lies life. .

The study of the formation of mental processes and meanings (concepts) cuts out, as it were, from general movement activity, there is only one, albeit a very important part of it: the assimilation by the individual of the ways of thinking developed by mankind. But this does not even cover cognitive activity neither its formation nor its functioning. Psychologically, thinking (and individual consciousness in general) is wider than those logical operations and those values ​​in whose structures they are folded. Meanings in themselves do not generate thought, but mediate it, just as a tool does not generate action, but mediates it.

At the later stage of his research, L. S. Vygotsky many times and in different forms expressed this fundamentally important position. He saw the last remaining “hidden” plan of speech thinking in its motivation, in the affective-volitional sphere. Deterministic consideration of mental life, he wrote, excludes "attributing to thinking the magical power to determine the behavior of a person by one own system." The positive program that followed from this demanded that, while preserving the opened active function of meaning, thought, one more time wrapping the problem around. And for this it was necessary to return to the category of objective activity, extending it to internal processes - the processes of consciousness.

It is as a result of the movement of theoretical thought along this path that the fundamental commonality of external and internal activity is revealed as mediating the relationship of a person with the world, in which his real life is carried out.

Accordingly, the main distinction that underlay the classical Cartesian-Lockean psychology - the distinction, on the one hand, of the external world of the world, extension, to which external, bodily activity also belongs, and, on the other hand, of the world of internal phenomena and processes of consciousness - must give way its place for another distinction; on the one hand, objective reality and its idealized, transformed forms (verwandelte Formen), on the other hand, the activity of the subject, which includes both external and internal processes. And this means that the dissection of activity into two parts or sides, supposedly belonging to two completely different areas, is eliminated. However, this puts new problem- the problem of studying the specific relationship and connection between various forms of human activity.

This problem has been in the past as well. However, only in our time has it acquired a very specific meaning. Now before our eyes there is an ever closer interweaving and convergence of external and internal activities: physical labor, which carries out the practical transformation of material objects, is becoming more and more "intellectualized", includes the performance of the most complex mental actions; at the same time, the work of the modern researcher—a specifically cognitive, mental activity par excellence—is increasingly filled with processes that are external actions in their form. Such a unity of processes of activity different in form can no longer be interpreted as the result of only those transitions that are described by the term internalization of external activity. It necessarily presupposes the existence of constantly occurring transitions also in the opposite direction, from internal to external activity.

V social conditions that ensure the all-round development of people, mental activity is not separated from practical activity. Their thinking becomes a moment, reproduced as needed, in the whole life of individuals.

Running a little ahead, let's say right away that the mutual transitions about which in question, form the most important movement of objective human activity in its historical and ontogenetic development. These transitions are possible because external and internal activity have the same general structure.

The discovery of the commonality of their structure seems to me one of the most important discoveries of modern psychological science.

Thus, activity that is internal in its form, proceeding from external practical activity, does not separate from it and does not rise above it, but retains a fundamental and, moreover, two-sided connection with it.