Composition

You marvel at the treasures of our language: every sound is a gift; everything is grainy, large, like pearls themselves, and, really, there is another name for an even more precious thing itself. N. V. Gogol. Learn to speak "in your own words" ... What is the secret of words that create an atmosphere of ease, affect the feelings of interlocutors, give special expressiveness to their speech? And on the other hand, what words deprive speech of lively, emotional colors? The first condition for liveliness of speech is the use of words that are stylistically justified in a particular situation.

On the podium, the speaker addresses the journalistic, book vocabulary, and in a conversation with a friend prefers colloquial words. The use of words with bright emotional and expressive coloring enlivens speech. Such words not only name concepts, but also reflect the attitude of the speaker towards them. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, white, lily. These adjectives are emotionally colored: in them, a positive assessment distinguishes them from the stylistically neutral word white.

The emotional coloring of the word can also express a negative assessment of the concept being called (blond speaks of an ugly person with blond hair, whose appearance is unpleasant to us). Therefore, emotional vocabulary is called evaluative. The image of feeling for speech also requires special expressive colors. Expressiveness (from Lat. expressio expression) means expressive, expressive expressive. In this case, special stylistic assessments are added to the nominative meaning of the word, enhancing its expressiveness. So, instead of the word good, we use the more expressive beautiful, wonderful, delightful, etc .; one can say I don’t like it, but sometimes we find stronger words: I hate, I despise, I’m disgusted.

In such cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by expression. Often one neutral word has several expressive synonyms that differ in the degree of expressive tension (cf: misfortune - grief - disaster - catastrophe; violent - unrestrained - indomitable - frantic - furious). Vivid expression highlights solemn, rhetorical, poetic words. A special expression distinguishes the words playful, ironic, familiar. Expressive shades distinguish words disapproving, dismissive, contemptuous, humiliating, vulgar, abusive. Expressive coloring in a word is superimposed on its emotional and evaluative meaning, and in some words expression prevails, in other words expression prevails, in others emotional coloring.

This is not difficult to determine, trusting your linguistic instinct. Expressive vocabulary can be classified by highlighting: 1) words expressing a positive assessment of the called concepts, and 2) words expressing their negative assessment. The first group will include words high, affectionate, desperate joking; in the second, ironic, disapproving, abusive, etc. We select words in speech, consciously or unconsciously obeying the conditions of communication and trying to influence the interlocutor, taking into account his social position, the nature of our relationship with him, the content of the conversation, etc.

The content of the conversation, the conditions in which the conversation takes place, usually tells us what words to use high or low, solemn or playful. And our speech, accordingly, receives one or another stylistic coloring. In certain cases, the combination in speech of stylistically heterogeneous, even contrasting in their emotionally expressive coloring, language means can be justified.

Mixing styles, as linguists say, usually creates a comic effect, which humorists and satirists know and appreciate. What deprives our speech of liveliness? What makes her colorless, unemotional? First of all, the inability to find words that would accurately convey our feelings, words that would touch a nerve? This is the inability, or rather, helplessness in handling the richest resources. mother tongue formed, unfortunately, back in school, where they teach writing essays according to bad recipes, repeat memorized phrases, answer according to a textbook ... The language of any essay can become expressive and emotional only on condition that the writer does not repeat memorized phrases, well-known book formulations, but will try to find his own words to express thoughts and feelings. The style will not be colorless if the author turns to emotional, expressive vocabulary, which gives liveliness to the language. Conclusion. The development of world culture has developed the basic communicative qualities of good speech.

Of course, these qualities change and develop, so the concepts of good speech do not coincide in everything. different eras and among representatives of various classes and worldviews. I studied this topic and realized for myself that each person should express his thoughts in such a way that it was impossible not to understand him, namely, precisely, clearly and simply. If the speech is not clear, then it does not reach the goal. In order for speech to be accurate, words should be used in full accordance with the meanings that are assigned to them. Logic is the most important condition for good speech. We must take care that our speech does not violate logical laws. Speech is a connected whole, and every word in it, any construction must be purposeful, stylistically appropriate. Not for everyone social position, the same style is not suitable for every place, but in every part of speech, as well as in life, one must always keep in mind what is appropriate.

Every speech has a certain content. The content of speech depends on many conditions that entail a variety of forms of presentation of material. Verbosity or speech redundancy can manifest itself in the use of extra words in a short phrase. extra words in oral speech indicate the fuzziness, indefinability of the author's ideas about the subject of speech. To attain speech wealth you need to study the language in its literary and colloquial forms, its style, vocabulary, phraseology, word formation and grammar. The figurativeness of speech is created through the use of words in a figurative sense.

The expressiveness of speech, which is achieved by a clear, clear pronunciation, correct intonation, and skillfully spaced pauses, is essential. Due attention should be paid to the pace of speech, the strength of the voice, the persuasiveness of the tone, as well as the features of oratory: posture, gestures, facial expressions. Good speech is not possible without the appropriate knowledge, skills and abilities. It all comes as a result of labor. To study and be demanding not only to the speech of others, but also to your own above all.

Compositions 1

How do homogeneous verbs-predicates help to “revive” the depicted in the text?

Homogeneous members of a sentence are a common occurrence artistic style. They are used in it as a short and expressive device of speech. We will verify this by the example of homogeneous verbs - predicates that help to "revive" what is depicted in our text.

Firstly, we find a large number of homogeneous predicates in sentence 1: “Oleska ... fell out of the bus, kept her balance, straightened her coat, threw a glance and died ...” All these verb-predicates help us vividly imagine what was happening in a crowded bus ...

Secondly, homogeneous predicates in the text colorfully convey the content of the events described. So in sentence 44, the author uses the injection of homogeneous verbs-predicates: “the heroine’s resentment disappeared, disappeared, seemed completely insignificant.”

Thus, characterizing the richness of thoughts and feelings, homogeneous verbs-predicates helped in this story to “revive” the depicted.

Composition 2.

Why are neologisms needed in the text?

Neologisms are words created to denote a new object, phenomenon. For example, astronaut, spaceport. Life dictates them to us, but there are neologisms created by the author of a literary work with a specific stylistic goal. For example: “overwind” (A. Blok), “hulk” (V. Mayakovsky). These neologisms often become a strong expressive means in artistic speech.

The second neologism created by A. Pristavkin is the word "human weapon". We have a vivid metaphor for hundreds of people who have pointed their guns "right to the heart of nature" (sentence 17).

Thus, I can conclude that writers, when creating new words, develop word-building thinking in the reader, which helps to penetrate into the inner form of the word.

Essay 3

Why is it appropriate to use introductory words in a reasoning text?

A. Kushner wrote:

“Me, like everyone else, not once, not twice

Saved the introductory words

And more often than others among them

The words "first", "second".

They started from afar

They gave a reason, slowly

Gather your thoughts while

I don't know where the soul was."

As the poet accurately expressed in verse the enormous role of introductory words used both in book and colloquial speech. What is the role of introductory words in the proposed reasoning text?

Firstly, in sentences 2 and 5 I met the introductory words “possibly” and “most likely”, denoting the degree of certainty, the possibility of an assumption.

Secondly, I find the words “firstly” and “secondly” in sentences 9 and 10, which have the meaning of the order of presentation and the connection of thought.

Thirdly, in sentence 15 I come across the expression “in one word”, indicating the reception and method of shaping thoughts.

Fourth, in sentence 16, the introductory word "in your opinion" indicates the source of the message.

Thus, in a reasoning text, introductory words help to more accurately understand what is written, to quickly understand what the author wanted to say.

Essay 4

THE ROLE OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS IN A ARTISTIC TEXT

Phraseologisms are stable combinations of words used to name individual objects, features, actions. In fiction, they are widely used as visual means. What is the role of phraseological units in this text?

Firstly, I want to note that there are a lot of phraseological units in the passage from the story of K. Paustovsky. Two of them act as synonyms for ordinary words. So in sentence 7, the phraseological unit “cannot fail to catch the eye” is equal to the expression“bright, remarkable”, and in sentence 12 “out of fashion” - “become unfashionable”. Agree that stable combinations clearly adorned the text!

Secondly, in sentence 15 I meet the phraseological unit “heart contracted”. It determines the state of mind of people who visit the Louvre.

Thirdly, the stable combination “the mountain fell off his shoulders” (sentence 31) also determines the moral state of the boy who has committed a generous deed. This phraseologism is also interesting in that we can at least guess the source of the appearance of this expression. In my opinion, he came into our speech from folklore: either from a fairy tale, or from an epic.

Thus, I can conclude that phraseological units in a literary text play a big role: they make it brighter, more emotional, more expressive.

(173 words)

Essay 5

The role of antonyms in a literary text.

Antonyms are words of the same part of speech that have opposite meaning. The skillful use of antonyms gives artistic speech a special poignancy. What antonyms can I find in this text?

Firstly, in sentence 6 “The troops march day and night”, antonyms help the writer to show the completeness of the coverage of phenomena, the breadth of spatial and temporal boundaries.

Secondly, in sentence 16 I find antonyms that have gained a stable character, have become a phraseological unit: “neither back nor forward”.

Thus, we can conclude that the author turns to antonyms to achieve the emotionality of speech.

Essay 6

Why do writers use paraphrase in their works?

A paraphrase is a descriptive expression used instead of a particular word. It is distinguished by a bright emotionally expressive coloring. What paraphrases do I find in the proposed text?

Firstly, in an essay dedicated to Pushkin, I come across paraphrases that perform a semantic function in speech, helping the author, when talking about the poet, not to repeat himself. Here in sentence 13 S. Zalygin does not say “Pushkin”, but uses the paraphrase “the sun of Russian poetry”, and in sentence 16 he calls him “the great student of Zhukovsky”.

Secondly, in sentence 26 I find the paraphrase “... sad time! Eyes charm! Here, this trope, replacing the word "autumn", figuratively characterizes this season.

Thus, writers use paraphrase to, in the words of M.V. Lomonosov, "... it is red to speak of any given matter ...".

Essay 7

Why do literary texts use synonyms?

Synonyms are words of the same part of speech, similar in meaning, but different in spelling, in addition, differing in shades of meaning or stylistic coloring. The children's writer Korney Chukovsky urged his fellow writers to make greater use of the synonymy of the Russian language. What are the synonyms in this text?

Firstly, for a more accurate expression of thought in sentence 3, the author uses synonyms: "The hero sat down on the wet sand, still wet from dew."

Secondly, in sentence 8 I find synonyms that are used to enhance the emotional coloring of the word: “Well, you said, well, blurted out!”

Thirdly, in sentence 20, in order to avoid unjustified repetition of the same word, A. Chirve uses synonyms: “After that, she became homesick, sat down on a bench and became sad”

Thus, I can conclude that synonyms make our speech vivid, emotional, help to express thoughts more accurately.

The expressive possibilities of a word are associated primarily with its semantics, with its use in a figurative sense. There are many varieties of figurative use of words, their common name is paths (Greek tropos - turn; turn, image). The path is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem to our consciousness to be close in some respect. The most common types of tropes are comparison, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, personification, epithet, paraphrase. Thanks to the figurative metaphorical use of the word, imagery of speech is created. Therefore, tropes are usually referred to as means of verbal figurativeness, or pictorial.

Metaphorization - one of the most common ways to create imagery - covers a huge number of commonly used, neutral and stylistically marked words, primarily polysemantic ones. The ability of a word to have not one, but several meanings of a usual nature, as well as the possibility of updating its semantics, its unusual, unexpected rethinking, is the basis of lexical figurative means.

The strength and expressiveness of the tropes is in their originality, novelty, unusualness: the more unusual, original this or that trope, the more expressive it is. Tropes that have lost their imagery over time (for example, general language metaphors such as keen eyesight, the clock is ticking, river arm, bottle neck, warm relationship, iron character or comparisons that have turned into speech clichés, such as reflected as in a mirror; cowardly like a hare; passes through the red thread) do not contribute to the expressiveness of speech.

Vocabulary with emotionally expressive coloring is especially expressive. It affects our feelings, evokes emotions. Let us recall, for example, what vocabulary was used by the excellent connoisseur of native speech I.S. Turgenev in the novel "Fathers and Sons" to characterize the meager, beggarly economy of the peasants: villages with low huts; crooked threshing sheds; shabby men on bad nags etc.

The expressiveness of speech is achieved through a motivated, purposeful collision of words of different functional-style and emotional-expressive coloring. For example, S. Yesenin:

And in my head a swarm of thoughts pass: What is the homeland? Are these dreams? After all, for almost everyone here I am a gloomy pilgrim, God knows what a distant side. And it's me! I, a citizen of the village, Which will be famous only for that, That here once a woman gave birth to a Russian scandalous piit.

Here are book words thoughts, homeland, pilgrim, piit combined with conversational God knows, is it colloquial woman, official business citizen.

The motivated collision of words from different spheres of use is widely used as one of the most striking means of the comic. Here are examples from newspaper feuilletons: Where did the mentor Tamara, still a very young girl, get such a tremulous readiness to immediately be seduced by the first charlatan that came across?(a combination of book poetic vocabulary with vernacular); However, how did the work of the investigative team end, which spent more than two years trying to punish Yambulatov?(simple. slammed away and book. punish).

In addition to metaphorization and emotionally expressive coloring of a word, polysemantics in their non-figurative meanings, homonyms, synonyms, antonyms, paronyms, restricted vocabulary, archaisms, neologisms, etc. are used as expressive means.

Polysemantic words and homonyms are often used for ironic and parodic purposes, to create puns. To do this, in one context, homonymous words or different meanings the same word. For example, in a sentence They scolded the play, they say, it went, but the play still went(E. Meek) the author collides two homoforms: 1) went-short form of adjective vulgar and 2) went- past tense form of the verb go. Or: And they explained for a long time, // What does a sense of duty mean(A. Barto).

Many jokes and puns are based on individual author's homonyms: bagel- sheep; carelessness(technical) - the absence of a stove in the apartment, steam heating; chickenpox(disapproved) - a frivolous girl; decanter- the countess's husband, etc.

To pay attention to this or that detail, to express a certain attitude to the named object or phenomenon, to evaluate it and, therefore, to enhance the expressiveness of speech allows the skillful use of synonyms. For example: Kudrin laughed. Everything that happened seemed to him wild nonsense, absurdity, chaotic nonsense, on which you just wave your hand and it will crumble, scatter like a mirage(B. Lavrenev). Using the technique of stringing synonyms rave-absurdity-nonsense, The author achieves great expressiveness of the narrative.

Synonyms can perform the function of comparison and even opposition of the concepts they denote. At the same time, attention is drawn not to what is common, which is characteristic of similar objects or phenomena, but to the differences between them: Nikitin wanted ... not just to think, but to think (Yu. Bondarev).

As an expressive means of creating contrast, sharp opposition, antonyms are used in speech. They underlie the creation of antithesis (Greek antithesis - opposition) - a stylistic figure built on a sharp opposition of words with opposite meanings. This stylistic device is widely used by poets, writers, and publicists to give speech emotionality and extraordinary expressiveness. So, the prologue to A. Blok's poem "Retribution" is entirely built on the opposition of antonymous words Start-end, hell-heaven, light-darkness, holy-wrong, hot-cold and etc.:

Life is without beginning and end... Know where the light is, you will understand where the darkness is. Let everything pass slowly, What is holy in the world, what is sinful in it, Through the heat of the soul, through the coldness of the mind.

Antithesis allows you to achieve aphoristic accuracy in the expression of thought. It is no coincidence that antonymy underlies many proverbs, sayings, figurative expressions, catchphrases. For example: An old friend is better than two new ones; A small deed is better than a big idleness; learning-light, but ignorance-darkness; Bypass us more than all sorrows and lordly anger and lordly love(A. Griboyedov). Antonyms in such cases, creating a contrast, emphasize the idea more clearly, allow you to pay attention to the most important thing, and contribute to the brevity and expressiveness of the statement.

Words-paronyms have considerable expressive possibilities. They serve as a means of creating humor, irony, satire, etc. For example: - He[great-grandson] studying at a school with a mathematical inclination.-Inclined where?-Algebra leaning(from the dialogue of famous TV heroes Avdotya Nikitichna and Veronika Mavrikievna); When is your wedding procession?-What are you talking about? What card?(V. Mayakovsky).

A vivid means of expression in artistic and journalistic speech are individual author's neologisms (occasionalisms) that attract the attention of the reader (or listener) with their unexpectedness, unusualness, exclusivity. For example:

Why are you looking away, America? What are your announcers mumbling about? What do they intend to explain to you, super-experienced nightingales?

(R. Rozhdestvensky);

T a n k o f o b and i disappeared. Our soldiers hit the "tigers" with direct fire (I. Ehrenburg).

Lexical repetitions enhance the expressiveness of speech. They help to highlight an important concept in the text, to delve deeper into the content of the statement, give the speech an emotionally expressive coloring. For example: G e r o y-defender, hero-winner, hero-the bearer of all the high qualities in which he is dressed by the popular imagination(A.N. Tolstoy); In war, one must be able to endure grief. Grief feeds the heart like fuel for an engine. Grief incites hatred. Vile foreigners captured Kyiv. This-g op e of each of us. This is the grief of all the people(I. Ehrenburg).

Often the same word, used twice, or words with the same root are contrasted in the context and reinforce the subsequent gradation, giving the context a special significance, aphorism: Not eternal for times, I am eternal for myself(E. Baratynsky); I would be glad to serve-service(A. Griboyedov). It is no coincidence that tautological and pleonastic combinations underlie many phraseological units, proverbs and sayings: don't know; saw the views; till the end of time; if yes if only; leave no stone unturned; either way from this; it was and was overgrown; friendship is friendship, and service is service etc.

A living and inexhaustible source of expressiveness of speech are phraseological combinations characterized by figurativeness, expressiveness and emotionality, which allows not only to name an object or phenomenon, but also to express a certain attitude towards it. It suffices to compare, for example, the used A . M. Gorky phraseological turns ask pepper, tear the skin with equivalent words or phrases (to scold, scold, punish; mercilessly, cruelly exploit, oppress someone), to see how much the first is more expressive and figurative than the second: - But when will we come to the volost? ...-You are a joker! He is the one, the stavoi, the ass and the tepper; He owns ... he has hundreds of thousands of money, he owns steamships and barges, mills and lands ... he skins a living person ...

Due to their figurativeness and expressiveness, phraseological units can be used unchanged in the usual lexical environment. For example: Chelkash looked round triumphantly:-Of course, they swam out! .. W-well, you are happy, you are an owl! ..(M. Gorky). In addition, phrasemes are often used in a transformed form or in an unusual lexical environment, which allows increasing their expressive possibilities. The methods of using and creative processing of phraseological units for each artist of the word are individual and quite diverse. So, for example, Gorky's phrase bend (bend) in three deaths(‘cruelly exploit, tyrannize’) used in an unusual context, semantically changing it: Next to him, an old soldier... walked Advocate, bent over in three deaths, without a hat..., thrusting his hands deep into his pockets. General language phraseological turnover measure with eyes the writer deliberately dismembers with the help of explanatory words, as a result of which his figurative core stands out more clearly: He[prisoner] He measured Yefimushka from head to toe with narrowed eyes that burned with malice. A favorite technique for transforming phraseological units in Gorky's early stories is to replace one of the components: fall out of sight(dictionary phraseology - disappear from the eyes), bow your head (droop in spirit), tear your nerves (wag your nerves) and etc.

Compare the methods of using phraseological units by V. Mayakovsky: A stone on a stone, a leaflet on a leaflet is not left, they will beat(formed phraseological idiom according to the model presented in the same context: stone on stone) I would close America, clean it a little, and then open it again(development of the motive given by the phraseological unit).

Increases the expressive possibilities of phraseological units, their ability to enter into synonymous relations with each other. The reduction of phrasemes into a synonymic series or the simultaneous use of lexical and phraseological synonyms significantly enhances the expressive coloring of speech: We are not a couple ... A goose is not a comrade to a pig, a drunk sober is not related(A. Chekhov); They scratch their tongues all day, wash the bones of their neighbors(from colloquial speech).

The rule of speech culture in the field of vocabulary is:

Firstly, choice of correct words. The accuracy of speech is the communicative quality of speech, which consists in the correspondence of its semantic side of the reflected reality to the communicative intention of the speaker. The accuracy of speech depends on the correctness of word usage, the ability to choose the necessary synonym, taking into account polysemy and homonymy, the correct combination of words.

Secondly, relevance words, communicative expediency of the choice, its compliance with the level and interests of the addressee, as well as compliance with the style, i.e. the ability to use words in appropriate communicative situations.

Thirdly, expressiveness. The expressiveness of speech is connected not only with the choice of the word. This side of speech skill includes both the selection of material and the composition of the text, imagery, the use of tropes, phraseological units and aphorisms, which helps to maintain the attention and interest of listeners and readers. Expressiveness is informational and emotional. With informational expressiveness, the listener is interested in the information itself, with emotional expressiveness - the way of presentation, the manner of performance.

As you know, the literary norm is changeable, especially with regard to vocabulary, since it is more closely related to changes in the material and spiritual life of people and is more permeable to all sorts of extralinguistic influences. Mastering lexical norms is a long and complex process. The use of a word in speech is always determined by the peculiarities of its lexical meaning, which is formed, enriched, changed with the help of the environment of the given word, context, compatibility. It is compatibility that allows you to distinguish between single-valued and polysemantic words. For example, the meaning of the single word motorcycle implemented in combinations excellent, powerful, racing, sports, service, domestic ... motorcycle; make, model, class, sidecar, engine... motorcycle; purchase, win, start, put, break, smash ... a motorcycle; ride, give a ride, get ... on a motorcycle.

Compatibility polysemantic words much richer. Yes, for the verb to stand in the Dictionary of Modern Russian literary language”, published by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in 1950 - 1965, 17 values ​​are distinguished ( stand on your hands, stand on duty, water stands (does not flow), plants stand (do not work), jam can stand for a long time etc.).

The phenomenon of ambiguity in language is called – polysemy .Meanings of a polysemantic word are realized in different contexts and are therefore distinguished on the basis of their different compatibility. Each meaning of a polysemantic word has its own environment, its own compatibility with other words. Polysemantic words have main and peripheral meanings. For example: Pear. 1. Fruit tree of the Rosaceae family with rounded, elongated and expanding downwards fruits ( Three pears planted in the garden). 2. The fruit of the tree ( The boy ate a sweet pear) are principal values. 3. A product resembling a pear in shape ( Hanging pear, you can not eat) is a peripheral value.

It is often difficult to distinguish from the phenomenon of ambiguity homonymy. Homonyms words that sound the same and are spelled the same but have different meanings: eat(eat) and eat(available); mill(body, torso) and mill(camp); braid(type of hairstyle) braid(agricultural implement), braid(cape, shoal), etc. Not to be confused with lexical homonyms homoforms (words that coincide in sound and spelling in separate grammatical forms: aspen- tv. n. n. feminine and aspen- tv.p. feminine adjective; flying(fly? treat?), homophones (words that have the same pronunciation but different spellings: h– gla from; ve h ti - ve from ti; mo G whether - mo to whether)And homographs (words that have the same spelling but differ in stress: at same - really e; kr at zhki - circle And; h but mok - deputy about to).

Homonymy and polysemy are excellent means of creating a pun. Pun is a play on words that sound the same but mean different things. A pun can be used to achieve comic effect: "The bees first sit down, and then take bribes unlike some people who take bribes but don't sit down.

Synonyms - words that are close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing in shades of meaning or stylistic coloring. There are four types of synonyms:

1) absolute - words that completely coincide in meaning and use: linguistics - linguistics;

2) ideographic - words that differ in shades of meaning: dare, dare, dare;

3) stylistic - synonyms that coincide in meaning, but differ in belonging to different styles: go - trudge - march;

4) contextual - words, the meanings of which converge in the context: to work, to work, to labor, to work.

It should be noted that not all words enter into synonymous relations. Nouns with a specific subject meaning, proper names, numerals, pronouns do not become synonyms. Synonyms become a source of emotionality and expressiveness of speech. Using several synonyms at the same time, one can achieve amplification, emphasizing the main meaning of the word. However, the use of several synonyms in a row is justified only when each new synonym clarifies and enriches the meaning of the statement. Based on the commonality of meaning, synonyms often emphasize various features similar objects, phenomena, actions, signs. Strengthening the meaning of the previous synonym generates gradation (see Attachment).

Special place in Russian occupy antonyms - words with opposite meanings: in front - behind; morning evening; buy - sell; fat slim; upset - soothe etc. Antonyms give special significance to objects and concepts, logically distinguish them: The taste of life is comprehended not in many things, but in small things.(Solzh.); contribute to the disclosure of the contradictory essence of objects and phenomena: He (Block)… wanted to be alone. And he could not tear himself away from the hated - and beloved Russia. When choosing antonyms, the possibility of polysemy of the word is taken into account. Yes, the word short can be an antonym not only for the word tall but also to words noble(low deed) exalted(lofty goal). Like synonyms, antonyms can be native Russian ( full - hungry) and borrowed ( progress - conservatism).

In the language, antonyms perform stylistic functions. antitheses And oxymoron (see Appendix) and serve as a means of expressiveness of speech.

The accuracy of speech can be impaired due to the incorrect use of paronyms. Paronyms - Close, but not identical in sound and meaning, related words related to the same grammatical category: tactful - tactical; swampy - swampy; everyone - everyone; dramatic - dramatic; elite - elite; economical - economical etc. Context plays a big role in distinguishing between these meanings: boys' shoes - boyish joy; put on a jacket - dress a child etc. Correct use in the language of paronyms, understanding the features of their lexical meaning is a guarantee common culture human speech.

Special attention needs to be paid to speech phraseological units , complex in composition of linguistic units that have a stable character: take the soul away, swallow the tongue; puzzle over; thicken colors; goof; one field of berries; the hand washes the hand; sleeveless; throw dust in the eyes; cast a line etc. Phraseological units are characterized by the constancy of the composition, the stability of the grammatical structure. Can't speak the cat cried; beat with bucks; lyasu to sharpen(instead of the cat cried; beat the buckets; sharpen laces). Most phraseological units have a strictly fixed order. For example, you cannot swap words in expressions everything flows, everything changes, keeps up with the times etc.

The use of phraseological units makes our speech expressive. Imagery, expression, characteristic of a significant part of phraseological units, help to avoid stereotypes, facelessness in speech communication.

Lexical norms, the exact fixation of the semantics of the word is fixed in academic explanatory dictionaries(one or more values, direct and figurative meanings, phraseologically related meanings), dictionaries foreign words, phraseological, terminological dictionaries and reference books.

The word, as is known, is the basic unit of the language, the most noticeable element of its artistic means. And the expressiveness of speech is associated primarily with the word. Many words have the ability to be used in several meanings. This property is called ambiguity, or polysemy. Writers find in ambiguity a source of vivid emotionality, liveliness of speech.

For example, a multi-valued word can be repeated in the text, which, however, appears in different meanings:

The poet speaks from afar, the poet speaks far away.(M. Tsvetaeva)

How much courage is needed to play for centuries, How ravines play, how a river plays, How diamonds play, how wine plays, How to play without refusal is sometimes destined.(B. Pasternak)

Polysemy should not be confused homonyms(words that have the same form but different meanings: key - spring And the key is a master key, marriage is a flaw And marriage - marriage, scolding - swearing And scolding - war, bench - bench And shop - shop, steep bank And cool boiling water, make a movie - take off your hat), as well as homophones (words that sound the same but are different in meaning and spelling: company - campaign, offend - run around, aisle - limit, gray - sit ), homographs (words coinciding in spelling, but different in meaning and pronunciation: flour - flour, village - village, home - home) and homoforms (words that coincide in sound and spelling only in separate forms: my house - my hands, three comrades - spot three carefully), which are widely used in the text to create its expressiveness.

For example: You puppies! Follow me! You will be on kalach! Yes, look, don’t talk, Or I’ll beat you!(A. Pushkin)

Writers often collide in the same context different meanings of polysemantic words and homonyms, achieving a comic effect.

For example: Women are like dissertations: they need protection. (E. Meek)

Homonymous rhymes- bright means of sound game. I. Brodsky brilliantly owned it.

For example: Flickered on the slope of the bank Near the bushes of bricks. Above the pink spire of the jar, the Crow writhed, screaming.

The role of homonyms in the text

Homonyms are used:

a) for expressiveness and expression of speech.

For example:
You fed the white swans
Throwing back the weight of black braids...
I swam nearby; came together fed,
The sunset beam was terribly braided.
Suddenly a pair of swans darted ...
I don't know whose fault it was...
The sunset froze behind a haze of steam,
Alley like a stream of wine(V. Ya. Bryusov);

b) to create expressiveness of a comic nature(based on their use, puns are usually created).

For example: “Listen to the authorities? No, thank you...” And he was fired.(E. Meek)

Paronyms, i.e. words similar in sound and spelling, but having different meanings ( individuality - individualism, smoky - smoky, noisy - noisy, pay - payout ) have great expressive power.

The role of paronyms in the text

Paronyms are usually used:

a) to create greater accuracy and expressiveness (expressiveness) of the statement.

For example:
This rod is made in Munich,
constant companion of my life,
Skillfully distracts me from ugliness
Historical - and hysterical! - days.
(I. Severyanin);

b) to create greater figurativeness, clarity of the image and convey the emotional and evaluative attitude of the author.

For example:
Without vociferous feelings, without sensitive words
Of their villainous homeland, spacious,
In her blasphemy devout,
Neither souls nor fish are dear to him.
(I. Severyanin);

c) to create a comic (humorous, ironic, sarcastic) effect.

For example: They call him the master, what kind of master is this, this is a centimeter! (K. Chukovsky)

Here is a play on paronyms: meter - meter.

The expressiveness of speech enhances the use of synonyms - words denoting the same concept, but differing in additional semantic shades or stylistic coloring.

For example: bold - brave, run - rush, eyes (neutral) - eyes(poet.)

The beauty and expressiveness of a native speaker's speech can be judged by how he uses synonyms. Without mastering the synonymic richness of the native language, it is impossible to make your speech bright and expressive. The poverty of the dictionary often leads to the repetition of the same words, tautology, the use of words without taking into account the shades of their meaning.

K. Chukovsky, talking about translations, asked questions and answered them himself: “Why is it always written about a person - thin, and not lean, not thin, not frail, not skinny? Why not cold, but cold? Not a shack, not a hut, but a hut? Not a trick, not a catch, but an intrigue? Many ... think that girls are only beautiful. Meanwhile, they are pretty, pretty, handsome, not bad-looking - and you never know what else..

Synonyms allow you to diversify speech, avoid the use of the same words. And writers skillfully use them, not mechanically replacing a repeated word, but taking into account the semantic and expressive shades of the words used.

For example: An inexplicable fear gradually filled my soul... This fear turned into horror when I began to notice that I had lost my way, lost my way.(A. Chekhov) Dear sir,” he began almost solemnly, “poverty is not a vice, it is the truth... But poverty is a vice, sir. In poverty, you still retain the nobility of innate feelings, but in poverty, never anyone.(F. Dostoevsky)

Mouths and lips - their essence is not one, And eyes - not peepers at all!

For some, depth is available, for others, deep plates!

Colliding synonyms in one context, the poet A. Markov gives a figurative description of their stylistic difference.

It is customary to distinguish between two main groups of synonyms:

conceptual , or ideographic associated with the differentiation of shades of the same value ( enemy - enemy, wet - damp - wet ), and stylistic, associated primarily with the expressive and evaluative characteristics of a particular concept ( face - mug, hand - hand - paw ).

A group of synonyms consisting of two or more words is called synonymous next .

Can be synonymous rows nouns(work - work - work - occupation ); adjectives ( damp – wet – damp ); verbs ( run - hasten - hasten ); adverbs ( here - here); phraseological units ( pour from empty to empty - carry water with a sieve ).

In the synonymic series, the leading word (dominant) is usually distinguished, which is the carrier of the main meaning: clothes– dress - suit - outfit.

Synonymous relations permeate the entire language. They are observed between words (everywhere - everywhere), between a word and a phraseological unit (rush - run headlong), between phraseological units (neither this nor that - neither fish nor meat).

Polysemantic words in their different meanings are part of various synonymic series. So, the word to speak, denoting knowledge of any language, is included in the synonymous series to speak - to own, and in the sense of having a conversation, it stands in the series of speak - to talk.

Synonyms can be contextual . A contextual synonym is only partly similar to a real, genuine synonym.

For example: Day was August, sultry, languidly boring. (A. Chekhov).

In this sentence we see the description of the day different words. At their core, the adjectives used in this sentence are not synonyms, as they describe different areas reality. However, in this example, all these words create the image of the day, its character, so here they are contextual synonyms.

One day a photograph of a boy who won a bicycle was placed in the newspaper. I still remember this lucky man . In these sentences, the words of the boy and this lucky man designate the same person and are a means of connecting sentences, therefore they are also contextual synonyms.

Thus, contextual synonyms are synonyms only in a certain text; outside this text they cannot be called synonyms of each other.

Synonyms close in meaning, but usually not identical.

Each word of the synonymous series differs from other words of the same series by some additional shade of meaning, which must be taken into account in order to express thoughts with the greatest accuracy.

For example, in a synonymous series of adverbs quickly - soon - immediately stands out general meaning of these words is a characteristic of an action proceeding with a certain degree of intensity.

Adverb fast indicates the speed of the action itself ( My brother walks fast); soon- that the action is carried out through a short time (Wait, he will come soon); in the dialect instantly the speed of the action is extremely high ( He instantly disappeared).

Synonyms, denoting a trait, often differ from each other by a greater or lesser degree of manifestation of this trait.

For example, in the synonymous series wet - damp - wet adjectives are arranged in ascending order of the attribute: raw- more saturated with liquid than wet; wet- more abundantly saturated with liquid, moisture than raw.

adjectives big - huge also differ in the degree of manifestation of the trait.

The common meaning that unites these words is "having a size, a value that exceeds the norm." However, in each of them the degree of this quality is different: huge more than big.

Nouns enemy - adversary denote a person (or group of people) who is in a state of enmity with someone.

In the word enemy the concept of hostility is stronger than in the word enemy: in the latter, the meaning "one who takes the opposite position" prevails.

For example: Be merciless to the enemy. Defeat an opponent in a competition.

Synonyms may differ from each other in the breadth of their meaning.

For example: author - writer . The meaning of the word author is wider than writer. Writers are called those who write literary works, and not only poetic, but authors- also the creators scientific papers, projects, etc.

The difference between synonyms is also manifested in the ability to combine with other words.

Some of them have the ability to combine with a large, sometimes unlimited range of words; others have limited compatibility.

For example , elderly - old .

One can say old house, old coat, old book etc. Synonym elderly used only in relation to a person: old man, elderly woman.

Words brave And brave have the same meaning: brave warrior, brave warrior, brave young man, brave young man etc. When combined with nouns that name people, these adjectives can interchange each other, but with words like decision, act, project etc., only an adjective is used brave(can't say brave decision or brave project).

Stylistic functions of synonyms

The commonality of the meaning of synonyms allows the use of one word instead of another, which diversifies speech, makes it possible to avoid the annoying use of the same words.

Substitution function - one of the main functions of synonyms. Writers pay great attention to avoiding annoying repetition of words.

Here, for example, is how N. Gogol uses a group of synonymous expressions with the meaning " talk, talk »: “The visitor [Chichikov] somehow knew how to find himself in everything and showed himself an experienced secular person. Whatever the conversation was about, he always knew how to support it: if it was about a horse farm, he talked about a horse farm; they talked about good dogs, and here he reported very sensible remarks, whether they interpreted regarding the investigation carried out by the Treasury Chamber - he showed that he was not unknown to judicial tricks; whether there was a discussion about the billiard game - and in the billiard game he did not miss; whether they talked about virtue, and he talked about virtue very well, even with tears in his eyes; about making hot wine, and he knew the use of hot wine; about customs overseers and officials, and he judged them as if he were an official and overseer ".

Synonyms not only diversify speech. They also help to clarify, more clearly and vividly convey the idea.

For example, in I. Turgenev's story " living relics"read:" “And aren’t you bored, aren’t you terrified, my poor Lukerya?” – What will you do? I don’t want to lie - at first it was sickening, and then I got used to it, got tired of it ...". Lukerya first uses the word used to, but it does not fully express her state. It is impossible to get used to such terrible sufferings that she endures - one can precisely get over, and she adds this expressive folk word.

Synonyms in the following sentences act in the same clarification function: “What should he do now, how to get rid of this sudden, unexpected love?” (I. Bunin); “Many times in her life her [Aksinya’s] hopes and aspirations did not come true, did not come true”(M. Sholokhov).

In speech practice, it is widely used method of forcing synonyms with an increase in expressiveness. Sometimes writers use several synonyms in a row, as if stringing them together, thereby strengthening the feature, the action.

For example: And I realized that I won’t break my oath, But if I want to break it, I can’t, That I will forever I won't shrug, I won't frighten. (B. Slutsky)

Or F. Dostoevsky: They shouted that it was a sin, even vile, that the old man was out of his mind, that the old man deceived, deceived, deceived.

This technique gives the speech a tense, somewhat pathetic tone: “Nikolka leaned against the cold wood of his holster, touched his predatory Mauser nose with his fingers and almost burst into tears from excitement. I wanted to fight right now, this minute, there, behind the Post, on the steppe fields "(M. Bulgakov).

Here is how the drama of the first years of the Great Patriotic War is conveyed with the help of synonyms:
forties, fatal,
Lead, gunpowder...
War walks in Russia,
And we are so young!
(D. Samoilov)

Or the expanse and expanse of the Motherland:
For hundreds of miles, for hundreds of miles,
For hundreds of kilometers
Salt lay, feather grass rustled,
Blackened cedar grove.
(A. Akhmatova)

Stylistic synonyms are especially expressive: mouth - mouth(outdated), face - mug(simple) actor - actor (outdated), housing - housing (colloquial), etc.

In the novel by Ilf and Petrov " The twelve Chairs» read:

“Klavdia Ivanovna died,” the customer said.
“Well, the kingdom of heaven,” agreed Bezenchuk. “It means that the old woman has passed away... Old women, they always pass away... Or they give their souls to God – it depends on what kind of old woman. Yours, for example, is small and in the body, which means it has passed away. And, for example, which is larger and thinner - the one, it is believed, gives her soul to God ...
- So how is it considered? Who considers it?
- We count. At the masters. Here you are, for example, a prominent man, of lofty stature, although thin. You are considered, if, God forbid, you die, that you played in the box. And who is a merchant, a former merchant guild, that means ordered to live long. And if someone is of a lower rank, a janitor, for example, or one of the peasants, they say about him: he spread himself or stretched out his legs. But the most powerful when they die, railway conductors or someone from the authorities, it is believed that they give oak. So they say about them: "But ours, I heard, gave oak."
Shocked by this strange classification of human deaths, Ippolit Matveyevich asked: - Well, when you die, what will the masters say about you? - I am a small person. They will say: "Bezenchuk is bent." And they won't say anything else."

Synonyms can also do opposition function .

Alexander Blok in an explanatory note to the production of " Rose and Cross wrote about Gaetana: "... not eyes, but eyes, not hair, but curls, not a mouth, but a mouth."

The same with Kuprin: "He, in fact, did not walk, but dragged along without lifting his feet from the ground."

Synonyms are used to diversify speech and as a means of clarifying the expressed thoughts. Accuracy in the expressions of thought is achieved by comparing or contrasting synonyms. In the first case, each of the synonyms introduces something new into the stated position: This, my friend, is a mockery, a mockery(A. Chekhov), in the second - the accuracy of thought is achieved as a result of the denial of one position by another ( Here, on the shore, it is not thoughts that take possession, but thoughts ...(A. Chekhov).

The role of synonyms in the text

Synonyms (including contextual ones) as a means of linguistic expressiveness allow:

a) clarify the thought and convey its various semantic shades.

For example: But in the blackened canvases of Pusson I did not find anything for myself; landscapes did not seem to me so fictional, pretentious, incredible.(I. E. Repin);

For example: This is my home, my motherland, my fatherland, - and in life there is no hotter, deeper and more sacred feeling than love for you.(L. N. Tolstoy);

c) indicate the intensity of the trait and enhance expression.

For example: She needed to charm, captivate, drive crazy every time.(A.P. Chekhov); I am an incorrigible idealist; I seek shrines, I love them, my heart yearns for them.(F. M. Dostoevsky);

d) more deeply reveal this or that image.

For example: His well-shaven cheeks always burned with a blush of embarrassment, bashfulness, shyness and embarrassment.(I. Ilf, E. Petrov)

Antonyms occupy a special place in the system of expressive lexical means.

Antonyms

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