[ Preliminary note.

In Russian, we are used to always putting a comma before the word "which". And in English, it is mostly not put. It all depends on materiality information coming after the word "which": can or can't it be thrown away without losing the meaning of the sentence?

In a sentence " The house that Jack built is large - House, that Jack built, big"subjunctive" that Jack built"it is impossible to throw it away, since the "Big House" will remain - that is, there has been a loss of essential information. One can even say that there has been a loss of part of the" wordy "subject The house that Jack built. In such sentences, there is no comma before "which" in English.

And here in the sentence My father who is 78, swims every day - My father, who is 78 years old swims every day" subordinate clause " who is 78 years old" can be thrown out: it will turn out "My father swims every day" - that is, the meaning has been preserved, we have only deleted the insignificant "remark in brackets." The British and Americans distinguish such subordinate clauses with commas.

In order to grammatically scientificize what was said, in English grammar there are two types Relative Clauses () - Restrictive and Nonrestrictive. There is no such thing in Russian.

Restrictive clause- definitive individualizing subordinate clause, it defines, conveys individual sign of a person or object (persons or objects), that is, a sign attributed only to a given person or object and distinguishing it from all other persons or objects of the same class.

Example: The house that Jack built is large.

nonrestrictive clause- definitive descriptive subordinate clause, used to communicate about persons or objects additional information(and does not tell us which person or thing it is). Thus, descriptive attributive clauses do not carry significant information and can be thrown out of the sentence without prejudice to the meaning.

Example: My father who is 78 swims every day.

If all this terminology seems tedious to you, remember a simple rule of punctuation: "before the word that a comma is never put" and consider that you have mastered the article by 60%. ]

The most common relative pronouns in English are who/whom, whoever/whomever, whose, that and which. (Note that in some situations what, when, where can also act as relative pronouns.)

In complex sentences, relative pronouns begin relative clauses, which individualize or explain a single word, expression or idea of ​​the main sentence. The explained word (expression) is called antecedent(= preceding). In the following examples that and whom explain subject main sentence:

The house that Jack built is large.
House, which the built by Jack, the big one.

The professor, whom I respect, recently received tenure.
Professor, whom I respect, I recently received a permanent position (at the department).

Which relative pronoun to use depends on the type of the attributive clause. In general, there are two types of attributive clauses: individualizing (restrictive (defining) clause- restrictive, it narrows the definition of the word being explained) and descriptive (non-restrictive (non-defining) clause- non-restrictive, does not narrow the definition). In both of these types, the relative pronoun can appear as a subject, object, or possessive pronoun ("whose").

Relative pronouns in individualizing definitive clauses (Relative Pronouns in Restrictive Relative Clauses)

Relative pronouns standing at the beginning of individualizing attributive clauses, not separated by a comma. Individualizing clauses (restrictive relative clauses, otherwise known as " defining a word" - defining relative clauses) add essential information about the word being defined. Without this information, it is impossible to correctly understand the meaning of the sentence - therefore, such subordinate clauses cannot be thrown out of a complex sentence without losing its meaning.

The table below shows which relative pronouns should be used in individualizing in attributive clauses after different antecedents (= the words they explain):

Examples

The relative pronoun is the subject in the individualizing clause(so no commas are separated!) ( Relative pronouns used as a subject of a restrictive relative clause):

This is the house that had a great Christmas decoration.
Here is the house which the colorfully dressed up for Christmas.

It took me a while to get used to people who eat popcorn during the movie.
It took me a while to get used to people which eat popcorn during screenings at the cinema.

A relative pronoun is an object in an individualizing clause (Relative pronouns used as an object in a restrictive relative clause):

1) As can be seen from the table, if we are talking about a person or an object, the relative pronoun acting as an object can be omitted(marked *). But in the unspoken (official) language, it is not omitted. When a relative pronoun is used with a preposition, instead of that use which, for example, "in which", "for which", "about which", "through which" and so on (see the last example).

Formal English: This is the man to whom I wanted to speak and whose name I had forgotten.
Official language: This is the man which I wanted to talk and whose name I forgot.
Informal English: This is the man I wanted to speak to and whose name I "d forgotten.
Colloquial: This is the person I wanted to talk to and whose name I forgot.

Formal English: The library did not have the book that I wanted.
Official language: The library didn't have the book I needed.
Informal English: The library didn't have the book I wanted.
Colloquial: The library didn't have the book I needed.

Formal English: This is the house where/in which I lived when I first came to the United States.
Official language: Here is the house where/in which I lived when I first came to the USA.
Informal English: This is the house I lived in when I first came to the United States.
Colloquial: I lived in this house when I just came to the USA.

2) In American English (American English) the word whom (whom) rarely used. "Whom" sounds more formal than "who" and is very often omitted altogether:

Grammatically Correct: The woman to whom you have just spoken is my teacher.
Grammatically correct: Female, with which you just said - my teacher

Conversational Use: The woman you have just spoken to is my teacher.
OR OR
The woman who you have just spoken to is my teacher.
Colloquial: The woman you just spoke to is my teacher.

However, "whom" cannot be omitted if it is preceded by a preposition, since the relative pronoun "whom" explains exactly this preposition (it is an addition to it in the sentence):

The visitor for whom you were waiting has arrived.
Visitor, whom you expected arrived.

Relative pronouns for the possessive case in an individualizing clause (Relative pronouns used as a possessive in a restrictive relative clause):

Whose- the only relative possessive pronoun (possessive relative pronoun) in English. It can refer to both people and things:

The family whose house burnt in the fire was immediately given a complimentary suite in a hotel.
family, whose the house burned down, they immediately provided (for living) a hotel room.

The book whose author won a Pulitzer has become a bestseller.
Book, author which (= whose author) won a Pulitzer Prize and became a bestseller.

Relative Pronouns in Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses

Despite the similarity with individualizing clauses, descriptive subordinate clauses (in most cases) separated by a comma from the main offer. As an indicator of the descriptive nature of the subordinate clause, it is preferable to use the pronoun which (which). Descriptive clauses (non-restrictive relative clauses, also known as non-defining relative clauses- not carrying the functions of individualization, concretization of meaning) give only additional, insignificant information about the word being defined from the main sentence. This information is not necessary for a correct understanding of the meaning of the whole sentence and therefore can be omitted from it without compromising the meaning.

Examples

Relative pronouns as subject in a descriptive clause (Relative pronouns used as a subject of a non-restrictive relative clause):

science fair, which lasted all day, ended with an awards ceremony.
Fair of scientific projects of students, which lasted all day, ended with the awards ceremony.

The movie turned out to be a blockbuster hit, which came as a surprise to critics.
This movie turned out to be a blockbuster (bestseller), what came as a surprise to critics.

Relative pronouns as an object in a descriptive subordinate clause (Relative pronouns used as an object in a non-restrictive relative clause):

the sculpture, which he admired, was moved into the basement of the museum to make room for a new exhibit.
sculpture, which he loved very much, was moved to the basement of the museum to make room for a new exhibit.

The theatre, in which the play debuted, housed 300 people.
The theater in which this play was first staged can accommodate 300 spectators.

When to use the relative pronoun "that", and when to use "who" and "which" ("That" vs. "Who" and "Which")

Relative pronoun that can be used only in individualizing adjunct sentences. In colloquial English, when it comes to people, it can be replaced by who, and if about things - then on which. Though that often used in spoken language, in the official written language they still look more familiar who and which.

Conversational, Informal: William Kellogg was the man that
Colloquial: lived at the end of the 19th century and had very strange ideas about raising children.
Written, Formal: William Kellogg was the man who lived in the late 19th century and had some weird ideas about raising children.
William Kellogg is the man who (who) lived in the late 19th century and had very strange ideas about raising children.

Conversational, Informal: The café that sells the best coffee in town has recently been closed.
Colloquial: Cafe, in which
Written, Formal: the café, which sells the best coffee in town, has recently been closed.
Written, official language: Cafe, in which sold the best coffee in town, recently closed.

Some Special Uses of Relative Pronouns in Restrictive Clauses

that / who

In spoken language in relation to people can be used as that, and who. "That" can be used to refer to the characteristics or abilities of an individual or group of people:

He is the kind of person that/who will never let you down.
He's the kind of person who (who) will never let you down.

I am looking for someone that/who could give me a ride to Chicago.
I'm looking for a person who (who) could take me to Chicago.

However, in the official language, in relation to a specific person, it is preferable to use who:

The old lady who lives next door is a teacher.
old lady, which lives nearby, is a teacher.

The girl who wore a red dress attracted everybody "s attention at the party.
Young woman, on which was a red dress, attracted everyone's attention at the party.

that / which

In some cases that fit more than which:

1) After the pronouns "all", "any(thing)", "every(thing)", "few", "little", "many", "much", "no(thing)", "none", " some(thing)":

The police usually ask for every detail that helps identify the missing person.
The police usually ask about each detail, which can help find a missing person.

Dessert is all that he wants.
She doesn't want to eat anything but sweet (dessert).

2) After a noun preceded by a superlative adjective:

This is the best resource that I have ever read!
This is the best resource which the I had to read!

14.4. B. Definitive clauses

Relative Clauses perform the function of an adjective in a sentence, that is, they are definitions in a sentence.

Such subordinate clauses are connected to the main clause with the help of pronouns. who(m), whose, what, which, that and adverbs where, when and why.

1. Such offers may be restrictive or non-restrictive.

Restrictive a subordinate clause cannot be removed without clearly violating the meaning of the sentence:

This is the boy who broke the window here is the boy who broke the window.
This is the window that he broke this is the window he broke.

non-restrictive the subordinate clause gives additional information and, if it is removed, the sentence will remain meaningful (such sentences are separated by commas):

this boy, who lives in the next street, broke a window in the school yesterday this boy, who lives on the next street, broke a window at school yesterday.
this window, which was broken by a boy yesterday, will have to be repaired, this window that some boy broke yesterday.

● The attributive clause always comes after the word it defines and usually immediately after it.

I put the books in the cupboard which you bought yesterday

In some cases, when the meaning is obvious, this rule may be violated:

George was the only boy at school that I really liked

2. A definitive relative clause can define an animate or inanimate noun:

The boy whose work I showed you is the cleverest boy in the school
The house whose windows are broken is unoccupied

3. The relative pronoun that connects the main and the subordinate clause can be in the subordinate clause:

a) subject :
That is the man. He hit me. This is that person. He hit me.
That is the man who hit me. This is the man who hit me.

b) addition :
That is the man, I saw him I saw him.
That is the man whom I saw. This is the man I saw.

c) indirect object with preposition :
That is the man. I spoke to him. This is that person. I spoke to him.
That is the man to whom I spoke. This is the person I spoke to.

d) definition :
That is the man. His car crashed. This is that person. His car crashed.
That is the man whose car crashed. This is the man whose car was wrecked.

Thus, the following table can be created

A1. Restrictive relative clause, an animate noun is defined :

a)
There is the driver who
There is the driver that overtook us five minutes ago.

b)
Where is the man whom I saw this morning?
Where is the man who I saw this morning?
Where is the man that I saw this morning?
Where is the man I saw this morning?

c)
Is that the man to whom did you hand your application form?
Is that the man whom you gave your tickets to?
Is that the man who you gave your tickets to?
Is that the man that you gave your tickets to?
Is that the man you gave your tickets to?

d)
That is the boy whose father is an astronaut.

A2. Restrictive relative clause, defines an inanimate noun .

a)
There is the car which overtook us five minutes ago.
There is the car that overtook us five minutes ago.

b)
Where is the book which I bought this morning?
Where is the book that I bought this morning?
Where is the book I bought this morning?

c)
Is that the address to which did you send the telegram?
Is that the address which you sent the telegram to?
Is that the address that you sent the telegram to?
Is that the address you sent the telegram to?

d)
He mentioned a book whose title I can't remember now.
He mentioned a book the title of which I can't remember now.

B1. Non-restrictive relative clause, an animate noun is defined .

a)
driver, who was very young, had only just got his license.

b)
driver, who(m) I had never seen before, insisted that he knew me.

c)
sergeant brown, to whom I showed my license, was very polite.
sergeant brown, who(m) I showed my license to, was very polite.

d)
The injured pedestrian, whose leg had been broken, was carried away on a stretcher.

B2. Non-restrictive relative clause, defines an inanimate noun .

a)
They soon repaired the car, which had not been badly damaged.

b)
front bumper, which the other car had twisted a little, was soon put straight.

c)
martin's garage, to which the car had been taken, was not far away.
martin's garage, which the car had been taken to was not far away.

d)
this book, whose author is a woman of eighty, is very amusing.
this book, of which the author is a woman of eighty, is very amusing.
This book, the author of which is a woman of eighty, is very amusing.

● Whom is used, as a rule, in a literary style. In colloquial speech, they usually say who. Whom must be used after prepositions, but such turns are also not used in colloquial speech.
However, in expressions such as Who beat whom" you must use whom to avoid repetition.

In colloquial style, as a rule, constructions are used in which the preposition is at the end of the sentence:

This is the book about which I was telling you (literary).
This is the book I was telling you about.
This is the book I was talking about.

These photographs at which you "ve been looking were taken by my sister (literally).
These photographs you"ve been looking at were taken by my sister.
These pictures you are looking at were taken by my sister.

Is this the pan in which you make omelets? (literally).
Is this the pan you make your omelets in.
Do you fry eggs in this pan?

● That, but not which used

1. If the subordinate clause defines an indefinite pronoun:

All what remains can be divided between you
Everything(that) you see here can be divided between you

2. If the subordinate clause specifies an adjective in the superlative degree or words such as first, last and next:

Which was the fastest steamship that crossed the Atlantic? What is the fastest ship to cross the Atlantic?
Which was the first steamship that crossed the Atlantic? Which ship was the first to cross the Atlantic?

● In literary language used with a preposition of:

I can lend you several books. Five of them are very good. I can lend you some books. Five of them are very good.

I can lend you several books, five of which are very good.
I can lend you several books, of which five are very good.
I can lend you some books, five of which are very good.

I can lend you two books. I can recommend both of them I can recommend two of them.

I can lend you two, both of which I can recommend.
I can lend you two books of which I can recommend both.
I can lend you two books, both of which I can recommend.

● The pronoun can be omitted after there is/there are:

There "s somebody at the door (who) wants to see you
There was a man (who) called to see you this morning

Definitive clauses can also denote place, time and mode of action . In this case, the adverbs where, when and why are often used:

When clarifying, pronouns can be used that and which:

I shall never forget the day that) George first came I will never forget the day George first came here.

Definitive clauses in English (Relative clauses)

What is it and how to use it?

Relative clause - or in Russian a definitive clause - is part of a complex sentence that depends on the main one. It usually combines two small sentences into one or just adds new interesting information to make it clearer for you, let's see an example.

I have a mother who works as a doctor. - I have a mother who works as a doctor.

I missed the bus that was going to take me to church. - I missed the bus that was supposed to take me to church.

Defining relative clauses

Defining relative clauses provide important information about

Compare:

1. My sister, who lives in London, is coming to Paris.

2. My sister who lives in London is coming to Paris.

In the first sentence, the subordinate clausewho lives in Londonis a non-defining relative clause. This relative clause gives additional information: I have only one sister and she lives in London. If you omit the information about where my sister lives, it will still be clear what we want to say.

The second sentence is a defining relative clause: I have several sisters, and at the moment I'm talking about a sister who lives in London.

In defining relative clauses, we can omit the linking word

I "ve eaten the pasta (which) I made yesterday.

Restrictive subordinate clauses are not separated by commas when writing.

Non-defining relative clauses (Distributive clauses)

Non-defining relative give additional information about the subject. The subordinate clause in this case is separated from both sides by commas.

That project, which I started years ago, still isn't finished.

Exercises.

1 .

1. That is the shop ____ was awarded as the best shop in the city. 2. The girl ____ brother go with me to the gym is a good singer. 3. The man ____ broke into our house was caught in two days. 4. She visits her grandmother ____ lives in countryside every summer. 5. She was wearing a dress ___ looked like princess’. 6. The bookshelf ____ we bought last week has broken down. 7. The man ___ was sitting on the bench turned around and saw his granddaughter. 8. A woman ____ son was crying paid no attention to him. 9. The woman ____ car had broken down on her way home spend 3 hours waiting for help. 10. My best friend ____ I have known for years will never let me down. 11. He didn't follow the instructions ____ he was given, so he failed to pass the test. 12. The girl ___ lived next door was very shy and couldn't say a word to protect herself at school. 13. I need to buy a laptop ____ can work up to 5 hours without a charger. 14. My father ___ is a doctor has no idea how to repair a car. 15. The photo ____ is placed on the mantel was taken at the picnic two years ago.

2. Put the right relative pronounwho, which, that, when, why, whereorwhose.

His sister, … name is Lara, works at the library.

Her last film, … I couldn't understand at all, was a great success.

Give him something … will take away the pain.

I work in the town … my son lives.

We'll show you the poem … changed my life.

Doctors, … claim money, are shameless.

Is there a shop near here … sells milk?

That's the main reason … I came to you.

I'll never forget my childhood … I was so happy.

People … live in flats shouldn't have animals.

The car … he bought last month is fantastic.

This is the most beautiful waterfall … we have ever seen!

3. Connect the sentences using subordinate clauses.

For example: My dad works in a factory. It makes parts for computers. (My father works in a factory. It makes parts for computers.) - The factory ... makes parts for computers. – The factory where my dad works makes parts for computers. (The factory my father works at makes computer parts.)

There is a bakery near my house. It sells wonderful pies. – The bakery … sells wonderful pies.

They lived in a cottage. It was struck by lightning. – The cottage … was struck by lightning.

Jane made a seafood salad. Nobody likes it. - Nobody likes the salad ... .

Jack is an architect. He designed the Opera House. – Jack is the architect … .

The woman didn't apologize. Her cat bit me. – The woman… didn’t apologize.

Madonna is a famous American singer. Her parents were born in Italy. – Madonna … is a famous American singer.

The apartment is the biggest in the house. The lawyer lives there. – The apartment … is the biggest in the house.

We play tennis in a sports centre. It is very expensive. – The sports centre… is very expensive.

Answers

1. which 2. whose 3. who 4. who 5. that 6. that 7. who 8. whose 9. whose 10. whom 11. that 12. who 13. that 14. who 15. that

whose (His sister, whose name is Lara, works in the library.)

which/that (Her latest film, which I didn't understand at all, was a big success.)

that (Give me something to relieve the pain.)

where (I work in the city where my son lives.)

which/that (We will show you the poem that changed my life.)

who (Doctors demanding money are shameless.)

that/which (Is there a milk shop nearby?)

why (This is the main reason why I came to you.)

when (I will never forget my childhood when I was so happy.)

who (People living in apartments must not have pets.)

which/that (The car he bought last month is fantastic.)

that (This is the most beautiful waterfall we have ever seen!)

The bakery which is near my house sells wonderful pies. (The bakery near my house sells lovely pies.)

The cottage where they lived was struck by lightning. (The cottage they lived in was struck by lightning.)

Nobody likes the salad which Jane made. (No one likes the salad Jane made.)

Jack is the architect who designed the Opera House. (Jack is the architect who designed the Opera House.)

The woman whose cat bit me didn't apologize. (The woman whose cat bit me didn't apologize.)

Madonna, whose parents were born in Italy, is a famous American singer. (Madonna, whose parents were born in Italy, is a famous American singer.)

The apartment where the lawyer lives is the biggest in the house. (The lawyer's apartment is the largest in the house.)

The sports center where we play tennis is very expensive. (The sports center where we play tennis is very expensive.)

Answers:

neither (We asked both of them, but neither of them knows his address.)

either (He lived in Milan and Madrid, but he didn't like either city.)

either – or (She is very slim. I think she is either an athlete or a model.)

either - or (Anna never works all day. She works either in the morning or in the afternoon.)

either (He has 2 cars, but I don't like any of them.)

both (She couldn't make her choice, she liked both of them.)

either (You can go to Oxford either by bus or by train.)

Either (Will you fish or chicken? - It doesn't matter. Either this or that will do.)

(Would you like apple or orange juice? - Neither, thanks. I don't like juice.)

(Will you have a salad or a steak? - Both. I'm so hungry.)

either (Doesn't he use one of the phones?)

neither - nor (My old grandmother could neither read nor write.)

Neither (None of them invited me, so I didn't go there.)

both (You should keep both hands on the steering wheel.)

either (I don't like horror movies and my husband doesn't either.)

Both (Both mom and dad have green eyes.)

neither (I asked two friends to help me with the test, but neither of them knew the answer.)

either (Her dress was either black or brown.)

either (Ask Fred or Linda to buy some milk.)

neither - nor (We can't meet today or tomorrow. I'm terribly busy.)

Either, neither, both

For a more detailed discussion of this topic, see them translations of these unions:

neither ... nor - neither ... nor;

either ... or - or ... or, either ... or;

both ... and - and ... and, both ... and.

Now let's study each of these combinations separately.


Neither ... nor - neither ... nor

This union is negative and serves to connect homogeneous members of the sentence. To make it clearer, consider a few examples.

NeitherKatenorher friend answered the question (the union connects the subjects) - Neither Katya nor her friend answered the question.

We broughtneitherbooksnorcopy-books (alliance connect additions) - We didn't bring any books or notebooks.

We mustn'tneitherhelp,norlend the money to John (conjunction connects the predicates) - We are not obliged to help or lend money to John.

We boughtneitheroldnornew flat (conjunction connects definitions) - We have not bought either the old or the new apartment.

Please note that the unionneither ... norconnects any members of the sentence: these can be subjects, definitions, additions, predicates, etc.

It should be remembered that the combinationneither ... noroften serves to connect subjects, then the predicate is consistent with the nearest subject. But this rule is usually not respected, and the predicate is placed in plural as shown in the examples above.

Consider this note for an example.

Neithermy friendsnorKate wantsto go to a party - Neither my friends nor Katya want to go to a party (the predicate is consistent with the nearest subject).

Neithermy friendsnorKate want to go to a party - Neither my friends nor Katya want to go to a party (the predicate is plural - this translation is usually used).

It is also necessary to pay attention to the fact that in an English sentence there can be only one negation, and since the unionneither ... nor - negative, the predicate in the sentence must always be affirmative. This is evident from all the above examples.

Ifneither

Study an example.

Weneithersent the parcelnorthe letter - We did not send either the parcel or the letter.

Either ... or - or ... or, either ... or

This union is used in affirmative sentences, connecting homogeneous members. Unlike the union neither ... nor,either ... or, connecting the subjects, is consistent with the nearest of them.

To make the use of this union more clear, study a few examples.

Eitherour classmate,oryour friendhascomplained to the teacher - Either our classmates or your friend complained to the teacher.

Ifeitherdoes not apply to the subject, then it can be placed before the verb-predicate.

They willeitherbuild a restaurantora shopping center in this district - They will build either a restaurant or a shopping center in the area.

If the sentence is negative, then the unioneither ... orcan act as an allianceneither ... nor.

Study an example.

We didn't painteitherceilingorwall - We didn't paint the ceiling or the wall.

Both ... and - and ... and, both ... and

This union is used in affirmative sentences and connects homogeneous members of the sentence. If the union connects the subjects, then the predicate must be used in the plural.

Explore a few examples.

BothJohnandthat engineer refuse to work - Both John and that engineer refuse to work.

We sawboththe universityandthe school - We saw both the school and the university.

1. Choose the appropriate option from the brackets.

We have asked them both but … (neither/both) of them knows his address.

He has lived in Milan and Madrid but he didn’t like … (either/neither) of the cities much.

She is very slim. I think she is … (either/neither) a sportsman … (or/nor) a model.

Anna never works all day. She works … (either/neither) in the morning … (or/nor) after lunch.

He has 2 cars, but I don't like … (either/neither) of them.

She couldn't choose between them, she liked them ... (both/either).

You can take … (either/neither) a bus or a train to get to Oxford.

Would you like fish or chicken? - It doesn't matter. … (Either/Both) will do for me.

Would you like apple juice or orange juice? - … (Either/Neither), thanks. I don't like juice.

Would you like some salad or some steak? - … (Either/Both). I'm so hungry.

Doesn’t he use … (either/neither) of his phones?

My old granny could … (either/neither) read … (or/nor) write.

… (Either/Neither) of them invited me, so I didn't go there.

You should keep … (either/both) hands on the steering wheel.

I don’t like horror films, and my husband doesn’t like … (either/neither).

… (Either/Both) my mother and father have green eyes.

I asked two friends to help me with the test, but … (either/neither) of them knew the answer.

Her dress was … (either/both) black or brown.

Please ask … (either/neither) Fred or Linda to buy some milk.

We can meet … (either/neither) today … (or/nor) tomorrow. I am terribly busy.

Fill in the gaps and complete the sentences. Use either... or, neither... nor, both... and.

1. I drink ... coffee ... hot chocolate.
 2. I didn't like the new book. It was ... interesting ... useful.
 3. I invited two friends, but ... Liz ... Jane could come to the .
 4. Granny promised me a nice dessert. It will be ... a chocolate cake ... an apple pie.
 5. Last year I visited ... London ... St Petersburg.
 6. Alex will phone me ... at five o "clock ... at six o" clock.
 7. No, thank you. I "ll have ... tea ... coffee.

8. Did anybody come to see you last week?

Nobody did... Julia... John was there.

9. Have they arrived yet?

No, they haven't. But I expect them… today… tomorrow.

10. Borrow some money from your friends.... Ann... Mary will help you.

The semester flew by like it never happened. It seemed to still study and study, but the exams have already been passed! No wonder they say - Everything in the world is relative. I propose another topic of my grammatical rubric: Relative Clauses - Everything is relative!

First, I would like to point out the difference between Sentence and Clause.
Sentence- the whole offer from start to finish. May contain many Clauses. There is a complex-compositional, when Clauses do not obey each other, and a complex subordinating one, respectively :)

There are two types of attributive clauses:

Defining relative clauses	Non-defining relative clauses
restrictive	disseminative
Those who have not yet registered should do so at once. - Those who have not yet registered should do so immediately	Yesterday we visited the City Museum, which I "d never been to before. Yesterday we went to the City Museum, which I have never been to before.
clarify the meaning of the word being defined: only those who haven't registered yet	provide additional information about the defined word - museum

. We use which / that when we talk about things, concepts:

The office which / that the CEO prefers is in the city centre.
The office that preferred by our director, located in the center.
which / that the CEO prefers says which office

Subject and Object relative Clauses

The who/which/that relative pronouns can be omitted if they are the object of a Defining relative clause:
The manager (who) we hired
The manager who we hired last week
Hired whom?- which:) in the sense of a manager; which is an object

The manager who applied last week has already resigned.
The manager who applied to us
Appealed who?- which:) in the sense of a manager; which is the subject

If the relative pronoun is the subject, it is not omitted.

Non-defining relative clauses

Used to give additional information about a person or thing:

Mr. Green, who is our best lawyer, is going to leave the company.
We know the man we're talking about - Mr. Green.
The fact that he is the best lawyer is additional information.
. An attributive clause can refer not only to a single word, but to the entire main clause as a whole. Such a clause can only be introduced with the union which. It is always found after the main clause:

He never admits his mistakes which is extremely annoying.
He never admits his mistakes what insanely annoying

And, as usual, some exercises to practice the acquired knowledge :)

5. Relative clauses that act as nouns

The subordinate clauses that can perform these noun functions are of three types.

The first type of such subordinate clauses is connected to the main clause with the union that. Such proposals are called that-sentences (That-clauses).

The second type of such sentences is connected to the main one with the help of allied words who, what, which, where, when, why and how. Such proposals are called wh-offers(wh-clauses).

And, in addition, subordinate clauses can be connected to the main one with the help of unions if/whether in indirect matters.

1. THAT offers .

That-sentences can perform exactly four functions of nouns/pronouns.

1. Subject.

Jack was too young Jack was too young.
That the driver could not control his car was obvious that the driver lost control of the car, it was obvious.

(However, such sentences sound very literary and in colloquial speech, the second formal subject it is usually introduced: It was obvious (that) the driver could not control his car).

2. Addition.

Everyone could see Jack everyone could see Jack.
Everyone could see that he was frightened everyone could see that he was scared.

(in such sentences, that can be omitted - everyone could see he was frightened).

3. Complement.

This is Jack this is Jack.
The truth is that he was very shy The thing is, he was very shy.

(in such sentences, that can also be omitted - the truth is he was very shy)

4. Application.

We met my friend Jack we met my friend Jack.
We must face the fact that we have spent all our money we must face the fact that we have spent all our money.
hard truth, that they had spent all their money, was a great shock to her

In this case, that-sentences are applications, not definitions, since it is fact or truth that they spent money.

In the first sentence, the subordinate clause is restrictive (that is, it cannot be omitted without violating the grammatical structure of the sentence) and is not separated by commas, and in the second sentence it is non-restrictive (if it is removed, the sentence remains grammatically correct) and is separated by commas.

A variation of that-sentences is indirect speech.

2.WH-clauses

To connect subordinate WH-sentences with the main clause, three interrogative pronouns what, who, which, as well as four interrogative adverbs where, when, why, how are used (if you look closely at the word how, you can see that there are also letters w and h )

WH-sentences, like THAT-sentences, can be subject, object and complement, but unlike THAT-sentences, they cannot act as an application.

1. Subject.

It is a complete mystery
What caused the accident is a complete mystery what caused the accident is a complete mystery.

2. Addition.

No one knows it nobody knows.
No one knows what caused the accident no one knows what caused the crash.

3. Complement.

It is a question of taste it's a matter of taste.
The question is what caused the accident the question is what caused the crash.

4. In addition, WH-sentences can be part of a prepositional phrase:

We depend on it we depend on it.
It depends on what you really mean it depends on what you really mean.

5. Also, WH-sentences are often used as so-called indirect questions:

That man caused the accident
DIRECT QUESTION: Who caused the accident? who is to blame for the accident?
INDIRECT QUESTION: Tell me who caused the accident

Mr. Smith will return on Monday

DIRECT QUESTION: When will Mr. Smith return? when is mr smith coming back?
INDIRECT QUESTION: Tell me when Mr. Smith will return tell me when Mr. Smith is returning.

5. Indirect questions with if/whether

Relative clauses can also be introduced using if / whether unions if the question provides yes or no answers:

I wonder if/whether you've met him
Please tell me whether or not you agree

Such proposals may be:

1. Subject to:

Whether we can help you is a difficult question whether we can help you is a difficult question.

2. addition:

Whether we can really help you, I don't know yet if we can help you.

3. Part of a prepositional phrase:

It depends on whether we have enough money it depends on whether we have enough money.