This article is dedicated to all lovers of reading. We have already considered in detail the English word “ book” - how it is used and in which it is used. But the words book" and " read» is clearly not enough for the vocabulary of an actively reading person. So let's dive into this topic more deeply: we will analyze the types and genres of books, the main "bookish" terms, verb synonyms toread, useful phrases and expressions to describe books.

Describing books in English

With the advent of digital technology, books began to be divided into two types: ordinary paper books, which in English are called paperbackbooks , and e-books – digitalbooks or E-books. The question of which books are better, more pleasant to read, more "real" and so on is one of the most acute among readers. If you speak to a native in English about books, don't be surprised if he asks you a question: What type of books do you prefer reading?

Fiction or non-fiction - what select ?

Books are also divided into fiction and non-fiction: fiction and non-fiction . By analogy with these words, a term such as " lightfiction"- "easy" reading. In total, there are more than a dozen major book genres in fiction. genres:
science fiction - sciencefiction ,
fantasy - fantasy ,
detectives - detectivebooks ,
thrillers - thrillers ,
satire - satire .
Collections of short stories or poetry are called anthologies. anthology .
In English, there is a special term for women's literature - chicklit: These are women's novels like Bridget Jones's Diary.

Documentary literature can also be different: books on business and finance - business & financebooks , autobiography autobiography, cookbooks cook-books, encyclopedias - encyclopedias, dictionaries - dictionaries .

Books can be read in different ways.

main verb- toread Describes the reading in general, without any clarifications or details. You can add words to it. aloud or toyourself- read aloud or to yourself. And if you want to emphasize that you read the book very carefully, or, on the contrary, looked through it between the lines?

Here are some useful synonyms for the verb to read :
to peruse or to scrutinize - read carefully
to scan or to skim (through /over )- quick view
to read through- read to the end.
When reading, it is important to be able to catch the hidden meaning, the author's message - to read between the lines .

Very interesting, fascinating books, from which it is difficult to tear yourself away, in English they call page-turner. As a rule, in such books unexpected turns of events - plottwists or touching moments tearjerkers. If you really liked an excerpt or phrase from a book, you can turn the corner on this page - such pages are called in English dog-eared pages because they look like dog ears.

Reading books in English with children

Reading is one of the most important English skills, so it is important to practice it from the very first stages of learning. Thanks to reading books in English, it is possible to get acquainted with literary language, which is more "correct" than spoken English.

Note: For more information on how to learn to read in English, see the section "".

We offer a selection of colloquial expressions and vocabulary (words) in English that can be used in classes with children and adults learning English.

Note: To help adults who "do not know enough" English, a selection of dictionaries with transcription in the section "".

Vocabulary (words) in English on the topic "Books"

article- article;
author- author;
dook- book;
chapter- head;
cover— cover;
editor- editor;
editorial office- editorial;
epilogue- epilogue;
page- page;
picture— illustration;
front page- first page;
headline- title;
issue- edition;
narrator- the narrator;
prologue- prologue;
publishers- publishing house;
title- title;
volume- volume.

Colloquial expressions in English on the topic "Books"

Do you want me to read a bed-time story? Do you want me to read a fairy tale?
I am going to read a new book.— I will read a new book.
How about a bedtime story? How about an evening story before bed?
Why don't you pick out a book to read? Why don't you choose a book to read?
You can take a new book from the shelf. You can take a new book from the shelf.
Do you want to choose a storybook for our story time? Would you like to choose a book to read?
Don't turn the page.- Don't turn the page.
Let's turn the page. Let's turn the page.
Let me slip a bookmark between the pages. Let me put a bookmark between the pages.
Do you want me to read the rest of the story? Do you want me to read the story to the end?
Do you like this picture? Do you like this illustration?
Let's find out what happens next. Let's find out what happened next.
I wonder what happens next.“I wonder what happened next.

Useful verbs on the topic "Books and reading"

Note: All about the verbs of the English language can be found in the material ""

to skip- skip, scroll;
to skim- read diagonally
to look up- search, view;
to dip into- to look superficially;
to browse- browse the book in the store, choose slowly;
to peruse- carefully, thoroughly read;
to refer to- to refer to, refer to;
to wake through- reach the end, master;
to flip through- skim through, scroll through;
to read from cover to cover- read from cover to cover;

Genres of books in English

genre[ˈʒɑːnrə] – genre;
fairy tale- story;
fiction[ˈfɪkʃn] - fiction, fiction;
non-fiction- scientific literature, or works based on real events;
light fiction- easy "light" reading;
chick lit- books for women;
science fiction[ˈsaɪəns ˈfɪkʃn] – science fiction;
fantasy[ˈfæntəsi] - fantasy (fantasy);
business & finance[ˈbɪznəs ənd ˈfaɪnæns] - literature on business and finance;
politics[ˈpɑːlətɪks] – political literature;
travel books[ˈtrævl ˈbʊks] – travel books;
autobiography[ɔːtəbaɪˈɑːɡrəfi] – autobiography;
history- story;
thriller / mystery[θrɪlər / ˈmɪstri] - thriller / mysticism;
romance / Erotica– love story / erotica;
satire[ˈsætaɪər] - satire;
horror[ˈhɔːrər] - horrors;
religious/i inspirational– religious, literature for inspiration;
health /medicine– books on the topic of health, medical literature;
cook-books[ˈkʊkˌbʊks] – cookbooks;
children's books[ˈtʃɪldrən bʊks] - books for children;
dictionary[ˈdɪkʃəneri] – dictionary;
encyclopedia[ɪnˌsaɪkləˈpiːdiə] – encyclopedia;
series[ˈsɪriːz] - a series of books like Harry Potter, 50 Shades of Grey, etc.
anthology[ænˈθɑːlədʒi] – an anthology (poetry, collections of short stories).

Names of book types in English with translation

Let's start with what books are:
paper back books– paper (printed) books;
E-books / digital books- e-books that can be downloaded (download) on the Internet or bought in online stores.

almanac- calendar, almanac;
best seller- bestseller;
book- book;
booklet- booklet, brochure;
brochure- brochure;
comic book- comics;
dictionary- dictionary;
encyclopedia- encyclopedia;
hard cover- hardcover book
magazine- magazine;
novel- novel;
paper back- soft cover book;
periodical- periodical;
pamphlet- brochure, pamphlet, catalogue;
picture book- a book with pictures;
reference book- reference book;
text book- textbook.

Useful English adjectives to describe a book

thrilling[θrɪlɪŋ] - exciting;
riveting[ˈrɪvɪtɪŋ] - captivating, attracting attention;
scary[ˈskeri] - frightening, creepy;
gripping[ɡrɪpɪŋ] - capturing attention, amazing;
easy to read[ˈiːzi tə riːd] – easy to read;
complex- complex;
brilliant[ˈbrɪliənt] - brilliant;
heartbreaking[ˈhɑːrtbreɪkɪŋ] - heartbreaking;
action-packed[ˈækʃn ˈpækt] – full of events;
predictable- predictable;
unpredictable[ʌnprɪˈdɪktəbl] - unpredictable;
boring- boring;
nonsensical- meaningless;
confusing- confused;
realistic- realistic;
erratic[ɪˈrætɪk] - inconsistent, strange;
absorbing[əbˈzɔːrbɪŋ] - fascinating.

• How to write and format
• How to write and format () in English
• in English

As you know, the book is a source of knowledge and joy.

Reading books, we get acquainted with interesting characters, plunging into their inner world, learn the culture of communication and, thus, create our own inner comfort.

When reading takes place in English, we pay attention not only to the characters and their experiences, but also to the words that these characters use. Today we will just concentrate on words, devoting an article to "book" vocabulary.

Verb to read has many analogues. This and to look through- view and to scan(literally "scan") - to look through, overlook, and to read through- read to the end. But there are also words that we do not often use in our speech:

• to skim (through/over) smth- quickly scan with your eyes to find something specific, important
• to scrutinize- scrutinize carefully
• to examine- look, study
• to peruse- read carefully
• to read up on a subject- read a specific topic in order to prepare for a report, speech
• to read between the lines- read between the lines, catch the hidden meaning

If you are reading aloud read aloud), you can practice diction and articulation by silently reading ( read to yourself), you focus on the main event in the book. Curled corners on pages in books dog-eared pages) often remind us of the most interesting episodes, and books that you can’t tear yourself away from ( page-turner) stay with us forever. By the way, have you read the amazing book called The Universe Versus Alex Woods? If not, then be sure to find time and dedicate it to this book. There you will meet an amazing turn of events ( plot twist), and moments that bring tears to my eyes ( tearjerker).

I won’t say that the hero will immediately become an open book for you ( to read somebody like an open book), but you will learn about his difficult life and how he managed to find himself when everyone around him was against him.

If you not only learn foreign languages, but also find time to read-read-read, then you are probably familiar with the expression "bookworm" - bookworm. Many now envy you, if only we all had so much free time.

Books are learning, so the expression to hit the books(to study) characterizes this situation in the best possible way.

As for choosing a book by its cover, that's about me. Recently, I literally fell in love with the book cover and bought it. After reading the novel "The Incredible Adventures of a Fakir Locked in an IKEA Closet", I was delighted and saddened at the same time. The first half of the book made me laugh like a child, and the second was very predictable, and it seemed that the author did not have enough “fuse” to finish it the way he started it - amazingly funny and extraordinary. So " don't judge a book by its cover”(in the case of books, they are greeted by the cover, but they are escorted through the mind of the writer). Follow certain rules live by the book) when choosing a book, although in life this is not at all necessary. Sometimes it's better to be in the wild with your head than with one foot in a puddle.

Wide vocabulary- something that every English learner should strive for, because the more words you know, the more you can say. However, in addition to learning new words, you also need to learn how to combine them correctly, make sentences from them and use them in your speech. And all these tricks you will be taught by textbooks on the vocabulary of the English language. We will cover the 7 most popular vocabulary building aids and explain how to work with them.

We have already compiled a detailed review for our readers. At the same time, we wrote that these comprehensive manuals help develop all English language skills, as well as expand your vocabulary. Below we will write several reasons to take a book to increase vocabulary in addition to the universal textbook. In this review, we will present you with the following 7 vocabulary guides:

• English Vocabulary in Use
• Oxford Word Skills
• Test Your Vocabulary
• Keywords for Fluency
• 4000 Essential English Words
• Vocabulary in Practice
• Boost Your Vocabulary

Why do we need additional textbooks on English vocabulary?

Special vocabulary expansion aids will allow you to:

1. Learn words effectively

Each of the presented English vocabulary textbooks is focused on learning new words in context. You learn new vocabulary and immediately use it in practical exercises, see how it "works" in natural speech. This is the most productive fast way vocabulary replenishment.

2. Easier to express your thought

Of course, knowledge of grammar and speaking practice are essential "pillars" without which one cannot speak English confidently. However, other things being equal, a good vocabulary will allow you to speak more beautifully and more clearly. In addition, if you are going to take an exam or emigrate, a large vocabulary will make your life much easier. Of course, the main textbook provides a good supply of vocabulary for each level of knowledge, but if you want to make your speech more natural and expressive, vocabulary replenishment books will come in handy.

3. Become better at listening

Obviously, the more English words you know, the more you can understand. Therefore, we advise those who complain that they have difficulty perceiving English speech aurally. Quite often, the reason for such a misunderstanding is that a person has a limited vocabulary, so our brain plays a cruel joke with us - we simply do not hear all unfamiliar words.

4. Activate vocabulary

A huge plus of such manuals is that they focus not so much on learning new words as on the practice of using various words of the English language. Surely you have heard people complain: “I already read English texts, but I speak very badly.” The thing is that such students have an extensive, that is, they recognize the word when they hear it or meet it in the text. At the same time, their active stock is very small, that is, they cannot use in their own speech all those words that they seem to know. English vocabulary books help solve this problem: through practice and constant repetition, words move from passive to active vocabulary.

5. Reach the next level of English faster

At what level should one take such a study guide? Each of the book series includes textbooks for different levels knowledge, so at any level you can pick up good material for vocabulary replenishment. If you are learning English with a teacher, you can ask him to take additional material from the textbook you like. If you study English on your own, try to regularly complete tasks from the selected manual.

English Vocabulary in Use

Elementary	Average	Intermediate Advanced	High

publishing house

This textbook is published in the “... in Use” series, like Raymond Murphy's famous textbook English Grammar in Use, which we wrote about in the review “”. Therefore, the format of these books is similar: each unit lesson takes 1 spread. On the left is the theory, on the right - practical exercises.

There are two ways to work with this tutorial. If your vocabulary is rather poor, it is best to go from the first lesson to the last one and not skip anything. If you do not have enough knowledge on some specific topics, you can choose and study them.

Vocabulary replenishment exercises in English Vocabulary in Use are tasks for choosing a word, filling in missing words in a text, crossword puzzles, writing small texts, matching a word to a picture, dividing words into groups according to some criteria, selecting definitions for idioms and phrases. verbs, selection of synonyms, etc.

Tutorial Features

If you are learning English on your own, then this manual will be convenient to use. At the end of the tutorial are the answers to all the exercises, so you can check yourself.

The undoubted advantage of the manual is the presence at the end of the book of a list of all the words found in the units. The words are written in alphabetical order, each of them is given a transcription, you can immediately find out how the word is read correctly. Also, next to each word is the page number on which it occurs, so if you want to know how to use it correctly, just turn to the desired page.

Oxford Word Skills

Elementary	Average	High

publishing house: Oxford University Press (UK).

The structure of the textbook and the principle of working with it

In this series of British vocabulary books, suitable material should be selected according to the following principle:

• Basic - for Elementary and Pre-Intermediate levels.
• Benefit Intermediate - for Intermediate and Upper-Intermediate levels.
• Advanced allowance - for Advanced and Proficiency levels.

Each book in this series contains 80 units. The lesson takes from one to three pages, depending on the topic. Practical exercises are immediately attached to blocks of theoretical material to consolidate knowledge. All units are divided by topic into groups-modules of 5 or 10 lessons. After each module in the textbook, you will be asked to take a test that will check how well you have learned the material of all the lessons you have completed.

As you work through this tutorial, you can also choose to go in order or choose exactly the topics where you have gaps. However, if you are learning English on your own, the first option is preferable: this way you won't miss anything important.

Vocabulary replenishment tasks are diverse: insert missing letters, find synonyms, answer questions, choose a word, insert a missing word into a phrase, etc. In addition to written exercises for training vocabulary, Oxford Word Skills has tasks for developing speaking and listening.

Tutorial Features

The main feature of this textbook is the presence of a voiced dictionary, that is, you can listen to how all the studied words sound.

At the end of the manual there are answers to all exercises, as well as tests following each module, so this book can also be recommended for self-study.

Also at the end of the manual there is a list of words in alphabetical order. For each of them, a transcription is given and the page number on which you will find exercises with this word is indicated.

Additional online exercises for this tutorial series can be found at elt.oup.com. Click on the link “Basic”, “Intermediate” or “Advanced”, and the exercises for the corresponding manual will be available to you.

Test Your Vocabulary

Elementary	Below the average	Average	Above average	High

publishing house: Pearson (UK).

The structure of the textbook and the principle of working with it

Each of the five books in the Test Your Vocabulary series consists of 60 units, which take up 1-2 pages depending on the topic. These English vocabulary learning tutorials will appeal to those who like to take various tests. However, the books also contain theoretical material, it is presented briefly, in the form of a small historical or grammatical reference.

Despite the fact that this series is a book with vocabulary tests, the tasks are very diverse. You can decide different types crossword puzzles, sign pictures, combine words into phrases, select phrases for comic book characters, etc.

The authors propose to work with the textbook in the following way. To memorize new words well, you need to return to them repeatedly, so make all notes in the book in pencil. After completing the exercise and self-checking, remove all answers. After 1-2 months, return to the lesson and try to go through it again. This way you will fix the vocabulary in memory.

Tutorial Features

The main advantage of this series is interesting practice tests that help you quickly memorize new words and the specifics of their use. At the end of each textbook you will find answers to tests and a list of words to study in alphabetical order.

Key Words for Fluency

Below the average	Average	Above average

publishing house: Heinle (UK/Scotland/USA).

The structure of the textbook and the principle of working with it

The Pre-Intermediate and Intermediate level textbooks in this series contain 22 voluminous lessons each, which are divided into several parts. Each part is devoted to 1 word. For this word, you will be offered about 10-20 options for phrases (collocations), that is, you will see with which words and how exactly the vocabulary in question can “work”. In the manual of the Upper-Intermediate level, words are not combined by topic, but the principle of presenting the material is the same.

You can learn and remember all these useful phrases during the practical exercises. They are quite the same type, but after completing them, you will learn in which cases which expression should be used. In addition, many phrases contain prepositions, and English learners will confirm that it is not always easy to remember which preposition to use in a particular case. Therefore, having learned the expression completely, you will well remember the preposition that is used in a particular phrase.

Tutorial Features

This series of textbooks is strikingly different from all the other manuals presented in our review, in that you are not learning new words, but new expressions. As the author of the series points out, knowing single words is not enough for an English learner. To speak confidently, you need to know how words "cooperate" with each other, that is, in conjunction with which words they are used. Knowing such expressions will allow you to speak English faster and easier, while avoiding mistakes in the use of words.

The Pre-Intermediate level manual provides tests after studying each group of lessons, in the other two textbooks there are no such tasks for verification, but you can return to the lesson after a while and try to go through it again, so you will see what is deposited in memory.

At the end of the textbooks there are answers to all tasks, as well as a list of words in alphabetical order, indicating the pages on which they occur.

4000 Essential English Words

Level: 1	Level: 2	Level: 3
Level: 4	Level: 5	Level: 6

publishing house: Compass Publishing (UK).

The structure of the textbook and the principle of working with it

All of the books in this series are suitable for students at the Intermediate level and above. 4000 words will just help you move to the next level, because students at the Upper-Intermediate - Advanced level should have such a vocabulary.

The 4000 Essential English Words series consists of 30 units, each unit dedicated to learning 20 new words and how to use them. Thus, at the end of studying all 6 textbooks, you will know 3600 words from the lessons + about 400 words from the applications at the end of the textbook.

• universal words. Words that are used both in formal and informal communication are offered for study. Whether you're learning general English, technical or business English, these words are sure to come in handy.
• Frequently used words. This vocabulary is widely used by native speakers in speech and writing in different areas activities. You will often see these words in articles, books, news, and casual conversation.
• According to the authors, the words proposed for study cover approximately 90% of the vocabulary used in colloquial speech and modern fiction, and 80% of the vocabulary used in scientific articles and newspapers.

The lesson presents 20 new words, each of them is given a definition in English, transcription, the part of speech is indicated, an example of a sentence is given and a picture is drawn. After that, you will be asked to do some exercises, and then read the text, in which all new words occur, and answer questions to it.

Tutorial Features

If you like to read in English, we advise you to choose this particular series of textbooks on English vocabulary. The presence of texts with studied words will allow you to memorize words not only in exercises, as in other books, but also in context. Fascinating articles are easy to read, therefore, the words from them will be easy to remember.

At the end of the textbooks there are appendices, which also contain useful words for learning, they are presented in the form of a visual dictionary. After the appendices, there is a list of words in alphabetical order, indicating the pages on which they are mentioned in the book.

There are no answers to the exercises in the manual, so we advise you to either learn English with a teacher, or purchase an additional book with answers.

And the most interesting thing for lovers of modern ways of learning: 3 books from this series are available as an Android application. You can install the third, fourth or fifth part of the tutorial as a program for your gadget.

Vocabulary in Practice

Level: 1	Level: 2	Level: 3
Level: 4	Level: 5	Level: 6

publishing house: Cambridge University Press (UK).

The structure of the textbook and the principle of working with it

Each of the manuals in this series consists of 30-40 units (depending on the level). After 10 lessons, you will be asked to repeat the material and at the same time test yourself with a test.

• go from the first lesson to the last - an option that will allow you to study all topics as well as possible;
• skip lessons on topics for which you have a good vocabulary, and take only topics that are new to you for study. After graduation, pass verification tests and, if necessary, repeat misunderstood topics.

The practical exercises are diverse: you will need to select synonyms, fill in missing words, solve crossword puzzles, label objects in pictures, combine phrases for dialogue, etc.

Tutorial Features

The peculiarity of this edition is the emphasis on grammar. It should be noted that the manual is structured in such a way that even without theoretical explanations you will understand everything. If you have any difficulty, you can look for an explanation on the Internet. This is also not bad: when you find answers to your questions on your own, you remember the material well.

At the end of the textbook there are answers to all exercises, as well as verification tests. There you will also find lists of words with transcription, divided into units.

Boost Your Vocabulary

Level: 1	Level: 2	Level: 3	Level: 4

publishing house: Pearson Longman (Great Britain).

The structure of the textbook and the principle of working with it

The Boost Your Vocabulary series consists of 4 editions, which should be selected according to the following principle:

• the first book is for the Beginner-Elementary level;
• the second book is for the Elementary level;
• the third book is for the Pre-Intermediate level;
• the fourth book is for the Intermediate - Upper-Intermediate level.

The manuals include 12 lessons-units, occupying 6 pages each. After every four units, you will be asked to take a screening test. The author proposes the following scheme for working with him:

1. Go in order or choose a topic that interests you.
2. The first two pages of each lesson contain lists of words or expressions, this will be your own reference dictionary. Near English words you need to write a translation. At the same time, if you are studying on your own, listen to the online dictionary on how to pronounce words correctly. Study them and try to remember.
3. Do practice exercises without looking into a dictionary.
4. Check the exercises against the dictionary you have compiled.
5. Finally check your answers by referring to the clues at the end of the textbook.
6. After passing four units, take a test and, if necessary, return to a misunderstood topic.

There is no theoretical reference in the textbook, but it is an excellent source of practical exercises. There are tasks in the form of tests, crosswords, answers to questions, word choice, etc.

Tutorial Features

At the end of the textbook answers to tasks for self-examination are given. There you will also find brief lexical comments for each lesson. In the units you will see marks with a REF icon, this means that for explanations you should refer to the reference at the end of the tutorial.

For those who want to track their achievements, there is a special page at the end of the tutorial with Self assessment and progress check. Here you can note which topics were easy for you and do not require repetition, and which ones will need to be reviewed, how many words you knew before passing the lesson, and how many after it, etc.

We wrote about seven textbooks on English vocabulary tested by time and by our teachers. You can use all of them both for self-study and in lessons with a teacher. Learning new words from such aids will allow you not only to learn new words, but also to learn how to use them correctly in your speech, which means that it will become much easier for you to speak English.

Do you want an experienced mentor to help you expand your vocabulary and speak English fluently and competently? Try .

LECTURE IV - OFFICIAL ENGLISH VOCABULARY Book and official business vocabulary Book words are lofty words used in scientific style, books, or other types of oral communication such as public speech, official negotiations, etc. They have a specific denotative meaning, are characterized by the absence of any connotations, for example, approximate, commencement, comprise, experimental, internal, external, indicate, initial, etc. This layer of vocabulary is especially rich in adjectives. Book words are either formal synonyms for common, neutral words, or they express concepts that can only be conveyed with the help of descriptive common phrases, for example, to externalize - to express inner feelings. Book, basically, are borrowed words of Latin or Greek origin. This group also includes words of the official-bureaucratic language, for example, to assist, endeavor, sufficient, etc. In addition, it includes archaic allied words that have fallen out of use, for example, hereby, herein, thereafter, herewith, as well as such conjunctions, adverbs and combinations as moreover, furthermore, however, in consequence of, etc. Book and official business vocabulary is used not only in official letters and professional communication, but sometimes in everyday speech. The use of formal business vocabulary in informal situations looks inappropriate and produces a comic effect. Terms The English vocabulary contains words and expressions that are used in a particular industry or science. Such words are called terms. They are not used in other areas and are not understood by other people. Each area of ​​life has a specialized vocabulary, i.e. words serving a specific professional or scientific field. There are medical, psychological, musical, linguistic, industrial, transport and other terms. Terms denote various scientific and technical objects, phenomena, processes. According to the point of view of N.B. Gvishiani, scientific communication is based on easily decipherable units that require unity of form and content, which allows those who communicate to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding1. This is achieved through terms. A term is a word or phrase with a fixed meaning, denoting an object or process that refers to a specific 1 See: Gvishiani N.B. Terminology in English Language Teaching. M., 1993. 21 areas of science or production and having special linguistic characteristics. The term, as a rule, should be monosemantic, have only a denotative meaning, have a simple semantic structure, have no elements of connotative meaning (for example, emotional coloring), and have no synonyms. Nevertheless, there are polysemantic terms in the English language, but it should be noted that only one LSV of a polysemantic term can be implemented in a certain situation, context or combination with other stylistically neutral lexical units. Examples of economic terms are the following: challenged acquisition (acquisition of an enterprise protested by antitrust authorities), income, profit, bond, equity, securities, venture capital, capital gain, etc. It should be noted that the terms are formed using existing word-formation means. In English, the following structural types of terms are distinguished: - attributive-nominal Difficult words , e.g., connecting rod, cylinder head, sound wave, steam-boiler, velocity joint, etc.; - derived words formed by affixation, for example, toughness, drainage, breakage, abandonment, mistrial, etc.; - verbs formed by conversion, for example, to trap, to condition, etc.; - phraseological combinations, for example, room and pillar conveyer system, two-strike cycle engine, etc. Many terms in English are derived from Latin and Greek roots, eg telegraphy, phonetics, microfilm, telemechanics. Such terms are easily understood by people speaking different languages, which is of particular importance in the field of science and technology. Elements of Latin and Greek origin are often used to form scientific terms, for example, tele-, micro-, mega-, hyper-, mono-, iso-, etc. The terms are often used in newspaper, journalistic and official styles. They can also be used in fiction. In this case, the terms perform specific stylistic functions: they serve as indirect means of creating a real environment, atmosphere (hospitals, wards, laboratories, train stations, airports, etc.). The "fate" of the term may be different. It can be replaced by another term or lose its terminological characteristics and become a common word, for example, truck, television tube. Archaisms Within the framework of this lexical layer, I.R. Halperin distinguishes between obsolete words (which are rarely used, e.g. thee, thine, thy, pallet, etc.), obsolete words (which are completely out of use, e.g. methinks, nay, etc.) and archaisms proper (words, 22 which are “not recognized” by modern English, for example, troth – faith)1. Archaisms have partially or completely fallen out of use in the modern language. Some authors use them in historical short stories and poetry to create a real environment for those times. Examples of archaisms are the following: thou, thy, aye, morn, eve, moon, foe, woe, steed, behold etc. Such archaic words as aforesaid, herewith, hereby, etc. often used in business style documents. There are also archaisms that have no referents in today's life, for example, yeoman, hauberk, goblet, mace, phaeton, prairie schooner. These are examples of historicism. Words of this type never disappear from the language, although they denote objects and phenomena of the past. Historicisms do not have synonyms, while archaisms do. Sometimes an archaic word can become used again. For example, the former archaic word kin is currently used in American English. Archaisms can be used for a specific communicative or stylistic purpose, for example, to express solemnity, a shade of sublimity, create a comic effect, etc. Barbarisms Barbarisms are foreign words that exist in the language in a foreign form, i.e. with the preservation of foreign pronunciation and spelling. Such words have synonyms in the layer of common vocabulary. Barbarisms are not inclined to develop new meanings; they are monosemantic lexical units. Consider some examples of barbarisms: comme il faut, tete-a-tete, en route, coup d'etat, carte blanche, a la carte, haute couture, blitzkrieg (or blitz), idé fixe, alter ego, perestroika, etc. Yu.M. Skrebnev notes that French and Italian barbarisms belong to such areas as music, theater, and art. Some barbarisms in English serve a terminological function; they name objects and concepts for which there are no names in English, therefore they receive names that exist in the language of those peoples whose reality they reflect, for example, dacha, soviet, kolkhoz, perestroika, chalet, etc. Some former barbarisms have entered the stratum of common vocabulary, for example, methodical, penetrate, function, etc. It should be noted that barbarisms are registered in dictionaries and are used mainly in fiction or journalistic style. They often play the role of stylistic devices, conveying a local atmosphere or emphasizing the fact that the action takes place in another country. 1 See: Galperin I.R. Stylistics. – M., 1977. 23 Poeticisms Poetisms demonstrate the maximum aesthetic value and are used mainly in poetry and fiction. During the previous centuries there had been a tendency in English poetry to use words and expressions different from those used in everyday conversation or prose. The semantic structures of this group of words are endowed with sublime connotations, which immediately helps to distinguish them from other lexical units. Poeticisms began to be recognized as such in the era of classicism and romanticism. There are the following subgroups of poetisms: a) poeticisms proper, for example, bard, perchance, eve, lone, amidst, o'er, ne'er, mead, gladsome, vale, etc.; b) obsolete words and archaisms, for example, wrought, thee, naught, ere, etc. c) dialectisms, for example, oft, rest (stop), nay, yea, etc.; d) rare words of French and Latin origin, for example. , robe, garment, apparel, 'reverie, etc. Poeticisms perform a certain decorative function. They are also occasionally found in prose, religious texts, or newspaper texts. I.R. Galperin notes that due to frequent repetition, poeticisms lose their originality. Questions for the seminar: 1. Book and official business vocabulary. 2. Terms. 3. Archaisms. 4. Barbarisms. 5. Poeticisms. Exercises: 1. Write down examples of book and official business vocabulary from this story. By what parameters do you determine the belonging of this vocabulary to the above layers? Mistaken Identity Everyone in the room listened open-mouthed as a man, convicted two years previously of an armed robbery, attempted to convince a court of appeal that he had been wrongfully imprisoned. His defense rested on the notion that reports from eyewitnesses as to the identity of the robber could not be relied upon as evidence of his guilt. Even though the man was arrested outside the bank, in possession of stolen money, and with two guns and a knife secreted about his person – and even though his accomplice, who was arrested in the 24 getaway car, had identified him as the man who had gone into the bank to carry out the robbery, the man still felt that he was in with a chance for freedom. His argument was “How could the people in the bank have identified me? I had a mask on when I did the job.” The appeal court remained unconvinced. (From The Best Book of Bizarre But True Stories by Mike Flynn) 2. Write down terms, terminological phrases from the given passages and indicate which branches of science and technology they belong to. A) Two officers from the Lothian and Borders traffic police in Scotland were out playing with their new radar gun on the Berwickshire Moors, catching speeding motorists and having a jolly time handing out tickets when the gun suddenly jammed up, giving a reading of 300 mph . For a moment duo were terribly confused, wondering who on earth could be driving at that speed. Suddenly, all became clear when a very low-flying Royal Air Force Harrier jet skimmed the top of their police car. The officers complained to the local RAF station, saying that their new toy had been ruined by the pilot’s exploits but were surprised to find themselves being reprimanded for using the radar gun in such a reckless fashion. At the moment their speed gun had locked on to the Harrier, the plane’s target seeker had locked on to what it interpreted as an enemy radar signal and triggered an automatic air-to-surface missile strike. Fortunately or the officers, the Harrier's weapons systems had not been armed. (From The Best Book of Bizarre But True Stories by Mike Flynn) b) How do you expand an existing two-lane bridge into a three-lane bridge? To widen the Interstate 84 crossing over the Hudson River from 30 to 39 feet, the New York State Department of Transportation used structural lightweight concrete. Because the concrete used in the new deck weighed 35 pounds per cubic foot less than the concrete that was removed from the old deck, less than 20 percent of the steel support framing needed strengthening. And this is not unusual. Replacing an old bridge deck made of normal weight concrete will often permit the deck to be widened with minimal modifications to the substructure. (From Concrete Construction, 1985) B) The concept of “semantic field”, like the concept of “semantic frame”, opened up new domains of semantic research, first in Germany in the 1930s and then in the United States in the 1970s. Both concepts brought about “revolutions” in semantics, and provided semanticists with new tools for the study of semantic change and semantic structure. Although there have been several historical accounts of the development of field semantics, there exists no detailed study linking and comparing the development of field and frame semantics. (From Journal of Pragmatics, 2000) 3. Write out archaisms and barbarisms from the given passages; translate passages and sentences. Are all foreign words from these 25 passages barbaric? Do they have examples of international words? A) A man in Norfolk, Virginia, cut off his own hand and would not let a doctor attempt to reattach it. Claiming that the hand had become possessed by the Devil and, quoting the biblical verse “If your right hand offends thee, cut it off and cast it from thee”, he got busy with a saw. When the doctor tried to reattach the hand, the man claimed that the number 666 – commonly believed by certain Christians, horror writers and the insane to be the mark of the antichrist – had appeared on the hand and refused to allow the doctor to perform the operation. (From The Best Book of Bizarre But True Stories by Mike Flynn) B) “Woe to you, Oh Earth and Sea, for the Devil sends the beast with wrath, because he knows the time is short… Let him who hath understanding reckon the number of the beast for it is a human number, its number is Six hundred and sixty six.” (Revelations Ch. XIII V. 18) C) “And God shall wipe away all tears from their eyes; and there shall be no more Death. Neither sorrow, nor crying. Neither shall there be anymore Brain; for the former things are passed away.” (Revelations Ch. XXI V. 4) D) “O God of Earth and Altar Bow down and hear our cry, Our earthly rulers falter, Our people drift and die, The walls of gold entomb us, The swords of scorn divide, Take not thy thunder from us, but take the way our pride.” (GK Chesterton: English Hymnal) E) “The time will come for him to lay claim his crown, And then the foe yes they'll be cut down…” (Iron Maiden: To Tame a Land) E) “The Dolce Vita is worth all the hassles, except one: health care.” “If you go to Che's shrine in Santa Clara southeast of Havana, where he is buried beneath a gigantic Soviet-style statue that commemorates both his decisive military victory over Fulgencio Batista's army in 1958 (after which the dictator fled the country) and Che's departure for Bolivia in 1965 to 26 foment another (this time unsuccessful) revolution, you will see him heroically outlined against the sky.” “Cubans who apparently revere “El commandante” muse out a lot about his longevity, wondering whether he will last another decade or more, which keeps them in a state of suspense, if not suspended animation.” “Like a dream, salsa music wafted in from a dance hall across the street.” “It glows with Spanish-style grandeur and art-deco elegance; and its literary history makes it memorable.” (From Newsweek, 2003) Misaki and Daisuke dressed up in their formal kimonos to celebrate and bought the symbolic good luck candy called chitose-ame. Huge lanterns in the shape of samurai are paraded through the streets. Origami is the Japanese traditional art of making various forms, such as animals or flowers, by folding a piece of paper. People are familiar with Origami from their childhood in Japan. Orizuru (a paper crane) is the most popular subject in Origami, and it is very hard to find a Japanese who cannot make one. (From Hello Japan, 2003) Sitting next to me was a Cuban in his 60s from Miami. As we descended towards Havana Airport, he kept looking out of the porthole at the sparse pinpoints of light below. “Poquito! Poquito!” he said, grimacing sadly and holding up his thumb and index finger like a pair of tweezers. Havana's pale flickering, a poor match for Miami's electric blaze, seemed to evoke contradictory feelings in him of anguish and schadenfreude. (From Newsweek, 2003) 4. Do you consider these words to be barbaric? Explain your point of view. sari, rupee, samosa, dacha, samovar, décolletage, décolleté, coup d "etat 27 LECTURE V - COMMON VOCABULARY AND NELOGISMS Basic vocabulary Words belonging to the layer of common vocabulary (basic vocabulary) are stylistically neutral units. They resist the layer of formal and informal vocabulary, since they can be used in any situation - both formal and informal, in oral and written communication. Words of this kind are used by people of any profession, level of education, age, place of residence. Common words denote objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality, for example. , house, bread, summer, child, mother, difficult, easy, to go, to stand, etc. It should be noted that the core of this layer of the English language consists mainly of words of common Germanic origin. composition This is the most stable layer of vocabulary, which changes rather slowly. du layer of common vocabulary and other layers are quite flexible. The layer of commonly used vocabulary includes the following lexico-semantic groups: I. Names of objects and phenomena of the natural environment: sun, moon, water, fire, earth, wood, field etc.; II. Names of a person, relatives, body parts: man, woman, mother, father, brother, hand, nose, mouth, finger etc.; III. Names of dwellings, household items, pets: house, roof, bed, bread, horse, cat etc.; IV. Names of tools: ax, hammer, nail, saw etc. ; V. Names of the main spectral colors, the main characteristics of objects and phenomena: black, white, red, bad, old, young, new, little, high etc.; VI. Names of the main life processes: go, come, ride, eat, drink, live, work, die etc.; VII. Structural language units: in, on, to, and, but etc. The words of the common vocabulary layer are characterized by stylistic neutrality and the absence of connotations. The meanings of these words are characterized by breadth and generality; they directly denote concepts without conveying additional information. Units of the base layer of vocabulary and stylistically marked words do not exist independently, they are closely related. Neologisms 28 Neologisms are newly formed words or words that have acquired new meanings due to social, economic, political or cultural changes in human society. As noted above, neologisms can belong to both the formal and informal vocabulary layers. New words are constantly appearing in English and other languages; currently there is a so-called neological boom. In some discourses, the emergence of new words was caused by progress in various branches of science and technology. The new words are mainly used by university professors, newspaper reporters, young people, people taking Active participation in social communication and those who are related to the media. Neologisms are often found in newspaper vocabulary, because newspapers are the fastest to respond to changes in society, science and technology. According to Yu.M. Skrebnev, "in most cases, newly formed words are hardly accepted by the linguistic community because of its conservative attitude to any innovation" . There are three main ways of forming neologisms in a language. The word can change its meaning to name a new object or phenomenon; such lexical units are called semantic neologisms. A new lexical unit may appear in the language to designate an object or phenomenon for which a name already exists in the language. This process is called transnomination. And, finally, a completely new word may appear in the language to denote a new object or phenomenon. Such words are called proper neologisms. The simpler the semantic structure of a neologism, the easier it will be accepted by society. IN AND. Zabotkina notes that the reasons for creating new words are mostly pragmatic. The main pragmatic motive underlying the creation of new words is the triad: necessity (the need for the language to name what has not yet been named) - emphasis (the desire for greater expressiveness) - beauty (the need for beauty) 2. Consider some examples: necessity (new referents receive names e.g. cyberphobia, cyberphilia); emphasis (new, more expressive names are given to already named objects, eg laid-back, buttoned-down, burned-out, etc.); beauty (this group includes borrowings-barbarisms from other languages, for example, dolce vita). How is the process of entering a new word into the language? IN AND. Zabotkina notes that for naming, it is first necessary to identify the referent, determine its place in the speaker's cognitive system, and categorize it. Next comes the process of subcategorization (comparison with other members of this category), and only after that the search for a new name begins. 1 Skrebnev Y.M. Fundamentals of English Stylistics. - M., 2003. P. 59. 2 See: Zabotkina V.I. Cognitive-Pragmatic Approach to Neology//Cognitive-Pragmatic Aspects of Linguistic Research: Sat. scientific tr. / Kaliningrad. un-t. - Kaliningrad, 1999. S. 3-9. 29 Then the word goes through the process of conventionalization (assimilation by the society) and lexicolization (assimilation by the system of the language); it absorbs additional pragmatic features of the context of its repeated use. There are many lexico-semantic groups of neologisms in the English language related to various spheres of human activity. Let's consider some of them: - the field of computer and information technologies (multi-user, to computerize, to blitz out, to telework, to telecommute, telebanking, videobank, etc.); - linguistic sphere (machine translation, artspeak, sportspeak, etc.); - the sphere of politics and social life (youthquake, pussy-footer, Europarliament, belonger, survivor, welfare mother, dial-a-meal, multiculturalism, etc.); - criminal sphere (neighbor watch, steaming, wolf-pack, etc.); - sphere of protection environment(acid fog, energy belt, etc.). There are also lexical-semantic groups of neologisms denoting ordinary, everyday things, for example: - food (longlife milk, beefburger, fishburger, etc.); - clothing (slimster, sweatshirt, bloomers, etc.); - shoes (thongs, backsters, etc.). New lexical units denoting previously unknown objects and concepts also appeared in the areas of finance, music, art, crime, etc. Neologisms can be classified according to the way they enter the language. There are the following types of neologisms: - phonological (rah-rah); - borrowings (perestroika, dolce vita, etc.); - semantic neologisms (umbrella in the meaning of "political cover"); - morphological neologisms (free-fall, rubber-neck, x-rated, tycoonography, to gallery-hop, to job-hop, hard-to-get, middle-of-the-road, etc.); - phraseological (sleeping policeman, to nose out, electronic virus, a whiz-kid). According to T.A. Pimakhina, most of the neologisms appear in American English. In American English, approximately 45% of neologisms refer to scientific and technical terminology2. It should be noted that when translating neologisms related to the political, social and ethnographic spheres, the translator 1 See: Ibid. 2 See: Pimakhina T.A. Linguistic and stylistic characteristics of modern English neologisms//Functional aspect of language units. Samara: Samara University Publishing House, 1992, pp. 105 – 112. 30