Lungs - paired respiratory organ. They are located in the pleural cavities and carry out gas exchange between the air environment surrounding the body and the blood.

The right and left lungs are located in the chest. Each lung is surrounded by a shell - the pleura - from neighboring anatomical formations. Between the pleura surrounding the lungs and the chest there is another sheet of pleura - the parietal sheet, which lines the inner surface chest.

Between the pulmonary pleura and the parietal pleura there is a slit-like closed space - the pleural cavity. In the pleural cavity there is a small amount of fluid that wets the adjacent smooth, parietal and pulmonary pleura sheets, eliminating their friction against each other. When breathing, the volume of the lungs increases or decreases. In this case, the pulmonary pleura (VISCERAL) slides freely along the inner surface of the parietal pleura. In places of transition of the parietal pleura from the costal surface to the diaphragm and mediastinum, depressions are formed - pleural sinuses.

The lungs, located in the pleural sacs, are separated by the mediastinum, which includes the heart, aorta, inferior vena cava, esophagus and other organs. The organs of the mediastinum are also covered by a pleura called the mediastinal pleura. In the upper part of the chest, on the right and left sides, the parietal pleura connects with the mediastinal pleura and forms the DOME OF THE PLEURA (right and left). Below the lungs lie on the diaphragm. The right lung is shorter and wider than the left lung. the right dome of the diaphragm is higher than the left dome of the diaphragm. The left lung is narrower and longer than the right lung, because part of the left half of the chest is occupied by the heart. In front, from the sides, behind and at the top, the lungs are in contact with the chest.

By lung shape resembles a truncated cone. The average height of the right lung is 27.1 cm in men and 21.6 cm in women. The average height of the left lung is 29.8 cm in men and 23 cm in women. The average width of the base of the right lung in men is 13.5 cm in men and 12.2 cm in women. The average width of the base of the left lung in men is 12.9 cm and in women - 10.8 cm. The average length of the right lung in living people, measured on x-rays, is 24.46 + -2.39 cm, the weight of one lung is 374 + -14 g.

In each lung, the apex, base and three surfaces are distinguished - costal, medial (facing the mediastinum) and diaphragmatic. The surfaces of the lung are separated by edges. The anterior margin separates the costal surface from the medial surface. The lower edge separates the costal and medial surfaces from the diaphragmatic.

Each lung is divided into lobes by slits deeply protruding into the lung tissue. The lobes are also lined with visceral pleura. The right lung has three lobes - upper, middle and lower, while the left lung has only two lobes - upper and lower. On the medial surface of each lung, approximately in the center, there is a funnel-shaped depression - the GATE OF THE LUNG. The root of the lung enters the gate of each lung.

The root of the lung consists of the main bronchus, pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins (two), lymphatic vessels, nerve plexuses, bronchial arteries and veins. There are also lymph nodes in the hilum of the lung. The location of the vascular formations in the root (gate) of the lung is usually such that upper part the gate is occupied by the main bronchus, nerve plexuses, pulmonary artery, lymph nodes, and the lower part of the gate of the lung is pulmonary veins. At the gates of the right lung, the main bronchus lies at the top, below it is the pulmonary artery, and below it are two pulmonary veins. At the gates of the left lung, the pulmonary artery is located at the top, below it is the main bronchus and even lower are the two pulmonary veins. At the hilum of the lungs, the main bronchi divide into lobar bronchi.

The lobes of the lungs are subdivided into bronchopulmonary segments - pulmonary areas, more or less separated from the same neighboring areas by layers connective tissue. The right lung has three segments in the upper lobe, two segments in the middle lobe, and five segments in the lower lobe. The left lung has five segments in the upper lobe and five segments in the lower lobe. The segmental structure of the lungs is associated with the order of branching of the bronchi in the lungs: at the gates of the lungs, the main bronchi are divided into lobar bronchi; the lobar bronchi, in turn, enter the gates of the lobe of the lung and are divided into segmental bronchi - according to the number of pulmonary segments.

Segmental bronchi enter the bronchopulmonary segment and are divided into branches in it, numbering 9-10 orders of branching. The bronchopulmonary segment itself consists of pulmonary lobules. The segmental bronchus and the segmental artery pass through the center of the segment. Along the border of neighboring segments, in the connective tissue septum, a segmental vein passes, draining blood from the segments. The segment with its base faces the surface of the lung, and with its apex - to the root.

Articles and publications:

Research in the field of embryology and its significance for the progress of biology
Embryonic development has attracted attention since ancient times. However, until the 18th century embryology was in its infancy. Directions and achievements of embryology in the XVIII century. had not only a theoretical, but also a principled methodology...

Molecular bases of evolution, differentiation of development and aging
It is known that some DNA fragments can move from one place to another within one chromosome or be integrated into another chromosome. The existence of jumping genes was first shown by B. McClintock while studying the genetics of...

Abasia- Loss of the ability to walk, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.

Abbreviation- Loss by a species in the course of evolution or by an individual in the process of ontogenesis of signs or phases of development that the ancestors had.

Abiogenesis- The emergence of the living from the inanimate in the process of evolution.

Aboriginal- A native inhabitant of a locality, living in it from time immemorial.

Avitaminosis- A disease caused by a long-term lack of vital vitamins in the diet.

Autogamy- Self-pollination and self-fertilization in flowering plants.

Autoduplication- The process of synthesis by living organisms or their parts of substances and structures that are completely identical to the original formations.

Autolysis- Self-dissolution, disintegration of body tissues under the influence of enzymes contained in these same tissues.

Automixis- The fusion of germ cells belonging to the same individual; widely distributed among protozoa, fungi, diatoms.

Autotomy- The ability of some animals to discard parts of their body; protective device.

Autotroph- An organism that synthesizes organic matter from inorganic compounds using the energy of the Sun or the energy released during chemical reactions.

Agglutination- 1) Bonding and precipitation from a homogeneous suspension of bacteria, erythrocytes and other cells. 2) Protein coagulation in a living cell, which occurs when exposed to high temperatures, toxic substances and other similar agents.

Agglutinins- Substances formed in the blood serum, under the influence of which the coagulation of proteins occurs, the adhesion of microbes, blood cells.

Agony- The final moment of life, preceding clinical death.

Agranulocyte- A leukocyte that does not contain grains (granules) in the cytoplasm; in vertebrates, these are lymphocytes and monocytes.

Agrocenosis- A biotic community of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms created for the production of agricultural products and regularly maintained by humans.

Adaptation- A complex of morphophysiological and behavioral characteristics of an individual, population or species, which ensures success in competition with other species, populations and individuals, and resistance to the effects of abiotic environmental factors.

Adynamia- Muscle weakness, impotence.

Azotobacteria- A group of aerobic bacteria capable of fixing nitrogen from the air and thereby enriching the soil with it.

Acclimatization- A set of measures to introduce a species into new habitats, carried out in order to enrich natural or artificial communities with organisms useful to humans.

Accommodation- Adaptation to something. 1) Accommodation of the eye - adaptation to viewing objects at different distances. 2) Physiological accommodation - adaptation of muscular and nervous tissue to the action of a slowly increasing stimulus.

Accumulation- Accumulation in organisms of chemicals found in the environment in lower concentrations.

Acromegaly- Excessive, disproportionate growth of the limbs and bones of the face due to dysfunction of the pituitary gland.

Alkalosis- Increased content of alkalis in the blood and other tissues of the body.

allele- Different forms of the same gene located in the same loci of homologous chromosomes.

allogenesis

Albinism- Congenital absence of pigmentation normal for this type of organisms.

Algology- The scientific branch of botany that studies algae.

Amensalism- Suppression of one organism by another without the opposite negative impact from the side of the suppressed.

Amitosis- Direct cell division.

Anabiosis- A temporary state of the body in which the vital processes are so slow that all visible manifestations of life are almost completely absent.

Anabolism- Plastic exchange.

Analyzing cross- Crossing the test organism with another, which is a recessive homozygous for this trait, which allows you to establish the genotype of the test.

Similar bodies- Organs that perform the same functions, but have a different structure and origin, the result convergence.

Anatomy- A group of scientific branches that study the shape and structure of individual organs, their systems and the whole organism as a whole.

Anaerobe An organism that can live in an oxygen-free environment.

Angiology- A branch of anatomy that studies the circulatory and lymphatic systems.

Anemia- A group of diseases characterized by a decrease in the number of red blood cells, the content of hemoglobin in them or the total mass of blood.

Aneuploidy- Non-multiple change in the number of chromosomes; an altered set of chromosomes in which one or more of the chromosomes regular set or missing, or represented by additional copies.

Antheridium- The male reproductive organ.

Antigen- A complex organic substance that, when it enters the body of animals and humans, can cause an immune response - the formation antibodies.

Anticodon- A section of the tRNA molecule, consisting of 3 nucleotides, specifically binding to the codon of the mRNA.

Antibody- Immunoglobulin of blood plasma of humans and warm-blooded animals, synthesized by cells of lymphoid tissue under the influence of various antigens.

Anthropogenesis- The process of human origin.

Anthropology- An intersectoral discipline that studies the origin and evolution of man as a special sociobiological species.

Apomixis- Formation of an embryo from an unfertilized female germ cell or from cells of a germ or embryo sac; asexual reproduction.

Arachnology- Branch of zoology that studies arachnids.

area- The area of ​​distribution of the species.

Arogenesis

Aromorphosis- Evolutionary direction, accompanied by the acquisition of major structural changes; complication of the organization, raising to more high level, morphophysiological progress.

Arrenotokia- Parthenogenetic birth of offspring consisting exclusively of males, for example, the development of drones from unfertilized eggs laid by the queen bee.

Archegonium- Female reproductive organ in mosses, ferns, horsetails, club mosses, some gymnosperms, algae and fungi, containing an egg.

Assimilation- One of the sides of metabolism, the consumption and transformation of substances entering the body or the deposition of reserves, due to which energy is accumulated.

astasia- Loss of the ability to stand, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.

Astrobiology- A branch of science dedicated to discovering and studying signs of life in the universe, in space and on planets.

Asphyxia- Cessation of breathing, suffocation, oxygen starvation. Occurs with a lack of aeration, including when plants get wet.

Atavism- The appearance in some individuals of this species of features that existed in distant ancestors, but then lost in the process of evolution.

Atony- Lifetime reduction in the size of organs and tissues, replacement of their functioning cells with connective tissue, fat, etc. Accompanied by a violation or even termination of their functions.

outbreeding- Crossing individuals of the same species that are not directly related leads to the phenomenon of heterosis.

Autosome- Any non-sex chromosome; Humans have 22 pairs of autosomes.

Acidosis- Accumulation in the blood and other tissues of the body of negatively charged ions (anions) of acids.

Aerobe An organism that can only live in an environment containing free molecular oxygen.

Aeroponics- Growing plants without soil in humid air by periodically spraying the roots with nutrient solutions. It is used in greenhouses, greenhouses, spaceships, etc.

Aerotaxis- The movement of unicellular and some multicellular lower organisms to a source of oxygen or, conversely, from it.

Aerotropism- Growth of stems or roots of plants in the direction from which oxygen-enriched air enters, for example, the growth of roots in mangroves towards the soil surface.

Bacteriology- Branch of microbiology that studies bacteria.

Bacteriocarrier

bacteriophage- A bacterial virus capable of infecting bacterial cell, multiply in it and cause its dissolution.

bacteriocide- An antibacterial substance (proteins) produced by bacteria of a certain type and suppressing the vital activity of other types of bacteria.

Baroreceptors- Sensitive nerve endings in the walls of blood vessels that perceive changes in blood pressure and reflexively regulate its level.

Bacillus Any bacterium shaped like a rod.

Bivalent- Two homologous chromosomes formed during the division of the cell nucleus.

Bilaterality- Bilateral symmetry in organisms.

biogeography- A scientific branch that studies the general geographical patterns of the organic world of the Earth: the distribution of vegetation and animal populations of various parts of the globe, their combinations, the floristic and faunal division of land and ocean, as well as the distribution of biocenoses and their constituent species of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms .

Biogeochemistry- Scientific discipline that investigates the role of living organisms in the destruction rocks and minerals, circulation, migration, distribution and concentration chemical elements in the biosphere.

Biogeocenosis- An evolutionarily formed, spatially limited, long-term self-sustaining homogeneous natural system in which living organisms and their abiotic environment are functionally interconnected, characterized by a relatively independent metabolism and a special type of use of the energy flow coming from the Sun.

Biology- A complex of knowledge about life and a set of scientific disciplines that study wildlife.

Biometrics- A set of techniques for planning and processing biological research data using mathematical statistics methods.

Biomechanics- A section of biophysics that studies the mechanical properties of living tissues, organs and the body as a whole, as well as the mechanical processes occurring in them.

Bionics- One of the areas of cybernetics that studies the structure and vital activity of organisms in order to use the identified patterns in solving engineering problems and building technical systems similar in characteristics to living organisms and their parts.

Biorhythm- Rhythmic-cyclic fluctuations in the intensity and nature of biological processes and phenomena, giving organisms the opportunity to adapt to environmental changes.

Biosphere- The shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms.

Biotechnology- A section of hunting science that explores ways to increase the biological productivity and economic productivity of hunting grounds.

Biotechnology- Borderline between biology and technology, a scientific discipline and a field of practice that studies the ways and methods of change human environment natural environment according to his needs.

Biophysics- A scientific discipline that studies the physical and physico-chemical processes in living organisms, as well as the physical structure of biological systems at all levels of their organization - from the molecular and subcellular to the cell, organ and organism as a whole.

Biochemistry- A scientific discipline that explores chemical composition living beings, chemical reactions in them and the regular order of these reactions, which ensures metabolism.

Biocenosis- An interconnected set of microorganisms, plants, fungi and animals that inhabit a more or less homogeneous area of ​​land or water.

Bifurcation- Dividing something into two branches.

Blastula- Single-layer embryo.

Botany- A complex of scientific disciplines that explore the plant kingdom.

Bryology- The scientific branch investigating mosses.

Vaccine- A preparation of living or dead microorganisms used for immunization of humans and animals for prophylactic or therapeutic purposes.

Virology- The scientific discipline that studies viruses.

Virus carrying- Stay and reproduction of pathogens of infectious or parasitic diseases in the body of humans and animals in the absence of signs of the disease.

Gamete- Sexual, or reproductive, cell with a haploid set of chromosomes.

Gametogenesis- The process of formation and development of germ cells - gametes.

gametophyte- Representative of the sexual generation or stage life cycle plants from spore to zygote.

Haploid- A cell or individual with a single set of unpaired chromosomes, resulting from reduction division.

gastrula- The phase of the embryonic development of multicellular animals, a two-layer embryo.

gastrulation- The process of gastrula formation.

heliobiology- A branch of biophysics that studies the influence of solar activity on terrestrial organisms and their communities.

hemizygote- A diploid organism that has only one allele of a given gene or one chromosome segment instead of the usual two. For organisms that have a heterogametic male sex (as in humans and all other mammals), almost all genes associated with the X chromosome are hemizygous, since males normally have only one X chromosome. The hemizygous state of alleles or chromosomes is used in genetic analysis to find the location of the genes responsible for any trait.

Hemolysis- Destruction of red blood cells with the release of hemoglobin into the environment.

Hemophilia- A hereditary disease characterized by increased bleeding, due to a lack of blood clotting factors.

Hemocyanin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of some invertebrates, which provides oxygen transport in their body, is a copper-containing protein that gives the blood a blue color.

Hemerythrin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of a number of invertebrates, it is an iron-containing protein that gives the blood a pink hue.

Genetics- A discipline that studies the mechanisms and patterns of heredity and variability of organisms, methods of managing these processes.

Genome- The set of genes contained in the haploid (single) set of chromosomes.

Genotype- The totality of all genes received from parents.

gene pool- The totality of genes of a group of individuals of a population, a group of populations or a species, within which they are characterized by a certain frequency of occurrence.

Geobotany- A scientific branch that studies plant communities, their composition, development, classification, dependence on the environment and the impact on it, features of the finocenotic environment.

Geotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of gravity.

Geotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs, caused by the unilateral action of the force of gravity.

Geophilia- The ability of the shoots or roots of some perennials to retract or grow into the soil to overwinter.

Hermaphroditism- The presence of male and female reproductive systems in one animal.

herpetology- A branch of zoology that studies amphibians and reptiles.

heterozygote- An individual that gives different types of gametes.

heterosis- "hybrid strength", acceleration of growth, increase in size, increase in viability and fertility of first-generation hybrids in comparison with parental forms of plants or animals.

heteroploidy- Repeated change in the number of chromosomes.

Gibberellin- A substance that stimulates plant growth.

Hybrid- An organism resulting from crossbreeding.

Gigantism- The phenomenon of abnormal growth of a person, animal, plant, exceeding the norm characteristic of the species.

Hygiene- A science that studies the impact on human health of living and working conditions and develops measures to prevent diseases.

hygrophiles- Terrestrial animals adapted to living in conditions of high humidity.

Hygrophytes- Terrestrial plants adapted to living in conditions of excessive moisture.

Hygrophobes- Terrestrial animals avoiding excessive moisture in specific habitats.

Hydrolysis- The third stage of energy metabolism, cellular respiration.

Hydroponics- Growing plants without soil on aqueous solutions of mineral substances.

hydrotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of humidity.

Hypertension- A disease caused by high blood pressure.

Hypodynamia- Lack of physical activity.

hypoxia- Reduced oxygen content in the tissues of the body, observed with a lack of oxygen in the air, some diseases and poisonings.

Hypotension- A disease caused by low blood pressure.

Histology- Section of morphology that studies the tissues of multicellular organisms.

glycolysis- Oxygen-free process of splitting carbohydrates.

Hollandic trait- A trait found only in males (XY).

Homozygote- An individual that produces one variety of gametes.

Homeyotherm- An animal with a constant body temperature, practically independent of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animal).

Homologous Organs- Organs that are similar in structure, origin, but perform different functions, the result divergences.

Hormone- A biologically active substance produced in the body by specialized cells or organs and has a targeted effect on the activity of other organs and tissues.

Granulocyte- A leukocyte containing grains (granules) in the cytoplasm protects the body from bacteria.

color blindness- Hereditary inability to distinguish between certain colors, usually red and green.

Degeneration

deletion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which there is a loss of a section of the chromosome in its middle part; a gene mutation that results in the loss of a portion of a DNA molecule.

Demecology- A branch of ecology that studies the relationship of populations with their environment.

Dendrology- Branch of botany that studies trees and shrubs.

Depression- Decrease in the number of individuals of a population, species or group of species caused by intrapopulation, biocenotic or abiotic causes associated with human activities; depressed, painful state of the individual; general decline in viability.

Defiance- Chromosomal mutation, which results in the loss of the end sections of chromosomes (lack).

Divergence- Divergence of signs.

Dihybrid cross- Crossing individuals for two pairs of traits.

Dissimilation

dominant trait- Predominant sign.

Donor- A person who donates blood for transfusion or organs for transplant.

Gene drift- Change in the genetic structure of the population as a result of any random causes; genetic-automatic process in a population.

Splitting up- The process of division of the zygote without the growth of blastomeres.

duplication- A chromosomal mutation in which a part of a chromosome is repeated.

Eugenics- The doctrine of hereditary human health and ways to preserve and improve it. The basic principles of the doctrine were formulated in 1869 by the English anthropologist and psychologist F. Galton. F. Galton proposed to study the factors that improve the hereditary qualities of future generations (genetic prerequisites for mental and physiological health, mental abilities, giftedness). But some ideas of eugenics have been perverted and used to justify racism, genocide; the presence of social inequality, mental and physiological inequality of people. V modern science problems of eugenics are considered within the framework of human genetics and ecology, especially the fight against hereditary diseases.

Reserve- A section of the territory or water area within which it is permanently or temporarily prohibited individual forms human economic activity to ensure the protection of certain types of living beings.

Reserve- A specially protected area, completely excluded from any economic activity in order to preserve intact natural complexes, protect living species and monitor natural processes.

Zygote- A fertilized egg.

Zoogeography- A scientific branch that studies the patterns of the geographical distribution of animals and their communities on the globe.

Zoology- A scientific discipline that studies the animal world.

Idioadaptation- The path of evolution without promotion general level organization, the emergence of adaptations to specific environmental conditions.

Insulation- A process that prevents interbreeding between individuals of different species and leads to divergence of traits within the same species.

Immunity- Immunity, body resistance to infectious agents and foreign substances. There are natural (innate) or artificial (acquired), active or passive immunity.

Imprinting- Strong and fast fixation in the animal's memory of signs of an object.

Inbreeding- Inbreeding.

Inversion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which there is a turn of its section by 180 °.

Insertion- A gene mutation, as a result of which a segment of the DNA molecule is inserted into the structure of the gene.

Interferon- A protective protein produced by mammalian and avian cells in response to virus infection.

Intoxication- Poisoning of the body.

Ichthyology- The branch of zoology that studies fish.

Carcinogen- A substance or physical agent capable of causing or contributing to the development of malignant neoplasms.

Karyotype- A diploid set of chromosomes in the somatic (non-sex) cells of an organism, a set of their characteristics typical for a species: a certain number, size, shape and structural features, constant for each species.

Carotenoids- Red, yellow and orange pigments found in plant and some animal tissues.

Catabolism- Energy metabolism, breakdown of substances, ATP synthesis.

Catagenesis- The path of evolution associated with the transition to a simpler environment and leading to a simplification of the structure and lifestyle, morphophysiological regression, the disappearance of active life organs.

lodging- Close cohabitation (coexistence) of organisms different types, in which one of the organisms benefits for itself (uses the organism as an "apartment"), without harming the other.

Kyphosis- Curvature of the spine, convexly turned back.

Clone- Genetically homogeneous offspring of one cell.

Commensalism- Permanent or temporary cohabitation of individuals of different species, in which one of the partners derives one-sided benefits from the other without causing harm to the owner.

complementarity- Spatial complementarity of molecules or their parts, leading to the formation of hydrogen bonds.

Convergence- Convergence of signs.

Competition- Rivalry, any antagonistic relationship determined by the desire to achieve a goal better and sooner than other members of the community.

consumer- Organism-consumer of ready-made organic substances.

Conjugation- Rapprochement of chromosomes during meiosis; the sexual process, which consists in the partial exchange of hereditary information, for example, in ciliates.

Copulation- The process of fusion of germ cells (gametes) into a zygote; connection of individuals of the opposite sex during sexual intercourse.

crossbreeding- Interbreeding of domestic animals.

Crossing over- Exchange of sections of homologous chromosomes.

xanthophylls- A group of yellow coloring pigments contained in the buds, leaves, flowers and fruits of higher plants, as well as in many algae and microorganisms; in animals - in the liver of mammals, chicken yolk.

xerophilus- An organism adapted to life in dry habitats, in conditions of moisture deficiency.

xerophyte- A plant of arid habitats, common in the steppes, semi-deserts, deserts.

Lability- Instability, variability, functional mobility; high adaptability or, conversely, the instability of the organism to environmental conditions.

Latent- Hidden, invisible.

Leucoplasts- Colorless plastids.

Lysis- Destruction of cells by their complete or partial dissolution both under normal conditions and when pathogens penetrate.

Lichenology- A branch of botany that studies lichens.

Locus The region of the chromosome in which the gene is located.

Lordosis- Curvature of the spine, convex forward.

macroevolution- Evolutionary transformations occurring at the supraspecific level and causing the formation of ever larger taxa (from genera to types and kingdoms of nature).

Mediator- A substance whose molecules are able to react with specific receptors of the cell membrane and change its permeability for certain ions, causing the occurrence of an action potential - an active electrical signal.

Mesoderm- Middle germ layer.

Metabolism- Metabolism and energy.

Metamorphosis- The process of transformation of a larva into an adult animal.

Mycology- A branch of science researching mushrooms.

Mycorrhiza- Mushroom root; symbiotic habitation of fungi on (or in) the roots of higher plants.

Microbiology- A biological discipline that studies microorganisms - their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, etc.

microevolution- Evolutionary transformations within a species at the population level, leading to speciation.

Mimicry- Imitation of non-poisonous, edible and unprotected species by poisonous and well-protected animals from attack by predators.

Modeling- A method of research and demonstration of various structures, physiological and other functions, evolutionary, ecological processes through their simplified imitation.

Modification- A non-hereditary change in the characteristics of an organism that occurs under the influence of environmental conditions.

Monitoring- Tracking of any objects or phenomena, including those of a biological nature; multi-purpose information system, the main tasks of which are observation, assessment and forecast of the state of the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic impact in order to warn about emerging critical situations that are harmful or dangerous to human health, the well-being of other living beings, their communities, natural and man-made objects, etc. d.

Monogamy- Monogamy, the mating of a male with one female for one or more seasons.

monohybrid cross- Crossing individuals for one pair of traits.

monospermia- Penetration into the egg of only one sperm (sperm).

Morganida- A unit of distance between two genes in the same linkage group, characterized by the frequency of crossing over in%.

morula - Early stage development of the embryo, which is a cluster a large number blastomere cells without a separate cavity; in most animals, the morula stage is followed by the blastula stage.

Morphology- A complex of scientific branches and their sections, investigating the form and structure of animals and plants.

Mutagenesis- The process of mutation.

Mutation- Spasmodic change in genes under the influence of physical, chemical and biological factors.

Mutualism- A form of symbiosis in which one partner cannot exist without the other.

Heredity- The property of organisms to repeat similar features and properties in a number of generations.

Freeloading- One of the forms of beneficial-neutral relationships between organisms, when one organism receives nutrients from another without harming it.

Neirula- The stage of development of the embryo of chordates, at which the neural tube plate (from the ectoderm) and axial organs are laid.

Neutralism- Lack of mutual influence of organisms.

Noosphere- Part of the biosphere, in which human activity is manifested, both positive and negative, the sphere of "mind".

Nucleoprotein- Complex of proteins with nucleic acids.

Obligate- Required.

Metabolism- Consistent consumption, transformation, use, accumulation and loss of substances and energy in living organisms in the process of life, allowing them to self-preserve, grow, develop and reproduce themselves in the environment, as well as adapt to it.

Ovulation- The release of eggs from the ovary into the body cavity.

Ontogenesis- Individual development of the organism.

Fertilization- Fusion of sex cells.

Organogenesis- The process of formation and development of organs during ontogenesis.

Ornithology- The branch of zoology that studies birds.

Paleontology- A scientific discipline that studies fossil organisms, the conditions of their life and burial.

natural monument- A single rare or remarkable object, living or inanimate nature, according to scientific, cultural-educational and historical-memorial value deserving protection.

Parallelism- Independent acquisition by organisms in the course of evolution of similar structural features based on features (genome) inherited from common ancestors.

Parthenogenesis- The development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg, virgin reproduction.

Pedosphere- The shell of the Earth formed by the soil cover.

pinocytosis- Absorption of substances in dissolved form.

Pleiotropy- Dependence of several traits on one gene.

Poikilotherm- An organism that is not able to maintain the internal temperature of the body, and therefore changes it depending on the temperature of the environment, for example, fish, amphibians.

Polygamy- Polygamy; mating of a male during the breeding season with many females.

Polymerism- Dependence of the development of the same trait or property of an organism on several independent genes.

Polyploidy- Multiple increase in the number of chromosomes.

Breed- A set of domestic animals of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and exterior.

Protistology- A section of biology that studies protozoa.

Processing- Chemical modification of substances (fermins and hormones) that are synthesized in the EPS channels in an inactive form.

Radiobiology- A section of biology that studies the effects of all types of radiation on organisms and ways to protect them from radiation.

Regeneration- Recovery by the body of lost or damaged organs and tissues, as well as the restoration of the whole organism from its parts.

decomposer- An organism that converts organic substances into inorganic in the course of its life.

Rheotaxis- The movement of some lower plants, protozoa and individual cells towards the flow of fluid or the location of the body parallel to it.

Rheotropism- The property of the roots of multicellular plants, when they grow in a stream of water, to bend in the direction of this current or towards it.

Retrovirus- A virus whose genetic material is RNA. When a retrovirus enters a host cell, the process of reverse transcription occurs. As a result of this process, DNA is synthesized based on viral RNA, which is then integrated into the host's DNA.

Reflex- The response of the body to external irritation through the nervous system.

Receptor- A sensitive nerve cell that perceives external stimuli.

Recipient- An organism that receives a blood transfusion or an organ transplant.

Rudiments- Underdeveloped organs, tissues and features that the evolutionary ancestors of the species had in a developed form, but lost their meaning in the process phylogenesis.

Selection- Breeding of new and improvement of existing varieties of plants, animal breeds, strains of microorganisms through artificial mutagenesis and selection, hybridization, genetic and cell engineering.

Symbiosis- The type of relationship between organisms of different systematic groups: coexistence, mutually beneficial, often obligatory, cohabitation of individuals of two or more species.

Synapse- The place where nerve cells meet each other.

synecology- A branch of ecology that studies biological communities and their relationship with the environment.

Systematics- A branch of biology dedicated to the description, designation and classification into groups of all existing and extinct organisms, the establishment of family ties between individual species and groups of species.

Scoliosis- Bends of the spine to the right or left.

Variety- A set of cultivated plants of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and structural features.

spermatogenesis- The formation of male sex cells.

Splicing- i-RNA editing process, in which some marked sections of i-RNA are cut out, and the rest are read into one strand; occurs in the nucleolus during transcription.

Succulent- A plant with succulent fleshy leaves or stems, easily tolerates high temperatures but cannot withstand dehydration.

succession- Consistent change of biocenoses (ecosystems), expressed in changes in the species composition and structure of the community.

Serum- The liquid part of the blood without formed elements and fibrin, formed in the process of their separation during blood coagulation outside the body.

Taxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of a unilaterally acting stimulus.

Teratogen- biological impact, chemical substances and physical factors that cause the development of deformities in organisms in the process of ontogenesis.

thermoregulation- A set of physiological and biochemical processes that ensure the constancy of body temperature in warm-blooded animals and humans.

Thermotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of temperature.

Thermotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of heat.

Textile- A set of cells and intercellular substance that performs a certain role in the body.

Tolerance- The ability of organisms to endure deviations of environmental factors from optimal ones.

Transcription- Biosynthesis of i-RNA on the DNA matrix, is carried out in the cell nucleus.

Translocation- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which there is an exchange of sections of non-homologous chromosomes or a transfer of a section of a chromosome to the other end of the same chromosome.

Broadcast- Synthesis of the polypeptide chain of the protein is carried out in the cytoplasm on ribosomes.

transpiration- Evaporation of water by the plant.

tropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of some stimulus.

Turgor- Elasticity plant cells, tissues and organs due to the pressure of the contents of the cells on their elastic walls.

Phagocyte- A cell of multicellular animals (human), capable of capturing and digesting foreign bodies, in particular microbes.

Phagocytosis- Active capture and absorption of living cells and non-living particles by unicellular organisms or special cells of multicellular organisms - phagocytes. The phenomenon was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov.

Phenology- The totality of knowledge about seasonal natural phenomena, the timing of their onset and the reasons that determine these timings.

Phenotype- The totality of all internal and external features and properties of an individual.

Enzyme- A biological catalyst, by chemical nature - a protein that is necessarily present in all cells of a living organism.

Physiology- A biological discipline that studies the functions of a living organism, the processes occurring in it, metabolism, adaptation to the environment, etc.

Phylogenesis - Historical development kind.

photoperiodism- The reactions of organisms to the change of day and night, manifested in fluctuations in the intensity of physiological processes.

Phototaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of light.

Phototropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of light.

Chemosynthesis- The process of formation by certain microorganisms of organic substances from inorganic ones due to the energy of chemical bonds.

Chemotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of chemicals.

Predation- Feeding animals that were alive up to the moment of their transformation into a food object (with their capture and killing).

chromatid- One of two nucleoprotein filaments formed when chromosomes are duplicated during cell division.

Chromatin- Nucleoprotein, which forms the basis of the chromosome.

Cellulose- A carbohydrate from the group of polysaccharides, consisting of residues of glucose molecules.

Centromere The part of a chromosome that holds two of its strands (chromatids) together.

Cyst- The form of existence of unicellular and some multicellular organisms, temporarily covered with a dense shell, which allows these organisms to survive adverse environmental conditions.

Cytology- The science of the cell.

schizogony- Asexual reproduction by dividing the body into a large number of daughter individuals; characteristic of spores.

Strain- A pure single-species culture of microorganisms isolated from a specific source and possessing specific physiological and biochemical characteristics.

Exocytosis- The release of substances from the cell by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of bubbles surrounded by the membrane.

Ecology- A field of knowledge that studies the relationship of organisms and their communities with environment.

ectoderm- Outer germ layer.

Embryology- A scientific discipline that studies the embryonic development of an organism.

Endocytosis- Absorption of substances by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of bubbles surrounded by the membrane.

Endoderm- Inner germ layer.

Ethology- The science of animal behavior in natural conditions.

From the first days of life, a person is inextricably linked with biology. Acquaintance with this science begins with a school desk, but we have to deal with biological processes or phenomena every day. Further in the article we will consider what biology is. The definition of this term will help to better understand what is included in the range of interests of this science.

What does biology study

The first thing that is considered in the study of any science is a theoretical explanation of its meaning. So, there are several formulated definitions of what biology is. We will look at a few of them. For instance:

• Biology is the science of all living organisms that live on Earth, their interaction with each other and with the environment. Such an explanation is most common in educational school literature.
• Biology is a complex of teachings that deals with the consideration and knowledge of living objects of nature. Man, animals, plants, microorganisms - all these are representatives of living organisms.
• And the shortest definition sounds like this: biology is the science of life.

The origin of the term has ancient Greek roots. If translated literally, then we will have another definition of what biology is. The word consists of two parts: "bio" - "life", and "logos" - "teaching". That is, everything that in one way or another is related to life falls within the scope of the study of biology.

Subsections of biology

The definition of biology will become more complete when listing the sections included in this science:

1. Zoology. She is engaged in the study of the animal world, classification of animals, their internal and external morphology, vital activity, relationship with the world, influence on human life. In addition, zoology considers rare as well as extinct species of animals.
2. Botany. This is the branch of biology related to the plant world. She is engaged in the study of plant species, their structure and physiological processes. In addition to the main issues related to plant morphology, this category of biology studies the use of plants in industry, human life.
3. Anatomy considers the internal and external structure of the human and animal body, organ systems, the interaction of systems.

Each biological section has a number of its own subcategories, each of which deals with the study of narrower topics of the section. In this case, there will be several definitions of biology.

What does biology study

Since the definitions of biology say that this is the science of the living, therefore, the objects of its study are living organisms. These include:

• Human;
• plants;
• animals;
• microorganisms.

Biology deals with the study of more precise structures of the body. These include:

1. Cellular, molecular - this is a consideration of organisms at the level of cells and smaller components.
2. Tissue - a complex of cells of one direction develops into tissue structures.
3. Organ - cells and tissues that perform one function form organs.
4. Organismic - a system of cells, tissues and organs and their interaction with each other, forms a full-fledged living organism.
5. Population - the structure is aimed at studying the life of individuals of one species in a single territory, as well as their interaction within the system and with other species.
6. Biospheric.

Biology is closely related to medicine, so its teachings are also medical topics. The study of microorganisms, as well as the molecular structures of living substances, contributes to the production of new medications to combat various diseases.

What sciences does biology intersect with?

Biology is a science that has close interaction with various sciences of other areas. These include:

1. Chemistry. Biology and chemistry are closely intertwined and are inextricably linked with each other. Indeed, various biochemical processes continuously occur in biological objects. A simple example is the respiration of organisms, plant photosynthesis, metabolism.
2. Physics. Even in biology there is a subsection called biophysics, which studies the physical processes associated with the vital activity of organisms.

As you can see, biology is a multifaceted science. The definition of what biology is can be rephrased in different ways, but the meaning remains the same - this is the doctrine of living organisms.

The lungs are the organs that provide breathing to a person. These paired organs are located in the chest cavity, adjacent to the left and right to the heart. The lungs have the shape of semi-cones, the base adjacent to the diaphragm, the apex protruding 2-3 cm above the clavicle. The right lung has three lobes, the left one has two. The skeleton of the lungs consists of tree-branching bronchi. Each lung is covered on the outside by a serous membrane - the pulmonary pleura. The lungs lie in a pleural sac formed by the pulmonary pleura (visceral) and the parietal pleura (parietal) lining the chest cavity from the inside. Each pleura contains glandular cells on the outside that produce fluid into the cavity between the pleura (the pleural cavity). On the inner (cardiac) surface of each lung there is a recess - the gates of the lungs. The pulmonary artery and bronchi enter the gates of the lungs, and two pulmonary veins exit. The pulmonary arteries branch parallel to the bronchi.

The lung tissue consists of pyramidal lobules, the base facing the surface. A bronchus enters the top of each lobule, successively dividing to form terminal bronchioles (18-20). Each bronchiole ends with an acinus - a structural and functional element of the lungs. The acini are composed of alveolar bronchioles, which are divided into alveolar ducts. Each alveolar passage ends with two alveolar sacs.

Alveoli are hemispherical protrusions consisting of connective tissue fibers. They are lined with a layer of epithelial cells and richly entwined with blood capillaries. It is in the alveoli that the main function of the lungs is carried out - the processes of gas exchange between atmospheric air and blood. At the same time, as a result of diffusion, oxygen and carbon dioxide, overcoming the diffusion barrier (alveolar epithelium, basement membrane, blood capillary wall), penetrate from the erythrocyte to the alveolus and vice versa.

Lung functions

The most important function of the lungs is gas exchange - the supply of hemoglobin with oxygen, the removal of carbon dioxide. The intake of oxygen-enriched air and the removal of carbon dioxide-saturated air is carried out due to the active movements of the chest and diaphragm, as well as the contractility of the lungs themselves. But there are other functions of the lungs. Lungs take Active participation in maintaining the required concentration of ions in the body (acid-base balance), they are able to remove many substances (aromatic substances, esters, and others). Also lungs regulate water balance body: through the lungs evaporates about 0.5 liters of water per day. At extreme situations(for example, hyperthermia), this indicator can reach up to 10 liters per day.

Ventilation of the lungs is carried out due to the pressure difference. When you inhale, pulmonary pressure is much lower than atmospheric pressure, so that air enters the lungs. On exhalation, the pressure in the lungs is higher than atmospheric pressure.

There are two types of breathing: costal (thoracic) and diaphragmatic (abdominal).

• Rib breathing

At the points of attachment of the ribs to the spinal column, there are pairs of muscles that are attached at one end to the vertebra, and at the other to the rib. There are external and internal intercostal muscles. The external intercostal muscles provide the process of inhalation. Exhalation is normally passive, and in case of pathology, the internal intercostal muscles help the act of exhalation.

• Diaphragmatic breathing

Diaphragmatic breathing is carried out with the participation of the diaphragm. In a relaxed state, the diaphragm has the shape of a dome. With the contraction of its muscles, the dome flattens, the volume of the chest cavity increases, the pressure in the lungs decreases compared to atmospheric pressure, and inhalation is carried out. When the diaphragmatic muscles relax as a result of the pressure difference, the diaphragm returns to its original position.

Regulation of the breathing process

Breathing is controlled by the inspiratory and expiratory centers. The respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata. Receptors that regulate respiration are located in the walls of blood vessels (chemoreceptors that are sensitive to the concentration of carbon dioxide and oxygen) and on the walls of the bronchi (receptors that are sensitive to changes in pressure in the bronchi - baroreceptors). There are also receptive fields in the carotid sinus (where the internal and external carotid arteries diverge).

Lungs of a smoker

During smoking, the lungs are subjected to a severe blow. Tobacco smoke that enters the lungs of a smoker contains tobacco tar (tar), hydrogen cyanide, and nicotine. All these substances settle in the lung tissue, as a result, the epithelium of the lungs begins to simply die. The lungs of a smoker are a dirty gray or even just a black mass of dying cells. Naturally, the functionality of such lungs is significantly reduced. In the lungs of a smoking person, ciliary dyskinesia develops, spasm of the bronchi occurs, as a result of which bronchial secretion accumulates, develops chronic inflammation lungs, bronchiectasis is formed. All this leads to the development of COPD - chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Pneumonia

One of the most common severe lung diseases is pneumonia - pneumonia. The term "pneumonia" includes a group of diseases with different etiology, pathogenesis, clinic. Classical bacterial pneumonia is characterized by hyperthermia, cough with purulent sputum, in some cases (with involvement of the visceral pleura) - pleural pain. With the development of pneumonia, the lumen of the alveoli expands, the accumulation of exudative fluid in them, the penetration of erythrocytes into them, the filling of the alveoli with fibrin, leukocytes. For the diagnosis of bacterial pneumonia, X-ray methods, microbiological examination of sputum, laboratory tests, and the study of blood gases are used. The basis of treatment is antibiotic therapy.