The computer within us
Essay on Informatics and ICT
Completed by: student of 9 "A" class
Panova Anna Sergeevna
Teacher: Pashkov Anton Maksimovich
Zhukovsky
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………. 3
1. Information processes in nature, society, technology…………... 5
1.1. Human information activity …………………………. 5
1.2. What is a computer………………………………………………………9
2.Man……………………………………………………………………..11
2.1. Sense organs and their meaning………………………………………….11
2.2. Patterns of the brain ………………………… 12
2.3. Higher nervous activity of a person ………………………… ..12
2.4. Unconditioned and conditioned reflexes…………………………………...13
2.5. Cognitive processes …………………………………………….15
2.6. Heredity …………………………………………………...16
3. My conclusions from the material studied ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Tandem of man and computer …………………………………………….21
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………..26
References …………………………………………………………28
Introduction
Life is Beautiful! Life in its diversity is joy and delight. And no one at the present time will be able to convince humanity of the opposite. Having learned to manage his thoughts, emotions, desires and actions at his own discretion and needs in any life situations, including stressful and extreme ones, a person has acquired an invaluable sense of inner freedom, got rid of addictions, fears, prejudices. He felt with every cell of his body the fullness and beauty of his own life.
What makes a person a person? What do machines lack: feelings, abstraction, intuition? Can a computer ever replace a human?
In this project, we will try to find the answer to this question.
Purpose of the Abstract: find out: can a computer replace a person in the near future.
Tasks of the Abstract:
1. Using educational and popular science literature, magazines, Internet resources to study the following questions:
in informatics
The concept of the process;
Information processes in society;
Information processes in wildlife;
Information processes in technology;
Information Technology;
The PC is the main IT device.
in biology
Sense organs and their meaning;
Patterns of the brain;
Higher nervous activity of a person;
cognitive processes;
Heredity.
2. Get an idea about information processes and features of their flow in nature, computer, human body.
3. Analyze and compare the flow of information processes in the human body and in the reality surrounding it.
4. Draw conclusions.
Information processes in nature, society, technology
Human Information Activity
By the end of the XX century. began to take shape, first within the framework of cybernetics, and then informatics, an information picture of the world. The information picture of the world considers the surrounding world from a special, informational point of view, while it is not opposed to the material-energy picture of the world, but complements it. The structure and functioning of complex systems of various nature (biological, social, technical) turned out to be impossible to explain without considering the general patterns of information processes.
But what is a process anyway?
If you look in the sociological dictionary, you can find the following definition:
process (lat. processus - passage, advancement) is a successive change of states, a close connection of naturally following one after another stages of development, representing a continuous single movement, for example, the process of work, etc.
In the modern world, the role of informatics, the means of processing, transmitting, and accumulating information has increased immeasurably. The means of informatics and computer technology now largely determine the scientific and technical potential of any country, the level of development of its national economy, the way of life and human activity.
For the purposeful use of information, it must be collected, transformed, transmitted, accumulated and systematized. All these processes associated with certain operations on information are called information processes. Obtaining and transforming information is a necessary condition for the life of any organism. Even the simplest unicellular organisms constantly perceive and use information, for example, about the temperature and chemical composition of the environment to select the most favorable conditions for existence. Living beings are able not only to perceive information from the environment with the help of the senses, but also to exchange it among themselves.
A person also perceives information through the senses, and languages are used to exchange information between people. During the development of human society, there were a lot of such languages. First of all, these are native languages (Russian, Tatar, English, etc.), which are spoken by numerous peoples of the world. The role of language for humanity is exceptionally great. Without it, without the exchange of information between people, the emergence and development of society would be impossible.
Information processes are characteristic not only for wildlife, man, society. Mankind has created technical devices - automata, the work of which is also associated with the processes of receiving, transmitting and storing information. For example, an automatic device called a thermostat receives information about the room temperature and, depending on the temperature regime set by a person, turns on or off heating devices.
Human activity associated with the processes of obtaining, transforming, accumulating and transmitting information is called information activity.
For thousands of years, the subjects of human labor were material objects. All tools from the stone ax to the first steam engine, electric motor or lathe were associated with the processing of matter, the use and transformation of energy. At the same time, mankind had to solve the problems of management, the tasks of accumulating, processing and transmitting information, experience, knowledge, there are groups of people whose profession is associated exclusively with information activities. In ancient times, these were, for example, military leaders, priests, chroniclers, then scientists, etc.
However, the number of people who could use information from written sources was negligible. Firstly, literacy was the privilege of an extremely limited circle of people and, secondly, ancient manuscripts were created in single (sometimes single) copies.
A new era in the development of information exchange was the invention of printing. Thanks to the printing press, created by I. Gutenberg in 1440, knowledge and information became widely replicated, accessible to many people. This served as a powerful incentive to increase the literacy of the population, the development of education, science, and production.
As society developed, the circle of people whose professional activities were associated with the processing and accumulation of information was constantly expanding. The volume of human knowledge, experience, and with it the number of books, manuscripts and other written documents has also grown constantly. There was a need to create special repositories of these documents - libraries, archives. The information contained in books and other documents had to be not just stored, but streamlined and systematized. This is how library classifiers, subject and alphabetical catalogs and other means of systematizing books and documents arose, and the professions of a librarian and archivist appeared.
As a result of scientific and technological progress, mankind has created more and more new means and methods of collecting, storing, and transmitting information. But the most important thing in information processes is processing, the purposeful transformation of information was carried out until recently exclusively by man.
At the same time, the constant improvement of technology and production has led to a sharp increase in the amount of information with which a person has to operate in the course of his professional activity.
The development of science and education has led to a rapid increase in the volume of information and human knowledge. If at the beginning of the last century the total amount of human knowledge doubled approximately every fifty years, then in subsequent years - every five years.
The way out of this situation was the creation of computers, which greatly accelerated and automated the process of processing information.
The first electronic computer "ENIAC" was developed in the USA in 1946. In our country, the first computer was created in 1951 under the leadership of Academician V. A. Lebedev.
Nowadays, computers are used to process not only numerical, but also other types of information. Thanks to this, computer science and computer technology have firmly entered the life of a modern person, they are widely used in production, design work, business and many other industries.
Computers are used in production at all stages: from the design of individual parts of the product, its design to assembly and sale. The computer-aided production system (CAD) allows you to create drawings, immediately getting a general view of the object, to control machines for the manufacture of parts. A flexible manufacturing system (FPS) allows you to quickly respond to changing market conditions, quickly expand or curtail the production of a product or replace it with another one. The ease of transferring the conveyor to the production of new products makes it possible to produce many different models of the product. Computers allow you to quickly process information from various sensors, including automated security, from temperature sensors for regulating energy consumption for heating, from ATMs that record money spent by customers, from a complex tomograph system that allows you to "see" the internal structure of human organs and correctly place diagnosis.
The computer is located on the desktop of a specialist of any profession. It allows you to contact by special computer mail anywhere in the world, connect to the collections of large libraries without leaving your home, use powerful information systems - encyclopedias, study new sciences and acquire various skills with the help of training programs and simulators. He helps a fashion designer to develop patterns, a publisher to compose text and illustrations, an artist to create new paintings, and a composer to music. An expensive experiment can be completely calculated and simulated on a computer. The development of ways and methods for presenting information, technology for solving problems using computers, has become an important aspect of the activities of people of many professions.
What is a computer
The computer, or electronic computer, is one of the most intelligent inventions of man. Now there is not a single branch of knowledge where computers are not used.
The heart of a computer is a special electronic circuit called a processor. It is she who processes all the information that enters the computer.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
middle School of General education
with in-depth study of individual subjects No. 256
ESSAY
in informatics
TOPIC: Computer inside a person
Executor Head
Shmeleva Mikhailichenko
Anna Alekseevna Natalia Viktorovna
Fokino
Introduction ................................................ ...............................................3
1. Neuron - a structural unit of the CNS .............................................. ..........4
2. Principles of information coding in the CNS...............................................................5
2.1. Neural mechanisms of perception ............................................................... ..eight
2.2 Color perception from the position of the vector model
information processing ................................................................ .................eleven
vegetative reactions .................................................................. ............12
3. Neural networks ............................................... ..................................14
4. A real computer inside a person .............................................. ..sixteen
Conclusion................................................. .........................................17
Bibliography................................................ ................................eighteen
Annex 1................................................ ........................................nineteen
Appendix 2 .................................................. .........................................21
Introduction
Many researchers liken the nervous system to a computer that regulates and coordinates the vital activity of the body. In order for a person to successfully fit into the picture of the world around him, this internal computer has to solve four main tasks. They are the main functions of the nervous system.
First of all, it perceives all irritants acting on the body. The nervous system converts all perceived information about temperature, color, taste, smell and other characteristics of phenomena and objects into electrical impulses, which it transmits to the brain and spinal regions. Each of us has a "biological telegraph" - within its limits, signals propagate at speeds up to 400 km / h. "Telegraph wires" - roots, radicular nerves, nodes and main nerve trunks. There are 86 of them, and each is divided into many smaller branches, and all of them are "assigned" to the peripheral nervous system (see Appendix 1, Fig. 1).
Our internal computer processes the received data: analyzes, systematizes, remembers, compares with previously received messages and already existing experience. The “general headquarters” that processes signals from both outside and inside the body is the brain. The faithful "adjutant" at the headquarters - the spinal cord - serves as a kind of local government, as well as a link with higher departments of the biological computer. Together with the brain, the spinal cord forms the central nervous system (CNS).
In my essay, I examined the processes of transmission and encoding of information occurring in the nervous system from the point of view of information technology, briefly spoke about artificial neural networks and a computer that can work inside a person.
1. Neuron - a structural unit of the central nervous system
The impeccable coherence of the nervous system is provided by 20 billion neurons (Greek "neuron" - "vein", "nerve") - specialized cells. The fourth part of the neurons is concentrated in the spinal cord and adjacent spinal nodes. The rest are located in the so-called gray matter (cortex and subcortical centers) of the brain.
The neuron consists of a body (a catfish with a nucleus), a set of tree-like processes - dendrites - and a long axon (see Appendix 1, Fig. 3). Dendrites serve as input channels for nerve impulses from other neurons. Impulses enter the soma, causing its specific excitation, which then spreads along the excretory process - the axon. Neurons are connected using special contacts - synapses, in which the axon branches of one neuron come very close (at a distance of several tens of microns) to the soma or dendrites of another neuron.
The neurons located in the receptors perceive external stimuli, in the gray matter of the brain stem and spinal cord they control human movements (muscles and glands), in the brain they connect sensory and motor neurons. The latter form various brain centers where the information received from external stimuli is converted into motor signals.
How does this system work? Three main processes occur in neurons: synaptic excitation, synaptic inhibition, and the emergence of nerve impulses. Synaptic processes are provided by special chemicals that are released by the endings of one neuron and interact with the surface of another. Synaptic excitation causes a neuron response and, upon reaching a certain threshold, turns into a nerve impulse that quickly propagates through the processes. Inhibition, on the contrary, reduces the overall level of neuron excitability.
2.Principles of encoding information in the nervous system
Today we can talk about several principles of coding in the nervous system. Some of them are quite simple and characteristic of the peripheral level of information processing, others are more complex and characterize the transmission of information at higher levels of the nervous system, including the cortex.
One of the simple ways of encoding information is the specificity of receptors that selectively respond to certain stimulation parameters, for example, cones with different sensitivity to visible wavelengths, pressure receptors, pain receptors, tactile receptors, etc.
Another method of transmitting information is called the frequency code. Most obviously, it is associated with coding the intensity of stimulation. The frequency method of encoding information about the intensity of the stimulus, including the operation of the logarithm, is consistent with the psychophysical law of G. Fechner that the magnitude of the sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the intensity of the stimulus.
However, Fechner's law was later heavily criticized. S. Stephens, on the basis of his psychophysical studies conducted on people using sound, light and electrical stimulation, proposed the law of a power function instead of Fechner's law. This law states that sensation is proportional to the exponent of the stimulus, while Fechner's law is only a special case of a power law.
An analysis of vibration signal transmission from somatic receptors showed that information about vibration frequency is transmitted using frequency, and its intensity is encoded by the number of simultaneously active receptors.
As an alternative mechanism to the first two coding principles - labeled line and frequency code - the neuron response pattern is also considered. The stability of the temporal response pattern is a hallmark of neurons in a specific brain system. The system for transmitting information about stimuli using a pattern of neuron discharges has a number of limitations. In neural networks operating according to this code, the principle of economy cannot be observed, since it requires additional operations and time to take into account the beginning and end of the neuron's reaction, and determine its duration. In addition, the efficiency of transmitting information about the signal significantly depends on the state of the neuron, which makes this coding system insufficiently reliable.
The idea that information is encoded by the channel number was already present in the experiments of I.P. Pavlova with a dog skin analyzer. Developing conditioned reflexes to irritation of different parts of the skin of the paw through "guts", he established the presence of a somatotopic projection in the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres. Irritation of a certain area of the skin caused a focus of excitation in a certain locus of the somatosensory cortex. The spatial correspondence between the place of application of the stimulus and the locus of excitation in the cortex was also confirmed in other analyzers: visual, auditory. The tonotopic projection in the auditory cortex reflects the spatial arrangement of the hair cells of the organ of Corti, which are selectively sensitive to different frequencies of sound vibrations. This kind of projection can be explained by the fact that the receptor surface is displayed on the map of the cortex through many parallel channels - lines that have their own numbers. When the signal is shifted relative to the receptor surface, the excitation maximum moves along the elements of the cortical map. The map element itself represents a local detector that selectively responds to stimulation of a certain area of the receptor surface. Locality detectors, which have point receptive fields and selectively react to touching a certain point on the skin, are the simplest detectors. The set of locality detectors forms a map of the skin surface in the cortex. The detectors work in parallel, each point of the skin surface is represented by an independent detector.
A similar mechanism of signal transmission about stimuli also operates when stimuli differ not in the place of application, but in other signs. The appearance of the excitation locus on the detector map depends on the parameters of the stimulus. With their change, the locus of excitation on the map shifts. To explain the organization of a neural network operating as a detector system, E.N. Sokolov proposed a mechanism for vector signal coding.
The principle of vector coding of information was first formulated in the 50s by the Swedish scientist G. Johanson, who laid the foundation for a new direction in psychology - vector psychology. G. Johanson showed that if two points on the screen move towards each other - one horizontally, the other vertically - then a person sees the movement of one point along an inclined straight line. To explain the effect of the illusion of movement, G. Johanson used a vector representation. The movement of a point is considered by him as the result of the formation of a two-component vector, reflecting the action of two independent factors (movements in the horizontal and vertical directions). Subsequently, the vector model was extended by him to the perception of the movements of the body and limbs of a person, as well as to the movement of objects in three-dimensional space. E.N. Sokolov developed vector representations, applying them to the study of neural mechanisms of sensory processes, as well as motor and autonomic reactions.
Vector psychophysiology is a new direction focused on connecting psychological phenomena and processes with vector encoding of information in neural networks.
2.1. Neural Mechanisms of Perception
Information about the neurons of sensory systems accumulated over the past decades confirms the detector principle of the neural organization of various analyzers. Consider the mechanisms of perception in the nervous system on the example of the visual analyzer.
For the visual cortex, neurons-detectors have been described that selectively respond to the elements of the figure, contour - lines, stripes, angles.
An important step in the development of the theory of sensory systems was the discovery of constant detector neurons that take into account, in addition to visual signals, signals about the position of the eyes in the orbits. In the parietal cortex, the reaction of constant detector neurons is tied to a certain area of external space, forming a constant screen. Another type of constant color-coding neurons was discovered by S. Zeki in the extrastriate visual cortex. Their reaction to certain reflective properties of the color surface of the object does not depend on the lighting conditions.
The study of vertical and horizontal connections of neurons-detectors of various types led to the discovery of the general principles of the neural architecture of the cortex. W. Mountcastle - a scientist from the medical school of Johns Hopkins University - in the 60s for the first time described the vertical principle of organizing the cerebral cortex. Examining the neurons of the somatosensory cortex in an anesthetized cat, he found that they were modally grouped into vertical columns. Some columns respond to stimulation of the right side of the body, others - to the left, and the other two types of columns differed in that some of them responded selectively to touch or to the deflection of hairs on the body (i.e. to irritation of receptors located in the upper layers of the skin) , others - on pressure or on movement in the joint (on stimulation of receptors in the deep layers of the skin). The columns looked like three-dimensional rectangular blocks of various sizes and passed through all cell layers. From the surface of the cortex, they looked like plates ranging in size from 20-50 microns to 0.25-0.5 mm. Later, these data were confirmed and on anesthetized monkeys, other researchers already on non-anesthetized animals (macaques, cats, rats) also provided additional evidence of the columnar organization of the cortex.
Thanks to the work of D. Hubel and T. Wiesel, today we present in more detail the columnar organization of the visual cortex. The researchers use the term "column" proposed by W. Mountcastle, but note that the term "plate" would be the most appropriate. Speaking of columnar organization, they mean that “some property of cells remains constant throughout the entire thickness of the cortex from its surface to white matter, but changes in directions parallel to the surface of the cortex.” First, groups of cells (columns) were found in the visual cortex associated with different eye dominance, as the largest. It was observed that whenever the recording microelectrode entered the monkey's cortex perpendicular to its surface, it encountered cells that responded better to stimulation of only one eye. If it was injected a few millimeters away from the previous one, but also vertically, then for all the cells encountered, only one eye was dominant - the same as before, or the other. If the electrode was inserted with an inclination and as parallel as possible to the cortical surface, cells with different ocular dominance alternated. A complete change of the dominant eye occurred approximately every 1 mm.
In addition to the ocular dominance columns, orientational columns were found in the visual cortex of various animals (monkey, cat, squirrel). When the microelectrode is vertically immersed through the thickness of the visual cortex, all cells in the upper and lower layers selectively respond to the same line orientation. When the microelectrode is displaced, the picture remains the same, but the preferred orientation changes, i.e. the cortex is divided into columns that prefer their orientation. Autographs taken from sections of the cortex after stimulation of the eyes with strips oriented in a certain way confirmed the results of electrophysiological experiments. Neighboring columns of neurons highlight different line orientations.
In the cortex, columns were also found that selectively react to the direction of movement or to color. The width of the color-sensitive columns in the striate cortex is about 100–250 µm. Speakers tuned to different wavelengths alternate. The column with maximum spectral sensitivity at 490-500 nm is replaced by a column with maximum color sensitivity at 610 nm. Then again follows a column with selective sensitivity to 490-500 nm. Vertical columns in the three-dimensional structure of the cortex form an apparatus for multidimensional reflection of the external environment.
Depending on the degree of complexity of the processed information, three types of columns are distinguished in the visual cortex. The microcolumns respond to individual gradients of an isolated feature, for example, to one or another stimulus orientation (horizontal, vertical, or other). Macrocolumns unite microcolumns that highlight one common feature (for example, orientation), but respond to different values of its gradient (different slopes - from 0 to 180°). A hypercolumn, or module, is a local area of the visual field and responds to all stimuli that fall on it. A module is a vertically organized area of the cortex that processes a wide variety of stimulus characteristics (orientation, color, eye dominance, etc.). The module is assembled from macrocolumns, each of which responds to its own feature of an object in a local area of the visual field. The division of the cortex into small vertical divisions is not limited to the visual cortex. It is also present in other areas of the cortex (parietal, prefrontal, motor cortex, etc.).
In the cortex, there is not only a vertical (columnar) ordering of the placement of neurons, but also a horizontal (layered) one. The neurons in the column are combined according to a common feature. And the layers combine neurons that highlight different features, but the same level of complexity. Detector neurons that respond to more complex features are localized in the upper layers.
Thus, the columnar and layered organization of cortical neurons indicate that the processing of information about the features of an object, such as shape, movement, color, proceeds in parallel neural channels. At the same time, the study of the detector properties of neurons shows that the principle of divergence of information processing paths through many parallel channels should be supplemented by the principle of convergence in the form of hierarchically organized neural networks. The more complex the information, the more complex the structure of a hierarchically organized neural network is required to process it.
2.2 Color perception from the position of the vector model of information processing
The color analyzer includes the receptor and neural levels of the retina, the thalamic LCT, and various cortical zones. At the level of receptors, radiation of the visible spectrum incident on the retina in humans is converted into reactions of three types of cones containing pigments with a maximum absorption of quanta in the short-wave, medium-wave and long-wave parts of the visible spectrum. The cone response is proportional to the logarithm of the intensity of the stimulus. In the retina and the LKT, there are color-opposing neurons that react oppositely to pairs of color stimuli (red-green and yellow-blue). They are often denoted by the first letters of English words: + K-S; -K+S; +U-V; -U+V. Different combinations of cone firings elicit different responses from opponent neurons. Signals from them reach the color-sensitive neurons of the cortex.
Color perception is determined not only by the chromatic (color-sensitive) system of the visual analyzer, but also by the contribution of the achromatic system. Achromatic neurons form a local analyzer that detects the intensity of stimuli. The first information about this system can be found in the works of R. Jung, who showed that brightness and darkness in the nervous system are encoded by two independently operating channels: neurons B, which measure brightness, and neurons B, which evaluate darkness. The existence of light intensity-detecting neurons was later confirmed when cells were found in the visual cortex of the rabbit that selectively respond to a very narrow range of light intensity.
2.3. Vector model of motor and
vegetative reactions
According to the concept of vector encoding of information in neural networks, the implementation of a motor act or its fragment can be described as follows, referring to the conceptual reflex arc (see Appendix 1, Fig. 2). Its executive part is represented by a command neuron or a field of command neurons. The excitation of a command neuron affects the ensemble of premotor neurons and generates in them a control vector of excitation, which corresponds to a certain pattern of excited motor neurons that determines the external reaction. The field of command neurons provides a complex set of programmed responses. This is achieved by the fact that each of the command neurons in turn can act on the ensemble of premotor neurons, creating in them specific control excitation vectors, which determine different external reactions. Thus, the whole variety of reactions can be represented in a space whose dimension is determined by the number of premotor neurons, the excitation of the latter form control vectors.
The structure of the conceptual reflex arc includes a block of receptors that highlight a certain category of input signals. The second block is predictors that transform receptor signals into a form effective for selective excitation of detectors that form a signal mapping map. All detector neurons are projected onto command neurons in parallel. There is a block of modulating neurons, which are characterized by the fact that they are not included directly in the chain of information transfer from receptors at the input to effectors at the output. Forming "synapses upon synapses", they modulate the flow of information. Modulating neurons can be divided into local, operating within the reflex arc of one reflex, and generalized, covering the reflex arcs with their influence and thereby determining the overall level of the functional state. Local modulating neurons, by strengthening or weakening synaptic inputs on command neurons, redistribute the priorities of the reactions for which these command neurons are responsible. Modulating neurons act through the hippocampus, where detector maps are projected onto the "novelty" and "identity" neurons.
The response of a command neuron is determined by the scalar product of the excitation vector and the vector of synaptic connections. When the vector of synaptic connections as a result of learning coincides with the excitation vector in direction, the scalar product reaches a maximum and the command neuron becomes selectively tuned to the conditioned signal. Differential stimuli cause excitation vectors that differ from the one that generates the conditioned stimulus. The greater this difference, the less likely it is that a command neuron will fire. To perform an arbitrary motor reaction, the participation of memory neurons is required. On command neurons, paths converge not only from detector networks, but also from memory neurons.
Motor and autonomic responses are controlled by combinations of excitations generated by command neurons that act independently of each other, although some standard patterns of their excitations appear to occur more frequently than others.
3. Neural networks
The study of the structure and functions of the central nervous system has led to the emergence of a new scientific discipline - neuroinformatics. In fact, neuroinformatics is a way to solve all kinds of problems using artificial neural networks implemented on a computer.
Neural networks are a new and very promising computing technology that provides new approaches to the study of dynamic problems in the financial field. Initially, neural networks opened up new possibilities in the field of pattern recognition, then they added statistical and artificial intelligence-based decision support and problem solving tools in the field of finance.
The ability to model nonlinear processes, work with noisy data and adaptability make it possible to use neural networks to solve a wide range of financial problems. In the past few years, based on neural networks, many software systems have been developed for use in such matters as operations in the commodity market, assessing the probability of bank failure, assessing creditworthiness, controlling investments, and placing loans.
Applications of neural networks cover a wide variety of areas: pattern recognition, noisy data processing, pattern augmentation, associative search, classification, optimization, prediction, diagnostics, signal processing, abstraction, process control, data segmentation, information compression, complex mappings, complex process modeling, machine vision, speech recognition.
Despite the wide variety of variants of neural networks, they all have common features. So, all of them, just like the human brain, consist of a large number of the same type of elements - neurons that mimic the neurons of the brain, interconnected. Figure 4 (see Appendix 1) shows a diagram of a neuron.
It can be seen from the figure that an artificial neuron, just like a living one, consists of synapses that connect the inputs of the neuron with the nucleus, the nucleus of the neuron, which processes the input signals, and the axon, which connects the neuron with the neurons of the next layer. Each synapse has a weight that determines how much the corresponding neuron input affects its state.
The state of a neuron is determined by the formula
is the number of neuron inputs;
is the value of the i-th input of the neuron;
is the weight of the i-th synapse.
Then the value of the axon of the neuron is determined by the formula
G 
de 
- some function, which is called activation. The most commonly used as an activation function is the so-called sigmoid, which has the following form:
4. A real computer inside a person
In the previous sections, the computer inside the person was spoken of in a figurative sense; however, the achievements of science give reason to move from metaphor to the direct meaning of words.
Israeli scientists have created a molecular computer that uses enzymes to make calculations.
Itamar Villner, who built the molecular calculator with his colleagues at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, believes that enzyme-based computers could someday be implanted in the human body and used, for example, to regulate the release of drugs into the metabolic system.
The scientists built their computer using two enzymes -- glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) -- to drive two interconnected chemical reactions. Two chemical components, hydrogen peroxide and glucose, were used as inputs (A and B). The presence of each of the chemicals corresponded to 1 in binary code, and the absence of 0 in binary code. The chemical result of the enzymatic reaction was determined optically.
The enzyme computer was used to perform two fundamental logical calculations known as AND (where A and B must be equal to one) and XOR (where A and B must have different values). The addition of two more enzymes - glucose oxidase (glucose oxidase) and catalase (catalase) - connected two logical operations, making it possible to add binary numbers using logical functions.
Enzymes are already used in calculations using specially coded DNA. Such DNA computers have the potential to outperform silicon computers in terms of speed and power, as they can perform many parallel calculations and fit a huge number of components into a tiny space.
Conclusion
While working on the abstract, I learned a lot about the structure of the human central nervous system and discovered a close relationship between the processes occurring inside a person and inside a machine. Undoubtedly, the study of the structure of the central nervous system and the brain opens up great prospects for mankind. Neural networks are already solving problems beyond the power of artificial intelligence. Neurocomputers are especially effective where an analogue of human intuition is needed for pattern recognition (face recognition, reading handwritten texts), preparing analytical forecasts, translating from one natural language to another, etc. It is for such problems that it is usually difficult to write an explicit algorithm. In the near future, it is possible to create electronic media comparable in capacity to the human brain. But in order to implement all the bold ideas of scientists, a solid theoretical base is needed. And a young, rapidly developing science, a kind of union of biology and informatics - bioinformatics, will help to ensure it.
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Annex 1
fig.1. The human nervous system - central, autonomic and peripheral
fig.2. Reflex arc formation
fig.3. A neuron with many dendrites that receives information through synaptic contact with another neuron.
fig.4. The structure of an artificial neuron
Appendix 2
Brief glossary of terms and concepts
An axon is a process of a nerve cell (neuron) that conducts nerve impulses from the cell body to innervated organs or other nerve cells. Bundles of axons form nerves.
The hippocampus is a structure located in the deep layers of the lobe of the temporal brain.
Gradient - a vector showing the direction of the fastest change of some value, the value of which changes from one point in space to another.
Dendrite - a branching cytoplasmic process of a nerve cell that conducts nerve impulses to the cell body.
The organ of Corti is the receptor apparatus of the auditory analyzer.
LKT - lateral geniculate body.
Locus - a specific section of DNA that differs in some property.
A neuron is a nerve cell consisting of a body and processes extending from it - relatively short dendrites and a long axon.
A pattern is a space-time picture of the development of some process.
The receptive field is a peripheral area, the stimulation of which affects the discharge of a given neuron.
Receptors - endings of sensitive nerve fibers or specialized cells (retinas of the eye, inner ear, etc.) that convert stimuli perceived from the outside (exteroreceptors) or from the internal environment of the body (interoreceptors) into nervous excitation transmitted to the central nervous system.
Synapse - a structure that transmits signals from a neuron to a neighboring (or to another cell).
Soma - 1) body, torso; 2) the totality of all cells of the body, with the exception of reproductive cells.
The somatosensory cortex is the region of the cerebral cortex where afferent projections of body parts are presented.
The thalamus is the main part of the diencephalon. The main subcortical center that directs impulses of all types of sensitivity (temperature, pain, etc.) to the brain stem, subcortical nodes and the cerebral cortex.
infourok.ru
All people living in society are communicators, since any individual action is carried out in conditions of direct or indirect relations with other people, i.e. includes (along with the physical) the communicative aspect. Actions consciously focused on their semantic perception by other people are sometimes called communicative actions. Communication can be considered effective if its function (managerial, informative or phatic) is successfully performed. Unfortunately, in practice, communicative actions do not always lead to the effect expected by the communicator. One of the reasons for this is the inability to communicate properly. Many people often communicate not so much with a person as with an idea about this person. Sometimes it seems that they have something like a tape recorder in their head and they just need to say the text that is recorded on tape. For example, some seller in the store continues to convince the visitor of the delights of the product, wasting both his and his time, although he has already shown with all his appearance that he DOES NOT WANT THIS. It ends with the fact that the visitor, finally getting rid of the obsessive consultant, quickly leaves the premises, and he is looking for a new victim. In this case, we can talk about ineffective communication, since neither the seller nor the buyer achieved their goal. An effective communication strategy. When we studied successful communicators, we found that they have one common strategy. This communication strategy is built on human interaction. A professional communicator always receives feedback and can, if necessary, change his own behavior. The strategy of a successful communicator includes a number of steps, the meaning and sequence of which is briefly as follows: 1. Calibration 2. Adjustment. 3. Lead. 1. Calibration.The person with whom we communicate can be in different emotional and psychological states that must be taken into account in the process of interaction. The detection of even the smallest external signs of these states is called calibration. Calibration requires the development of certain skills in analyzing movements, muscle tension, changes in voice or breathing, etc. The differences to be identified can be quite subtle - a slight turn of the head, a lowering of the voice, etc. However, if you are careful enough, you can always find these differences, no matter how tiny they may seem. The most standard set for calibration is the definition of 6 states: 1. Positive active (joy, delight, happiness). 2. Positive passive (calm, peace). 3. State of interest, learning. 4. State of decision making. 5. Negative passive (sadness, disappointment). 6. Negative active (anger, rage). A few more useful calibrations are: 1. Yes - No. 2. Like - Don't like. 3. True - False. The definition of each of these states allows you to optimally build interaction with a partner to achieve the desired result. The ability to decipher non-verbal sources of information is useful in this sense. Australian specialist A. Pease claims that 7% of information is transmitted with the help of words, 38% of sound means, facial expressions, gestures, postures - 55%. In other words, it is not so important what is said, but how it is done. Knowledge of sign language allows you to better understand the interlocutor and, if necessary, use the means of non-verbal communication yourself in order to influence the interlocutor. It is important to pay attention not only to facial expressions - facial expressions, but also to gestures, since people have more control over their facial expressions than posture and gestures. Some of the most common gestures and how to respond to them are described below. Gestures of impatience: Tapping objects or fingers, fidgeting in a chair, waving a leg, looking at a watch, looking past you. If a person sits on the edge of a chair, his whole body seems to be directed forward, his hands rested on his knees - he is in a hurry, or he is so tired of the conversation that he wants to finish it as soon as possible. Gestures of emotional discomfort: Picking up non-existent villi, shaking off clothes, scratching the neck, taking off and putting on the ring, indicate that the parterre is experiencing internal tension. He is not ready to make decisions and take responsibility. Try to calm him down. Keep the conversation "about nothing" for a while, or switch to a less significant topic. Be sure to listen to the answers even to routine questions, people do not like to feel that they are being communicated with “formally”, without being really interested in their opinion. Gestures of lies: When a person wants to hide something, he unconsciously touches his face with his hand - as if "covering" the corner of his mouth with his hand, or rubbing his nose. You should not show a person that you doubt his words and catch him in a lie. Better, ask him again (“That is, if I understood you correctly, then: ..”), so as to leave him a path for retreat, so that it would be easier for him to return to a constructive channel. Gestures of superiority: Index finger pointing at you, chin held high, figure in the form of "hands on hips". Playing along with such an "important" person, slouching, obsequiously nodding and agreeing with his every word, or repeating all his movements, straightening his shoulders, raising his chin will not be very effective. The best way to meet such a pompous person is to emphasize his importance, while maintaining your face. For example, to state: “You were recommended to me as an experienced, knowledgeable specialist”, or “What would you do in my place?”. Having asked such a question, of course, it is necessary to carefully listen to the answer, no matter how paradoxical it may seem to you. Naturally, the external reactions of each person are different, so you should not unconditionally follow these recommendations, but rather study your interlocutor and try to better understand his individual reactions. 2. Adjustment.It is very important for people that the one with whom they communicate is “their own”. The more “our”, the higher the trust, the better the communication. The process of becoming "one's own" is called adjustment. Adjustment is a completely natural element of human (and not only) behavior. People practically can't communicate unless they're tuned in. And the better the substring, the better the communication, the more successfully understanding is achieved. The task of adjustment is to match the state of another person as accurately as possible, while you determined the state of the interlocutor during the calibration process (see above). A state is something internal, which is somehow manifested by external signs: voice modulations, breathing rhythm, posture, speed and style of speech. In order to adapt well to a person, you need to sit in a similar position (posture adjustment), breathe with him in the same rhythm (breath adjustment), speak in a similar voice (voice adjustment), and the like. In psychological trainings, an exercise called "Dispute" is used. It's pretty simple. People pair up and are asked to find a topic on which they disagree with each other. After the topic is found, you need to discuss it, while being all the time in the same poses. It turns out quite funny - those who are honestly in the same (rigged) poses usually very quickly find something in common in their opinions. And those couples who are carried away by the argument, very quickly try to build up from each other. Then the reverse task follows - choose topics in which the interlocutors completely agree with each other, and discuss them in built-up (different) poses. The result is just the opposite: those who sit in detuned poses very quickly find something to argue about. And those who are more involved in the discussion gradually sit down in similar poses. 3. Lead.After you have adjusted, a very interesting state sets in (it is sometimes called rapport) - if you begin to change your own behavior, your interlocutor “follows” you. You change position, he changes it too. You changed the subject, he is happy to discuss it. Became more cheerful - he also cheered up. When you are well tuned, then you have become your own enough, you have a high degree of trust from the other person (or others), you are in rapport. If at the same time you change your behavior, your partner will follow you. You raise your hand and so does he. You change your breath and he follows you. And in a broader sense, it is an opportunity to direct a person in the right direction, to lead both verbally and non-verbally. The state of leading is as natural in communication as the process of adjustment. The success of playing the role of a leader or a follower is determined initially by temperament, but awareness of this mechanism in the process of communication can help you change one role to another if necessary to achieve the best result, and the role of the leader will not always be preferable. You can illustrate effective interaction to achieve a common goal using the example of our smaller brothers. A flock of swans is able to fly so long in one rhythm because they are tuned. Their leader creates an air wave, and everyone else rolls on it, like on a surf. When one swan gets tired, the other takes over. Swans lead (and are led) to achieve a common goal. Using I-statements for effective communication. The strategy of a successful communicator described above provides a mechanism for directing interpersonal interaction in the direction you need in a situation of calm constructive communication. However, sometimes people face problems in communication that grow out of a misunderstanding of each other, an inability to convey their thoughts and feelings to a partner. In a stressful situation, we often cannot hear what is happening to another person until we feel that we ourselves have been heard and understood. But if we feel that we were actually heard and understood, understood what we want or need, then we relax and can finally hear what is important for our interlocutor. How to achieve this? Psychologists suggest using the so-called I-statement to facilitate mutual understanding. When formulating an I-statement, it is necessary:
When we voice our desires, needs, aspirations, etc., it is important to try to voice them in a positive way, rather than a negative one. For example, you can say "I want to live in a house where dirty clothes are not scattered on the floor" and this, with a little mental effort, leads to the conclusion - "To live in a house that is clean and tidy." But you must admit how differently it feels when desires are voiced in a positive way. One more example. A woman said to her husband, "I don't like the fact that you spend so much time at work." Thinking that his wife did not like his workaholism, the husband joined the bowling team the following week. But that didn't make his wife any happier. Because she really wanted him to spend more time with her. So, if we are more precise in voicing our desires, we are more likely to get what we actually expect to get. Conclusion. Effective communication is more than just conveying information. It is important not only to be able to speak, but also to be able to listen, hear and understand what the interlocutor is talking about. Most people apply certain principles of effective communication at least on an intuitive level. Understanding and consciously using the psychological aspects of communication can help us build relationships with others in the best possible way. At the same time, it should be remembered that the most important principle of effective communication is to really sincerely try to be heard and understood by those people who need to convey information. Used materials:
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nsportal.ru
Informatics Project The Computer Within Us
To view the presentation with pictures, design and slides, download its file and open it in PowerPoint on your computer. The text content of the presentation slides: Authors: Supervisor: Abakan, 2016 Chichinina Irina and Deeva Anastasia, 11th grade students Ladygina Svetlana Valerievna, computer science teacher Municipal budgetary educational institution "Secondary school No. 3" COMPUTER INSIDE USRelevance The topic is very relevant in modern society, when a person spends most of the day working with a computer. Of course, we all understand that we cannot get away from the computer, but at the same time we are aware of all the harm that it causes us. Inside each person there is a certain mechanism of a biological type, the work of which resembles a PC device. All processes occurring in the body are interconnected, and therefore, under normal conditions, all of them can adapt to each other in a certain way. But sometimes system failures occur, and then we need the help of specialists - doctors and programmers. Endocrinologists, nutritionists, orthopedists, dentists, as well as other doctors, are able to reprogram the body in such a way that the processes of various organs and systems will proceed with complete logic of what is happening, without causing any inconvenience and without causing anxiety. Hypothesis If humanity is interested in the development of computers, then in the future it is possible that, ultimately, the life of people will be artificially extended life by introducing chips and certain mechanisms that can activate nerve endings or provoke outbursts of a certain frequency that make our body move, despite to such a seemingly natural procedure as “shutdown.” Every day we turn off the computer at home, and then turn it on again. So why not try to take a step towards development in order to adopt this usual procedure for the human body? Aim To find out if a computer can replace a person in the near future. Tasks 1) Get an idea about information processes and the features of their flow in nature, a computer, the human body. 2) Analyze and compare the flow of information processes in the human body and in the reality surrounding it. 3) Draw a conclusion.
webburok.com
Presentation for an individual project on the topic: The computer is inside us
To watch a presentation with pictures, design and slides, download its file and open it in PowerPoint on your computer. The text content of the presentation slides: The computer inside of us Completed by Ivan Viktorovich Ustyuzhanin Specialty 15.02.07 "Automation of technological processes and production" (by industry) Group: 16 TEM2 -9 The purpose of the work: to find out: what is common between a computer and a person? Hypothesis: perhaps a person "copied" the computer from himself. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks: Find out if the brain is a computer? Find out how a person and a computer are similar? Find out if people are created like computers? There is a lot in common between computers and us, and it is necessary to know this, because. in life we often have to deal with computers. Our internal computer (brain) processes the incoming data: it analyzes, systematizes, remembers, compares with previously received messages and already existing experience. The spinal brain serves as a link with the higher departments of the biological computer. The study showed that after a night's sleep, the human brain "boots" like an operating system when a computer is turned on. Such a download activates the brain regions responsible for performing complex operations, and the signal to start it is given in a chemical form. In the morning, different information enters the brain - from sunlight to the sound of an alarm clock. This information must be systematized and analyzed by the brain. Only after the initial analysis is the brain able to perform more complex tasks. The brain regions responsible for thinking provide something like a set of templates with which the incoming information is processed. The power supply converts electricity into a form convenient for the perception of the system. In humans, it is oxygen and other chemical elements obtained by gas exchange in the lungs and digestion processes in the digestive system. RAM stores current information, works while voltage is applied to it, has an extremely limited amount relative to physical memory. A person solves current small tasks, which he instantly forgets, this is stored in memory for a very short period of time, this is a temporary (fast) memory. Physical memory on a computer in the form of a hard drive or flash memory has a considerable amount. A person has the same physical memory, only the information is stored as a result of a chemical reaction and still more like a flash memory. After all, if the charge on the flash drive runs out completely, the information on it will be lost, just like with us, if we do not periodically remember it, it is simply erased. From this project, we learned that a computer is not smarter than a person. But a person managed to transfer some part of his mind and knowledge to a computer, the computer became his faithful assistant in a variety of activities and activities. The computer helps the doctor make a diagnosis and prescribe treatment. Helps the artist to create paintings and animated films. Engineers with the help of a computer carry out complex calculations, draw up drawings of new machines, spaceships. Thank you for your attentionAttached files
schoolfiles.net
Two computers inside a person - Blog
My late father, a mathematician, used this metaphor. We have two computers inside - a simple one, controlled by us, which we use for all sorts of garbage (such as reading, playing chess or persuading a girl), that is, the everyday mind.And there is a second computer that we almost cannot control - a supercomputer that is used to solve really important and complex tasks: control of vision, hearing, touch, balance, digestion, blood circulation, heart rate, pressure, nerves, breathing, metabolism, etc. vital, deadly processes. The complexity of these problems is infinitely greater than our small everyday problems such as theorems or articles.
And this second computer is correspondingly infinitely more powerful, it can easily solve tasks such as instantly calculating the trajectory of a snowball that we throw on the run or biochemical struggle with a morning hangover.
Therefore, he can solve our toy tasks like proving a theorem or writing an article in a split second - but we do not have access to this machine room with this nonsense. No one will give machine time - it is occupied by the daily survival of the organism.
How to get it?
There are several ways. For example, my father told me that he worked out a very simple method for himself: he solved a problem without getting up from the table from dawn to dusk and thinking about it for days. Simply, he said, if the body understands that I will die, if I do not prove this theorem, then at a certain moment it raises the priority of the task, transfers it to the rank of survival tasks, gives a window in the supercomputer, and there - click! and it resolves instantly.
I have tried this method, it is very painful. I, as the second generation, more relaxed, developed my own way - to constantly think about the task so that it turns into a neurosis. Forget about it, remember, but feel discomfort, so that the resident in the head sits continuously. Then the click happens too. It's hard to confuse a click with something else. But it is also painful to create such an obsession, however, I personally cannot do otherwise.
There are people who think that they can get into this machine room from the back door, deceiving the guards - with the help of trances (“meditations”), alcohol, cannabis and other substances. I know some of these marketers and PR people - they, as they need creativity, decide to “puff”. Collectively or individually. It ends with burning out - then even a puff does not help, and they can no longer distinguish the real solution from the illusion of the creative.
Even when they want to write on the forum, at first they consider it right to blow hard, so sometimes you can see the result here - “creative texts” with some crazy “fairy tales”, analogies, confusing logic, verses without rhyme, etc. However, some are so rushing without cannabis, just from their own dope.
In general, my simple idea is that some things cannot be done without super-effort and super-stubbornness - neither in sports, nor in mathematics, nor in art.
alexandrblohin.livejournal.com
A computer can live ... inside a person
A molecular computer that uses enzymes to make calculations has been created by Israeli scientists. Itamar Villner, who built the molecular calculator with his colleagues at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, believes that enzyme-based computers could someday be implanted in the human body and used, for example, to regulate the release of drugs into the metabolic system.
The scientists built their computer using two enzymes—glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP)—to drive two interconnected chemical reactions. Two chemical components, hydrogen peroxide and glucose, were used as inputs (A and B). The presence of each of the chemicals corresponded to 1 in binary code, and the absence of 0 in binary code. The chemical result of the enzymatic reaction was determined optically.
The enzyme computer was used to perform two fundamental logic calculations known as AND (where A and B must be equal to one) and XOR (where A and B must have different values). The addition of two more enzymes - glucose oxidase (glucose oxidase) and catalase (catalase) - connected two logical operations, making it possible to add binary numbers using logical functions.
Enzymes are already used in calculations using specially coded DNA. Such DNA computers have the potential to outperform silicon computers in speed and power, as they can perform many parallel calculations and fit a huge number of components into a tiny space.
But Willner says the enzyme computer isn't built for speed: it can take minutes to compute. Most likely, it will be built into biosensor equipment and used to monitor and adjust the patient's response to certain dosages of the drug, Newsru.com reports.
"It's a computer that can be integrated into the human body," Willner told New Scientist. "It seems to us that an enzyme computer can be used to calculate the metabolic pathway."
Martin Amos of the University of Exeter, UK, also sees such devices as very promising. "The development of simple devices like counters is essential to the successful creation of biomolecular computers," he said.
“If such counters are built into living cells, we can imagine that they play the role of applications, for example, “smart” drug delivery, when a therapeutic agent is created where a problem occurs,” says Amos. “The counters also provide a biological “safety valve” "which prevents cells from growing uncontrollably"
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for-ua.com
On the topic "Information and Information Technology":
On the topic "Devices and functioning of computers":
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Rozovenko Irina Vladimirovna
Life is Beautiful! Life in its diversity is joy and delight. And no one at the present time will be able to convince humanity of the opposite. Having learned to manage his thoughts, emotions, desires and actions at his own discretion and needs in any life situations, including stressful and extreme ones, a person has acquired an invaluable sense of inner freedom, got rid of addictions, fears, prejudices. He felt with every cell of his body the fullness and beauty of his own life.
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Branch of the State Budget Professional
educational institution of the Irkutsk region
(branch GBPOU IO ITAS in Shelekhov)
COMPUTER INSIDE US
Individual project completed by:
Student: _________________ /I.V. Rozovenko / "____" ________ 20__
Signature
SEZ-16-405 group
Number
Profession: 08.02.01. Construction and operation of buildings and structures
Head: _____________ /L.G. Popova / "____" ________ 20__
Signature
Teacher of the first qualification category in the discipline of Informatics
Shelekhov, 2016
Branch state budgetary professional educational institution of the Irkutsk region
"Irkutsk College of Architecture and Construction" in Shelekhov
(Branch GBPOU IO ITAS in Shelekhov)
TASK FOR THE PERFORMANCE OF AN INDIVIDUAL PROJECT
Student (full name) Rozovenko Irina Vladimirovna
SEZ-16-405 group Group leader (curator)Bakum Tatyana Vladimirovna
Project theme (research)The computer within us
Product
Discipline(s) Computer Science
Project manager (full name)Popova Larisa Gennadievna
Work plan for the implementation of the project (study)
Development of the project idea (research)
Product of project activity (research) | Research work on the topic |
Relevance (why is this topic important, why is it interesting) | Life is Beautiful! Life in its diversity is joy and delight. And no one at the present time will be able to convince humanity of the opposite. Having learned to manage his thoughts, emotions, desires and actions at his own discretion and needs in any life situations, including stressful and extreme ones, a person has acquired an invaluable sense of inner freedom, got rid of addictions, fears, prejudices. He felt with every cell of his body the fullness and beauty of his own life. |
The degree of development of the topic(analysis of literature sources: where this topic is described) | In the search for information on a given topic, the conclusions contained in the works on the theory ofand practice of informatics and information technology |
Novelty and significance(what is the novelty, practical or social significance of the product / research being performed) | The computer appeared after studying the work of the brain. now they want to bring it even closer to the original. |
Target | Find out if a computer can replace a person in the near future. |
Tasks | To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set:
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Object of study(what is being studied directly) | the object of study is the human brain |
Subject of study(aspect of the problem, characteristics, properties of the object, by exploring which you can know the object and solve the problem) | In the project, the subject of research is the capabilities of the human brain |
Research methods | Research methods: collecting information, studying literature, analyzing information, compiling tables, writing a project, making a presentation. |
Project Manager ____________________ / _______________ / "____" _______ 20__
(Signature) (full name) (Date)
Student ____________________/_______________/ "____" _______ 20__
(Signature) (full name) (Date)
Curator (leader) of the group ________________ / _______________ / "____" _______ 20__
(Signature) (full name) (Date)
INTRODUCTION
Most essays, works for the Olympiad cannot be done without a computer. Children and at home continue to actively use computers. Many interesting computer games have appeared with which you can develop a wide variety of skills. As a result, students spend more and more time at the computer both at school and at home.I believe that computers can be compared to a living organism. Man is a kind of system. And each element in it has certain functions. Without them, no organism can function. But there are "additional" functions that are not necessary for the body to work. This is how the computer works. It, like a living organism, has elements that are mandatory and optional for its work. Also, each element of the computer can be compared with some specific organs, body parts in a living organism. For example, the user hears through the speakers, we see through the webcam, and the processor is the brain of the system that regulates all processes and actions. Just like any living organism, a computer can get sick, both have degrees of complexity of diseases. So, based on the foregoing, we can conclude that a comparison of a computer with a living organism is quite possible. Therefore, as when comparing other things or any phenomena, we can find similarities and differences in these objects. The differences can be as follows: - a computer is a technical invention, which means that it is soulless and cannot experience any feelings and emotions, such as love, hate, sadness, joy, etc. etc. - the computer contains functions that are only convenient for its (human) use, and a living organism, for example, the same person, endows itself with the necessary, possible qualities and abilities. - a computer has some abilities that a living being also has, but to a more perfect degree. - a person, unlike a computer, has freedom of movement and action.What is the difference between the human brain and the computer, you need to find out.
The computer has become an integral part of every student's life. At school
the subject "Informatics" appeared, where they teach the basics of working on a computer.
Most essays, works for the Olympiad cannot be done without a computer. Children and at home continue to actively use computers.
There are many interesting computer games with which you can develop a wide variety of skills. As a result, students spend more and more time at the computer both at school and at home. What is the difference between the human brain and the computer, you need to find out.
Objective of the project : find out: can a computer replace a person in the near future.
Hypothesis: information processes in the computer and in the human body proceed in the same way.
Project objectives:
1. Get an idea about information processes and features of their flow in nature, computer, human body.
2. Analyze and compare the flow of information processes in the human body and in the reality surrounding it.
the object of research is the human brain, in the project the subject of research is the capabilities of the human brain
Relevance: Life is beautiful! Life in its diversity is joy and delight. And no one at the present time will be able to convince humanity of the opposite. Having learned to manage his thoughts, emotions, desires and actions at his own discretion and needs in any life situations, including stressful and extreme ones, a person has acquired an invaluable sense of inner freedom, got rid of addictions, fears, prejudices. He felt with every cell of his body the fullness and beauty of his own life.
What makes a person a person? What do machines lack: feelings, abstraction, intuition? Can a computer ever replace a human?
In this project, we will try to find the answer to this question.
WHAT IS A COMPUTER
The computer, or electronic computer, is one of the most intelligent inventions of man. Now there is not a single branch of knowledge where computers are not used.
The heart of a computer is a special electronic circuit called a processor. It is she who processes all the information that enters the computer.
The program controls the operation of the processor. It is written in a special language that the machine understands and performs the same function as the sheet music for the musician.
If there were no programs, then even the most advanced computer would not be able to solve the simplest arithmetic problem.
Currently, a huge number of different programs have been created, thanks to which computers can create books, translate from one language to another, perform complex mathematical calculations, and even draw cartoons.
Thus, it is a machine created by man, working under the direction of man and for man.
HUMAN
Man is a social being, representing the highest stage in the development of life on Earth, capable of producing tools of labor and with their help influencing the world around him, possessing a complexly organized brain, consciousness and articulate speech.
The human body, like all animals, consists of individual small cells. They form various tissues (muscular, nervous, bone, etc.), each performing its own function. Organs and systems are made up of tissues - digestion, blood circulation, respiration, etc.
The human body is a single whole, and the work of all its organs is closely connected. The connection between tissues, organs and the whole organism with the external environment is carried out by the nervous system.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY OF HUMAN
Higher nervous activity (HNA) is the activity of the cerebral cortex and the subcortical formations closest to it, which ensures the most perfect adaptation (behavior) of highly organized animals and humans to the environment. In the work of the Russian physiologist I. M. Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain" (1863), the idea was first expressed about the connection between consciousness and human thinking with the reflex activity of the brain. This idea was experimentally confirmed and developed by Academician I. P. Pavlov, who is rightfully the creator of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. Its basis is conditioned reflexes.
COGNITIVE PROCESSES
William James, an American psychologist and philosopher, wrote: "Our science is a drop, our ignorance is a sea."
These words can be attributed to the knowledge of the world, and to the knowledge of man. But both cognitive processes are involved in both cognition. Knowing the world, a person knows himself. Human cognitive processes include:
- Sensation is a reflection of the properties of reality, resulting from their impact on the sense organs and excitation of the nerve centers of the brain.
Perception is a complex process of receiving and transforming information that provides a reflection of objective reality and orientation in the surrounding world.
- Thinking:
- it is the highest cognitive process.
- it is the movement of ideas, revealing the essence of things. Its result is not an image, but some thought, an idea (a concept is a generalized reflection of a class of objects in their most general and essential features)
- this is a special kind of theoretical and practical activity, involving a system of actions and operations included in it of an orienting-research, transformative and cognitive nature.
Thinking is the highest level of human knowledge.
- Attention is the ability of a person to concentrate his “cognitive processes” on one object in order to study (cognize) it.
- Memory is the ability to reproduce past experience, one of the main properties of the nervous system, expressed in the ability to store information for a long time and repeatedly enter it into the sphere of consciousness and behavior.
- Imagination is a special form of the human psyche, standing apart from other mental processes and at the same time occupying an intermediate position between perception, thinking and memory.
- Speech is a set of spoken or perceived sounds that have the same meaning and the same meaning as the corresponding system of written signs.
Through cognitive processes, a person acquires not only knowledge, but also the ability to live, work, build his personal life, and participate in public life. Cognitive processes are the basis of human knowledge of the world
In the mass consciousness, memory is still perceived as an analogue of a hard disk, only less accurate and reliable. This analogy is fundamentally wrong. In almost all respects, human memory is fundamentally different from machine memory.
Let's compare them according to several indicators:
- Energy independence;
- Memory;
- Throughput of interfaces;
- data storage method,
- Mechanisms for storing and reproducing information,
- File system,
- Need during service breaks
- Reliability.
Energy independence
Computer memory can be both volatile and non-volatile. Human memory is only volatile. Cardiac arrest causes brain death and data loss in as little as 6 minutes.
Memory
It is extremely difficult to accurately measure the size of a person's long-term memory, although attempts are being made (some calculations show that it is measured in hundreds of terabytes). Most likely, our memory is commensurate with the capabilities of modern computing technology. Short-term (operative) memory is easier to measure. Not by gigabytes, of course, but by the number of objects that a person is able to keep in memory without repetition: only seven, plus or minus two. Computers have come a long way in this regard.
As for the number of simultaneously running processes, things are even worse here. We can fully focus on only one task. Parallel processes can be performed only when conscious thought efforts are not required or are required at a minimum (smoking, listening to music, scratching your leg).
Communication standard
Inside a computer, data is exchanged in the form of electrical signals. In the brain, individual neurons also operate electrical signals, but in order to transmit data across synapses, they convert them into less efficient chemical compounds, which leads to a loss of heat and information.
Interface bandwidth
The throughput of computer interfaces reaches tens of gigabytes per second. It is more difficult to measure human neural interfaces, but according to existing estimates, their capabilities are more modest. The sense organs are capable of receiving up to 11 Mbit/s, but a person consciously absorbs no more than 40 bit/s. Moreover, most of the time our conscious information flow is only 16 bps.
Data storage method
Computing devices store information on a hard disk or its equivalent. In humans, memories are extremely atomized and fragmented throughout the brain. The memory of unpleasant emotions is stored in the amygdala, graphics in the visual cortex, sound in the auditory cortex, and so on.
Memorization and reproduction of information
First : Computers reproduce information exactly as recorded. The brain does not store anything in finished form, it operates with a system of cross-references. At the moment of activation of the memory, special proteins are created, with their help, connections are established between the necessary parts of the brain and the memory comes to life. The closest analogy is a theatrical production: the script is the same each time, but there may be differences in the details. Second : machine memory is context independent. The brain, on the other hand, tries to remember only the most important (essence) and with reference to the context. To remember and remember, we need associations and preferably the situation that was at the time of the event. This speeds up access to frequently used data, but reduces the speed of working with memory in general. There are people with phenomenal memory, but they either suffer from cognitive disorders or are trained using mnemonics, that is, again, the ability to use context.
File system
Electronics knows exactly where everything is stored thanks to the file system. The brain is in chaos. There is no file system, but there is a huge data dump with context stickers pasted on them: "birthday", "Yulia's kiss", "bitten by a dog", "got drunk and jumped into the river, then a boil jumped up", "saw a slot machine for the first time". The computer accesses its memory with specific requests: who, what, where, when. The request to the brain looks much less formal: “Is there anything on the topic?”
Service breaks
According to one theory, sleep is needed for memory consolidation. During wakefulness, a constant flow of information leads to an increase in synaptic conduction in the brain, and over time this makes the brain work inefficiently. Sleep reduces synaptic conduction to an optimal level. Computers can work longer, but sometimes they need breaks - for example, due to memory leaks.
Reliability
In terms of reliability, both systems are about equal. Computing devices store data on a hard disk. In the event of a malfunction, the data is lost, and the computer fails. On the other hand, the contents of the hard drive can be duplicated using RAID or set up backups.
The brain is less reliable, but more flexible. Human memory itself is not organized in the best way, and in case of trauma, there is a possibility of amnesia. But memory sometimes returns, and a person can maintain working capacity and the ability to remember even with very severe head injuries and the loss of a significant part of the brain.
TANDEM OF HUMAN AND COMPUTER: WHAT HAPPENS NEXT
All scientists unequivocally answer that no, a computer cannot yet replace a person. They consider only a tandem (joint activity with someone) of a person and a computer.
During its relatively short existence, the computer has already managed to take its place in many areas of human life, it is no longer replaceable at work, helps children in their studies, and of course is one of the most favorite entertainment for them. With the advent of the Internet, it has also become the best way to find information, business communication, recreation, etc. in general, it is already difficult for some people to imagine life without a computer.
Computer innovation and the human brain are perhaps the most effective tandem for creating a cognitive revolution. Reading minds at a distance, mind control technology, impulse prostheses - once such inventions were considered an invention of science fiction writers. But now these are no longer abstract ideas, but a concrete science, which is gradually entering everyday life. What awaits us in the near future?
Cognitive - literally from Latin means "cognitive". In practice, cognitive science studies the perception of the world by a person, his thoughts, memory, etc. This means that there are devices that take into account our state and even monitor the work of our brain.
ARTIFICIAL SENSORS
Technology can replace eyes, ears, noses and other organs. In the laboratories of the world, visual prostheses are being developed that will make even completely blind people able to see. In this case, it is not necessary to use the eye and the optic nerve - the signal from the miniature camera goes directly to the cerebral cortex, where a special chip is implanted. At the theoretical level, the whole technology is already understood and tested on rats and cats. Now we are talking about technical details.
Within a few years, mass healing of the blind and deaf will begin. And in a few decades, implanted electronics will be able to become more sensitive than living organs. And it will be possible to see not only in front of you, but also behind, from the side and from above.
BRAIN-MACHINE INTERFACES
Systems that allow direct transmission of signals from the brain to a computer are being developed today at the Faculty of Biology of Moscow State University, and at the Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and at the Rostov Research Institute of Neurocybernetics. Systems and methods for controlling bio-objects (bio-robots), which are turtles, rabbits, and dolphins, are being developed. A few years ago, electrodes were implanted in the turtle, a processor was installed on its shell, as a result, the movements of the animal could be controlled using a joystick.
In two or three years it will be possible to buy a device in a computer supermarket that allows you to play a shooter-walker with the help of the power of thought. And sooner or later, mental control of any devices will become available, and such a trifle as computers and mobile phones will migrate from our pockets straight to the brain connected to the Great Web.
INTELLIGENT ROBOTS
Scientists and engineers are trying to make mechanical devices more and more like a person, not only externally, but also intellectually. Creating robots that would be able to joke, empathize with a person, “understand” and support him is an extremely attractive idea for modern civilization: this is how robots are shown in science fiction novels and movies. The emotional behavior of living people is taken as a basis - their speech, intonations, facial expressions, behavior. The resulting model is algorithmized and converted into a program code. As a result, drawn people are already talking on the computer screen, capable of both joking and getting angry.
According to TechCast's forecast, by 2022, intelligent robots that sense the environment, make decisions, and learn will be used in 30% of households and organizations.
HOW TO TRAIN MEMORY AND ATTENTION
CAUSES OF "GIRL'S" MEMORY
In people with age, memory becomes worse, absent-mindedness appears, the ability to rationally reason disappears. There are many reasons for the appearance of such shortcomings:
Diseases (hypertension, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, diabetes),
- completeness,
- alcohol, smoking,
- bad dream.
But the mind can be trained like any muscle in the body. For this, special exercises have been developed. How to develop the mind in adults? First of all, a person needs to quit smoking, drinking alcohol, otherwise, a good result will have to wait a long time. Although tobacco has the property - to contribute to an instant increase in concentration, but it is so short-lived that you should not rely on it.
We won’t even talk about alcohol, taking alcohol can’t keep a deep mind. Even a small dose of it reduces the ability to quickly memorize, and can also cause breakdowns in thinking.
Negatively affect the ability to remember calming, stimulating drugs, painkillers, anti-inflammatory drugs.
RECEPTIONS FOR PRESERVING MEMORY
Almost all techniques are based on 3 laws of nature that contribute to memorization: emotions, associations and repetition. For better memorization, vivid impressions are important. It was this law that Roosevelt used, so he had an excellent concentration of attention. Everything he read, he memorized almost verbatim. The secret lies in the fact that he completely focused on the information he needed.
Napoleon used unusual tricks. He asked the fighter how his last name was spelled, while getting a vivid impression of the person. Then he could say where this fighter stands during the construction, what is his name. President Lincoln read aloud what needed to be remembered.
Mark Twain also had his own method of memorizing a rather voluminous text. He wrote down a few words that begin a paragraph. Then he began to draw what was important for him to leave in his head.
WHERE TO START YOUR TRAINING
There are exercises for adults that will help you concentrate on the main thing.
1. Try for 5-10 seconds to keep your mind completely free of thoughts. At this time, avoid any tension: nervous or mental. Then gradually bring up to 30 seconds of being in this state. How to do it?
Try to focus on and stop the movement of pictures for at least 10 sec.
Necessary, so that for 15 minutes. your concentration was not interrupted for more than a second. those. the picture should not move.
2. Visual memory training. Try to fix the appearance of the person walking in front of you, then remember him in all the details. You can try to imagine what the signboard was at the barbershop, and, also, in all details.
3. To improve sound memory, constantly read aloud or teach poems with your son or daughter.
4. Smell the perfume in the perfume department. Then remember their name. Practice with other scents.
5. Try to develop memory for numbers. To get started, count the change in your mind in the store, guess the price of each product. Count how many steps you take from the apartment to the exit. Count everything that comes along the way.
6. Repeat the multiplication table.
PLAY CHESS
For the development of thinking, games of chess, checkers, dominoes, playing cards are suitable. Specialists have developed many games for the development of attention, memory, thinking.
Make these memory development exercises
Memorization will help solving crossword puzzles, puzzles. And all kinds of needlework, such as embroidery, knitting, drawing, improve fine motor skills, concentration on small details.
EXERCISES TO INCREASE STABILITY OF ATTENTION
1. To activate the brain.Waking up in the morning, do this exercise:
Roll your eyes to the right, then to the left, up, down for 30 seconds.
- Touch your left elbow to your right knee and vice versa.
- if you are left-handed, then try to write something with your left hand and vice versa,
- close your eyes, try to imagine your diary, including abbreviations, commas, strikethroughs.
- take a pen in each hand, draw geometric shapes on a piece of paper, for example, draw a circle with your right hand and a square with your left hand, and draw with both hands at the same time. Give this exercise 30 seconds a day so that both hemispheres of the brain begin to work together.
2. Motor memory training.Make a dot on a piece of paper with a felt-tip pen. Then lower your hand, after 5 seconds, also with your eyes closed, try to hit the same point with a felt-tip pen. Then draw lines going in different directions, then repeat them again from memory.
3. To remember names, people.When you meet a person, call him by name, then highlight his most interesting feature. Then repeat: name - image, name - image. Saying goodbye, say his name again.
4. Memory for numbers. Try to remember all phone numbers from your address book. For a better perception, think of your own image for each number, for example, 1 is a match, 2 is a swan, etc.
In this simple task, all you have to do is find a man's head among the coffee beans. And note the time in which you completed the task.
Up to 3 seconds. The right hemisphere is well developed. Up to 1 minute is good. 1-3 minutes says that you definitely need to work on yourself.
MEMORY DOES NOT DO ANYTHING
You will remember information better if you train your attention. To gauge your level of attention, try describing an object you've passed by many times. Psychologists say that in order to increase attention, you need to perform simple tasks.
1.
Put 10 different objects on the table, look at them for 10 seconds, cover them with, for example, a newspaper. Then quickly list, remembering every last one. Did not work out? Try until you learn to concentrate.
2.
Now arrange a lot of items one after another. If you are alone, you can even write it down to check yourself. Close them, name them in order.
3.
Name the color of objects familiar to you that are in the house, without looking at them.
4.
Arrange 8 objects in the form of a pyramid, turn away and name them from memory from top to bottom and vice versa.
LEARNING TO FOCUS
An excellent result is given by the following task. Find a paragraph in any book, read it, tell me how many letters “a” you found in it, then “c”, then how many words are in it. Record the time spent on this task. Work with the text so many times until you achieve the best result.
The pictures show the objects. Practice memorizing as many items as possible for a while.
A good result is the pronunciation of the action performed aloud. For example, when leaving home, you often think: did I turn off the iron? Do this by turning off the iron, say: “I turned off the iron,” you can also pronounce all the actions.
IMPROVE YOUR FOCUS
Various techniques have been developed for this. Here are some of them.
1. Look at a picture for 3-5 seconds. Name memorable details or objects.
Key: bad if you remember only 5 items; good from 5 to 9; great if you named more than 9 details.
2. Look at the list and name the COLOR of each word, the main thing is to name the color, not the word!
Dear readers, you have learned a lot of interesting tests, exercises that you can offer as a game when you get together in a small company. Try it, it will be interesting!
CONCLUSION
Man is one of the species of the animal kingdom with a highly developed brain, a complex social organization and labor activity that form consciousness and make the biological fundamental principles of the body inconspicuous.
Man is the subject of the socio-historical process, the development of material and spiritual culture on Earth, a biosocial being genetically related to other forms of life, but separated from them due to the ability to produce tools, possessing articulate speech and consciousness, creative activity and moral self-consciousness.
LIST OF USED LITERATURE
- Encyclopedia for children. Volume 22. Informatics. Moscow: Avanta+, 2003.
- Encyclopedia for children. Volume 18. Man. Part 1. The origin and nature of man. How the body works. The art of being healthy. Moscow: Avanta+, 2001.
- Encyclopedia for children. Volume 18. Man. Part 2. The architecture of the soul. Psychology of Personality. The world of relationships. Psychotherapy. Moscow: Avanta+, 2002.
- Danilova N.N. Psychophysiology: A textbook for universities. - M .: Aspect Press, 2001
- Martsinkovskaya T.D. History of psychology: Proc. allowance for students. higher textbook institutions.- M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2001
- NewScientist.com news service; Angewandte Chemie International Edition (vol. 45, p. 1572)
All people living in society are communicators, since any individual action is carried out in conditions of direct or indirect relations with other people, i.e. includes (along with the physical) the communicative aspect. Actions consciously focused on their semantic perception by other people are sometimes called communicative actions. Communication can be considered effective if its function (managerial, informative or phatic) is successfully performed. Unfortunately, in practice, communicative actions do not always lead to the effect expected by the communicator. One of the reasons for this is the inabilitycommunicate correctly.
Many people often communicate not so much with a person as with an idea about this person. Sometimes it seems that they have something like a tape recorder in their head and they just need to say the text that is recorded on tape. For example, some seller in the store continues to convince the visitor of the delights of the product, wasting both his and his time, although he has already shown with all his appearance that he DOES NOT WANT THIS. It ends with the fact that the visitor, finally getting rid of the obsessive consultant, quickly leaves the room, and he is looking for a new victim. In this case, we can talk about ineffective communication, since neither the seller nor the buyer achieved their goal.
An effective communication strategy.
When we studied successful communicators, we found that they have one common strategy. This communication strategy is based on interaction people. A professional communicator always gets feedback and can, if necessary, change his own behavior.
The strategy of a successful communicator includes a number of steps, the meaning and sequence of which are briefly looks like that:
1. Calibration
2. Adjustment.
3. Lead.
1. Calibration.
The person with whom we communicate can be in different emotional and psychological states that must be taken into account in the process of interaction. The detection of even the smallest external signs of these states is called calibration .
Calibration requires the development of certain skills in analyzing movements, muscle tension, changes in voice or breathing, etc. The differences to be identified can be quite subtle - a slight turn of the head, a lowering of the voice, etc. However, if you are careful enough, you can always find these differences, no matter how tiny they may seem.
The most standard set for calibration is the definition of 6 states:
1. Positive active (joy, delight, happiness).
2. Positive passive (calm, peace).
3. State of interest, learning.
4. State of decision making.
5. Negative passive (sadness, disappointment).
6. Negative active (anger, rage).
A few more useful calibrations are:
1. Yes - No.
2. Like - Don't like.
3. True - False.
The definition of each of these states allows you to optimally build interaction with a partner to achieve the desired result.
The ability to decipher non-verbal sources of information is useful in this sense.
Australian specialist A. Pease claims that 7% of information is transmitted with the help of words, 38% of sound means, facial expressions, gestures, postures - 55%. In other words, it is not so important what is said, but how it is done.
Knowledge of sign language allows you to better understand the interlocutor and, if necessary, use the means of non-verbal communication yourself in order to influence the interlocutor. It is important to pay attention not only to facial expressions - facial expressions, but also to gestures, since people have more control over their facial expressions than posture and gestures. Some of the most common gestures and how to respond to them are described below.
Impatience gestures:
Tapping objects or fingers, fidgeting in a chair, waving a leg, looking at a watch, looking “past” you. If a person sits on the edge of a chair, his whole body seems to be directed forward, his hands rested on his knees - he is in a hurry, or he is so tired of the conversation that he wants to finish it as soon as possible.
Emotional discomfort gestures:
Picking up non-existent villi, shaking off clothes, scratching the neck, taking off and putting on the ring indicate that the parterre is experiencing internal tension. He is not ready to make decisions and take responsibility. Try to calm him down. Keep the conversation "about nothing" for a while, or switch to a less significant topic. Be sure to listen to the answers even to routine questions, people do not like to feel that they are being communicated with “formally”, without being really interested in their opinion.
Lie Gestures:
When a person wants to hide something, he unconsciously touches his face with his hand - as if "covering" the corner of his mouth with his hand, or rubbing his nose. You should not show a person that you doubt his words and catch him in a lie. Better, ask him again (“That is, if I understood you correctly, then: ..”), so as to leave him a path for retreat, so that it would be easier for him to return to a constructive channel.
Dominance Gestures:
An index finger pointing at you, a high chin, a figure in the form of "hands on hips." Playing along with such an "important" person, slouching, obsequiously nodding and agreeing with his every word, or repeating all his movements, straightening his shoulders, raising his chin will not be very effective. The best way to meet such a pompous person is to emphasize his importance, while maintaining your face. For example, to state: “You were recommended to me as an experienced, knowledgeable specialist”, or “What would you do in my place?”. Having asked such a question, of course, it is necessary to carefully listen to the answer, no matter how paradoxical it may seem to you.
Naturally, the external reactions of each person are different, so you should not unconditionally follow these recommendations, but rather study your interlocutor and try to better understand his individual reactions.
2. Adjustment.
It is very important for people that the one with whom they communicate is “their own”. The more “our”, the higher the trust, the better the communication. The process of becoming "one's own" is called fine tuning .
Adjustment is a completely natural element of human (and not only) behavior. People practically can't communicate unless they're tuned in. And the better the substring, the better the communication, the more successfully understanding is achieved.
The task of adjustment is to match the state of another person as accurately as possible, while you determined the state of the interlocutor during the calibration process (see above).
A state is something internal, which is somehow manifested by external signs: voice modulations, breathing rhythm, posture, speed and style of speech. In order to adapt well to a person, you need to sit in a similar position (posture adjustment), breathe with him in the same rhythm (breath adjustment), speak in a similar voice (voice tuning) etc.
In psychological trainings, an exercise called "Dispute" is used. It's pretty simple. People pair up and are asked to find a topic in which they are with each other. do not agree . After the topic is found, it needs to be discussed,while being in the same position all the time.
It turns out quite funny - those who are honestly in the same (rigged) poses usually very quickly find something in common in their opinions. And those couples who are carried away by the argument try very quickly get away from each other.
Then the reverse task follows - choose topics in which the interlocutors completely agree with each other, and discuss them inrebuilt (various)poses. The result is just the opposite: those who sit in detuned poses very quickly find something to argue about. And those who are more involved in the discussion gradually sit down in similar poses.
3. Lead.
After you have adjusted, a very interesting state occurs (it is sometimes called rapport) - if you start to change your own behavior, your interlocutor "follows" you. You change position, he changes it too. You changed the subject, he is happy to discuss it. Became more cheerful - he also cheered up.
When you are well tuned, then you have become your own enough, you have a high degree of trust from the other person (or others), you are in rapport. If at the same time you change your behavior, your partner will follow you. You raise your hand and so does he. You change your breath and he follows you. And in a broader sense, it is an opportunity to direct a person in the right direction, to lead both verbally and non-verbally.
The state of leading is as natural in communication as the process of adjustment. The success of playing the role of a leader or a follower is determined initially by temperament, but awareness of this mechanism in the process of communication can help you change one role to another if necessary to achieve the best result, and the role of the leader will not always be preferable.
You can illustrate effective interaction to achieve a common goal using the example of our smaller brothers. A flock of swans is able to fly for so long in one rhythm because they tweaked. Their leader creates an air wave, and everyone else rolls on it, like on a surf. When one swan gets tired, the other becomes leading. Swans lead (and are led) to achieve a common goal.
Using I-statements for effective communication.
The strategy of a successful communicator described above provides a mechanism for directing interpersonal interaction in the direction you need in a situation of calm constructive communication.. However, sometimes people face problems in communication that grow out of a misunderstanding of each other, an inability to convey their thoughts and feelings to a partner.
In a stressful situation, we often cannot hear what is happening to another person until we feel that we ourselves have been heard and understood. But if we feel that we were actually heard and understood, understood what we want or need, then we relax and can finally hear what is important for our interlocutor.
How to achieve this? Psychologists suggest using the so-called I-statement to facilitate mutual understanding. When formulating an I-statement, it is necessary:
- Voice what is happening (in a conflict, this is usually what happened, making us upset): "When I (saw, heard, etc.) ....... (description) ....... ."
- Voice your feelings: "I felt .... (your feelings conveyed in an accessible form) ......"
- Voice hidden desires, needs, values and important things: "Because I wanted ........ (your expectations, hopes, etc.) ......"
- If necessary, ask for help: "And now I would like to ...... (a request, but by no means a demand) ...."
When we voice our desires, needs, aspirations, etc., it is important to try to voice them in a positive way, rather than a negative one. For example, you can say "I want to live in a house where dirty clothes are not scattered on the floor" and this, with a little mental effort, leads to the conclusion - "To live in a house that is clean and tidy." But you must admit how differently it feels when desires are voiced in a positive way.
One more example. A woman said to her husband, "I don't like the fact that you spend so much time at work." Thinking that his wife did not like his workaholism, the husband joined the bowling team the following week. But that didn't make his wife any happier. Because she really wanted him to spend more time with her. So, if we are more precise in voicing our desires, we are more likely to get what we actually expect to get.
Conclusion.
Effective communication is more than just conveying information. It is important not only to be able to speak, but also to be able to listen, hear and understand what the interlocutor is talking about. Most people apply certain principles of effective communication at least on an intuitive level. Understanding and consciously using the psychological aspects of communication can help us build relationships with others in the best possible way. At the same time, it should be remembered that the most important principle of effective communication is really sincere try be heard and understood by those people who need to convey information.
Used materials:
- A. Lyubimov. An effective communication strategy. www.trainings.ru
- D. Russell. Fundamentals of effective communication. www.rafo.livejournal.com
- Fundamentals of effective communication. www. f-group.org
- Principles of effective communication. www. dizk.ru
- Communication. www. en.wikipedia.org
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
middle School of General education
with in-depth study of individual subjects No. 256
ESSAY
in informatics
TOPIC: Computer inside a person
Executor Supervisor
Shmeleva Mikhailichenko
Anna Alekseevna Natalia Viktorovna
11 "A"
Fokino
2006
Table of contents
Introduction ................................................ ...............................................3
1. Neuron - a structural unit of the CNS .............................................. ..........4
2. Principles of information coding in the CNS...............................................................5
2.1. Neural mechanisms of perception ............................................................... ..eight
2.2 Color perception from the position of the vector model
information processing ................................................................ .................eleven
vegetative reactions .................................................................. ............12
3. Neural networks ............................................... ..................................14
4. A real computer inside a person .............................................. ..sixteen
Conclusion................................................. .........................................17
Bibliography................................................ ................................eighteen
Annex 1................................................ ........................................nineteen
Appendix 2 .................................................. .........................................21
Introduction
Many researchers liken the nervous system to a computer that regulates and coordinates the vital activity of the body. In order for a person to successfully fit into the picture of the world around him, this internal computer has to solve four main tasks. They are the main functions of the nervous system.
First of all, it perceives all irritants acting on the body. The nervous system converts all perceived information about temperature, color, taste, smell and other characteristics of phenomena and objects into electrical impulses, which it transmits to the brain and spinal regions. Each of us has a "biological telegraph" - within its limits, signals propagate at speeds up to 400 km / h. "Telegraph wires" - roots, radicular nerves, nodes and main nerve trunks. There are 86 of them, and each is divided into many smaller branches, and all of them are "assigned" to the peripheral nervous system (see Appendix 1, Fig. 1).
Our internal computer processes the received data: analyzes, systematizes, remembers, compares with previously received messages and already existing experience. The “general headquarters” that processes signals from both outside and inside the body is the brain. The faithful "adjutant" at the headquarters - the spinal cord - serves as a kind of local government, as well as a link with higher departments of the biological computer. Together with the brain, the spinal cord forms the central nervous system (CNS).
In my essay, I examined the processes of transmission and encoding of information occurring in the nervous system from the point of view of information technology, briefly spoke about artificial neural networks and a computer that can work inside a person.
1. Neuron - a structural unit of the central nervous system
The impeccable coherence of the nervous system is provided by 20 billion neurons (Greek "neuron" - "vein", "nerve") - specialized cells. The fourth part of the neurons is concentrated in the spinal cord and adjacent spinal nodes. The rest are located in the so-called gray matter (cortex and subcortical centers) of the brain.
The neuron consists of a body (a catfish with a nucleus), a set of tree-like processes - dendrites - and a long axon (see Appendix 1, Fig. 3). Dendrites serve as input channels for nerve impulses from other neurons. Impulses enter the soma, causing its specific excitation, which then spreads along the excretory process - the axon. Neurons are connected using special contacts - synapses, in which the axon branches of one neuron come very close (at a distance of several tens of microns) to the soma or dendrites of another neuron.
The neurons located in the receptors perceive external stimuli, in the gray matter of the brain stem and spinal cord they control human movements (muscles and glands), in the brain they connect sensory and motor neurons. The latter form various brain centers where the information received from external stimuli is converted into motor signals.
How does this system work? Three main processes occur in neurons: synaptic excitation, synaptic inhibition, and the emergence of nerve impulses. Synaptic processes are provided by special chemicals that are released by the endings of one neuron and interact with the surface of another. Synaptic excitation causes a neuron response and, upon reaching a certain threshold, turns into a nerve impulse that quickly propagates through the processes. Inhibition, on the contrary, reduces the overall level of neuron excitability.
2.Principles of encoding information in the nervous system
Today we can talk about several principles of coding in the nervous system. Some of them are quite simple and characteristic of the peripheral level of information processing, others are more complex and characterize the transmission of information at higher levels of the nervous system, including the cortex.
One of the simple ways of encoding information is the specificity of receptors that selectively respond to certain stimulation parameters, for example, cones with different sensitivity to visible wavelengths, pressure receptors, pain receptors, tactile receptors, etc.
Another method of transmitting information is called the frequency code. Most obviously, it is associated with coding the intensity of stimulation. The frequency method of encoding information about the intensity of the stimulus, including the operation of the logarithm, is consistent with the psychophysical law of G. Fechner that the magnitude of the sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the intensity of the stimulus.
However, Fechner's law was later heavily criticized. S. Stephens, on the basis of his psychophysical studies conducted on people using sound, light and electrical stimulation, proposed the law of a power function instead of Fechner's law. This law states that sensation is proportional to the exponent of the stimulus, while Fechner's law is only a special case of a power law.
An analysis of vibration signal transmission from somatic receptors showed that information about vibration frequency is transmitted using frequency, and its intensity is encoded by the number of simultaneously active receptors.
As an alternative mechanism to the first two coding principles - labeled line and frequency code - the neuron response pattern is also considered. The stability of the temporal response pattern is a hallmark of neurons in a specific brain system. The system for transmitting information about stimuli using a pattern of neuron discharges has a number of limitations. In neural networks operating according to this code, the principle of economy cannot be observed, since it requires additional operations and time to take into account the beginning and end of the neuron's reaction, and determine its duration. In addition, the efficiency of transmitting information about the signal significantly depends on the state of the neuron, which makes this coding system insufficiently reliable.
The idea that information is encoded by the channel number was already present in the experiments of I.P. Pavlova with a dog skin analyzer. Developing conditioned reflexes to irritation of different parts of the skin of the paw through "guts", he established the presence of a somatotopic projection in the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres. Irritation of a certain area of the skin caused a focus of excitation in a certain locus of the somatosensory cortex. The spatial correspondence between the place of application of the stimulus and the locus of excitation in the cortex was also confirmed in other analyzers: visual, auditory. The tonotopic projection in the auditory cortex reflects the spatial arrangement of the hair cells of the organ of Corti, which are selectively sensitive to different frequencies of sound vibrations. This kind of projection can be explained by the fact that the receptor surface is displayed on the map of the cortex through many parallel channels - lines that have their own numbers. When the signal is shifted relative to the receptor surface, the excitation maximum moves along the elements of the cortical map. The map element itself represents a local detector that selectively responds to stimulation of a certain area of the receptor surface. Locality detectors, which have point receptive fields and selectively react to touching a certain point on the skin, are the simplest detectors. The set of locality detectors forms a map of the skin surface in the cortex. The detectors work in parallel, each point of the skin surface is represented by an independent detector.
A similar mechanism of signal transmission about stimuli also operates when stimuli differ not in the place of application, but in other signs. The appearance of the excitation locus on the detector map depends on the parameters of the stimulus. With their change, the locus of excitation on the map shifts. To explain the organization of a neural network operating as a detector system, E.N. Sokolov proposed a mechanism for vector signal coding.
The principle of vector coding of information was first formulated in the 50s by the Swedish scientist G. Johanson, who laid the foundation for a new direction in psychology - vector psychology. G. Johanson showed that if two points on the screen move towards each other - one horizontally, the other vertically - then a person sees the movement of one point along an inclined straight line. To explain the effect of the illusion of movement, G. Johanson used a vector representation. The movement of a point is considered by him as the result of the formation of a two-component vector, reflecting the action of two independent factors (movements in the horizontal and vertical directions). Subsequently, the vector model was extended by him to the perception of the movements of the body and limbs of a person, as well as to the movement of objects in three-dimensional space. E.N. Sokolov developed vector representations, applying them to the study of neural mechanisms of sensory processes, as well as motor and autonomic reactions.
Vector psychophysiology is a new direction focused on connecting psychological phenomena and processes with vector encoding of information in neural networks.
2.1. Neural Mechanisms of Perception
Information about the neurons of sensory systems accumulated over the past decades confirms the detector principle of the neural organization of various analyzers. Consider the mechanisms of perception in the nervous system on the example of the visual analyzer.
For the visual cortex, neurons-detectors have been described that selectively respond to the elements of the figure, contour - lines, stripes, angles.
An important step in the development of the theory of sensory systems was the discovery of constant detector neurons that take into account, in addition to visual signals, signals about the position of the eyes in the orbits. In the parietal cortex, the reaction of constant detector neurons is tied to a certain area of external space, forming a constant screen. Another type of constant color-coding neurons was discovered by S. Zeki in the extrastriate visual cortex. Their reaction to certain reflective properties of the color surface of the object does not depend on the lighting conditions.
The study of vertical and horizontal connections of neurons-detectors of various types led to the discovery of the general principles of the neural architecture of the cortex. W. Mountcastle - a scientist from the medical school of Johns Hopkins University - in the 60s for the first time described the vertical principle of organizing the cerebral cortex. Examining the neurons of the somatosensory cortex in an anesthetized cat, he found that they were modally grouped into vertical columns. Some columns respond to stimulation of the right side of the body, others - to the left, and the other two types of columns differed in that some of them responded selectively to touch or to the deflection of hairs on the body (i.e. to irritation of receptors located in the upper layers of the skin) , others - on pressure or on movement in the joint (on stimulation of receptors in the deep layers of the skin). The columns looked like three-dimensional rectangular blocks of various sizes and passed through all cell layers. From the surface of the cortex, they looked like plates ranging in size from 20-50 microns to 0.25-0.5 mm. Later, these data were confirmed and on anesthetized monkeys, other researchers already on non-anesthetized animals (macaques, cats, rats) also provided additional evidence of the columnar organization of the cortex.
Thanks to the work of D. Hubel and T. Wiesel, today we present in more detail the columnar organization of the visual cortex. The researchers use the term "column" proposed by W. Mountcastle, but note that the term "plate" would be the most appropriate. Speaking of columnar organization, they mean that “some property of cells remains constant throughout the entire thickness of the cortex from its surface to white matter, but changes in directions parallel to the surface of the cortex.” First, groups of cells (columns) were found in the visual cortex associated with different eye dominance, as the largest. It was observed that whenever the recording microelectrode entered the monkey's cortex perpendicular to its surface, it encountered cells that responded better to stimulation of only one eye. If it was injected a few millimeters away from the previous one, but also vertically, then for all the cells encountered, only one eye was dominant - the same as before, or the other. If the electrode was inserted with an inclination and as parallel as possible to the cortical surface, cells with different ocular dominance alternated. A complete change of the dominant eye occurred approximately every 1 mm.
In addition to the ocular dominance columns, orientational columns were found in the visual cortex of various animals (monkey, cat, squirrel). When the microelectrode is vertically immersed through the thickness of the visual cortex, all cells in the upper and lower layers selectively respond to the same line orientation. When the microelectrode is displaced, the picture remains the same, but the preferred orientation changes, i.e. the cortex is divided into columns that prefer their orientation. Autographs taken from sections of the cortex after stimulation of the eyes with strips oriented in a certain way confirmed the results of electrophysiological experiments. Neighboring columns of neurons highlight different line orientations.
In the cortex, columns were also found that selectively react to the direction of movement or to color. The width of the color-sensitive columns in the striate cortex is about 100–250 µm. Speakers tuned to different wavelengths alternate. The column with maximum spectral sensitivity at 490-500 nm is replaced by a column with maximum color sensitivity at 610 nm. Then again follows a column with selective sensitivity to 490-500 nm. Vertical columns in the three-dimensional structure of the cortex form an apparatus for multidimensional reflection of the external environment.
Depending on the degree of complexity of the processed information, three types of columns are distinguished in the visual cortex. The microcolumns respond to individual gradients of an isolated feature, for example, to one or another stimulus orientation (horizontal, vertical, or other). Macrocolumns unite microcolumns that highlight one common feature (for example, orientation), but respond to different values of its gradient (different slopes - from 0 to 180°). A hypercolumn, or module, is a local area of the visual field and responds to all stimuli that fall on it. A module is a vertically organized area of the cortex that processes a wide variety of stimulus characteristics (orientation, color, eye dominance, etc.). The module is assembled from macrocolumns, each of which responds to its own feature of an object in a local area of the visual field. The division of the cortex into small vertical divisions is not limited to the visual cortex. It is also present in other areas of the cortex (parietal, prefrontal, motor cortex, etc.).
In the cortex, there is not only a vertical (columnar) ordering of the placement of neurons, but also a horizontal (layered) one. The neurons in the column are combined according to a common feature. And the layers combine neurons that highlight different features, but the same level of complexity. Detector neurons that respond to more complex features are localized in the upper layers.
Thus, the columnar and layered organization of cortical neurons indicate that the processing of information about the features of an object, such as shape, movement, color, proceeds in parallel neural channels. At the same time, the study of the detector properties of neurons shows that the principle of divergence of information processing paths through many parallel channels should be supplemented by the principle of convergence in the form of hierarchically organized neural networks. The more complex the information, the more complex the structure of a hierarchically organized neural network is required to process it.
2.2 Color perception from the position of the vector model of information processing
The color analyzer includes the receptor and neural levels of the retina, the thalamic LCT, and various cortical zones. At the level of receptors, radiation of the visible spectrum incident on the retina in humans is converted into reactions of three types of cones containing pigments with a maximum absorption of quanta in the short-wave, medium-wave and long-wave parts of the visible spectrum. The cone response is proportional to the logarithm of the intensity of the stimulus. In the retina and the LKT, there are color-opposing neurons that react oppositely to pairs of color stimuli (red-green and yellow-blue). They are often denoted by the first letters of English words: + K-S; -K+S; +U-V; -U+V. Different combinations of cone firings elicit different responses from opponent neurons. Signals from them reach the color-sensitive neurons of the cortex.
Color perception is determined not only by the chromatic (color-sensitive) system of the visual analyzer, but also by the contribution of the achromatic system. Achromatic neurons form a local analyzer that detects the intensity of stimuli. The first information about this system can be found in the works of R. Jung, who showed that brightness and darkness in the nervous system are encoded by two independently operating channels: neurons B, which measure brightness, and neurons B, which evaluate darkness. The existence of light intensity-detecting neurons was later confirmed when cells were found in the visual cortex of the rabbit that selectively respond to a very narrow range of light intensity.
2.3. Vector model of motor and
vegetative reactions
According to the concept of vector encoding of information in neural networks, the implementation of a motor act or its fragment can be described as follows, referring to the conceptual reflex arc (see Appendix 1, Fig. 2). Its executive part is represented by a command neuron or a field of command neurons. The excitation of a command neuron affects the ensemble of premotor neurons and generates in them a control vector of excitation, which corresponds to a certain pattern of excited motor neurons that determines the external reaction. The field of command neurons provides a complex set of programmed responses. This is achieved by the fact that each of the command neurons in turn can act on the ensemble of premotor neurons, creating in them specific control excitation vectors, which determine different external reactions. Thus, the whole variety of reactions can be represented in a space whose dimension is determined by the number of premotor neurons, the excitation of the latter form control vectors.
The structure of the conceptual reflex arc includes a block of receptors that highlight a certain category of input signals. The second block is predictors that transform receptor signals into a form effective for selective excitation of detectors that form a signal mapping map. All detector neurons are projected onto command neurons in parallel. There is a block of modulating neurons, which are characterized by the fact that they are not included directly in the chain of information transfer from receptors at the input to effectors at the output. Forming "synapses upon synapses", they modulate the flow of information. Modulating neurons can be divided into local, operating within the reflex arc of one reflex, and generalized, covering the reflex arcs with their influence and thereby determining the overall level of the functional state. Local modulating neurons, by strengthening or weakening synaptic inputs on command neurons, redistribute the priorities of the reactions for which these command neurons are responsible. Modulating neurons act through the hippocampus, where detector maps are projected onto the "novelty" and "identity" neurons.
The response of a command neuron is determined by the scalar product of the excitation vector and the vector of synaptic connections. When the vector of synaptic connections as a result of learning coincides with the excitation vector in direction, the scalar product reaches a maximum and the command neuron becomes selectively tuned to the conditioned signal. Differential stimuli cause excitation vectors that differ from the one that generates the conditioned stimulus. The greater this difference, the less likely it is that a command neuron will fire. To perform an arbitrary motor reaction, the participation of memory neurons is required. On command neurons, paths converge not only from detector networks, but also from memory neurons.
Motor and autonomic responses are controlled by combinations of excitations generated by command neurons that act independently of each other, although some standard patterns of their excitations appear to occur more frequently than others.
3. Neural networks
The study of the structure and functions of the central nervous system has led to the emergence of a new scientific discipline - neuroinformatics. In fact, neuroinformatics is a way to solve all kinds of problems using artificial neural networks implemented on a computer.
Neural networks are a new and very promising computing technology that provides new approaches to the study of dynamic problems in the financial field. Initially, neural networks opened up new possibilities in the field of pattern recognition, then they added statistical and artificial intelligence-based decision support and problem solving tools in the field of finance.
The ability to model nonlinear processes, work with noisy data and adaptability make it possible to use neural networks to solve a wide range of financial problems. In the past few years, based on neural networks, many software systems have been developed for use in such matters as operations in the commodity market, assessing the probability of bank failure, assessing creditworthiness, controlling investments, and placing loans.
Applications of neural networks cover a wide variety of areas: pattern recognition, noisy data processing, pattern augmentation, associative search, classification, optimization, prediction, diagnostics, signal processing, abstraction, process control, data segmentation, information compression, complex mappings, complex process modeling, machine vision, speech recognition.
Despite the wide variety of variants of neural networks, they all have common features. So, all of them, just like the human brain, consist of a large number of the same type of elements - neurons that mimic the neurons of the brain, interconnected. Figure 4 (see Appendix 1) shows a diagram of a neuron.
It can be seen from the figure that an artificial neuron, just like a living one, consists of synapses that connect the inputs of the neuron with the nucleus, the nucleus of the neuron, which processes the input signals, and the axon, which connects the neuron with the neurons of the next layer. Each synapse has a weight that determines how much the corresponding neuron input affects its state.
The state of a neuron is determined by the formula
where
– number of neuron inputs;
– the value of the i-th input of the neuron;
– the weight of the i-th synapse.
Then the value of the axon of the neuron is determined by the formula
G 
de 
- some function, which is called activation. The most commonly used as an activation function is the so-called sigmoid, which has the following form:
4. A real computer inside a person
In the previous sections, the computer inside the person was spoken of in a figurative sense; however, the achievements of science give reason to move from metaphor to the direct meaning of words.
Israeli scientists have created a molecular computer that uses enzymes to make calculations.
Itamar Villner, who built the molecular calculator with his colleagues at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, believes that enzyme-based computers could someday be implanted in the human body and used, for example, to regulate the release of drugs into the metabolic system.
The scientists built their computer using two enzymes -- glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) -- to drive two interconnected chemical reactions. Two chemical components, hydrogen peroxide and glucose, were used as inputs (A and B). The presence of each of the chemicals corresponded to 1 in binary code, and the absence of 0 in binary code. The chemical result of the enzymatic reaction was determined optically.
The enzyme computer was used to perform two fundamental logical calculations known as AND (where A and B must be equal to one) and XOR (where A and B must have different values). The addition of two more enzymes - glucose oxidase (glucose oxidase) and catalase (catalase) - connected two logical operations, making it possible to add binary numbers using logical functions.
Enzymes are already used in calculations using specially coded DNA. Such DNA computers have the potential to outperform silicon computers in terms of speed and power, as they can perform many parallel calculations and fit a huge number of components into a tiny space.
Conclusion
While working on the abstract, I learned a lot about the structure of the human central nervous system and discovered a close relationship between the processes occurring inside a person and inside a machine. Undoubtedly, the study of the structure of the central nervous system and the brain opens up great prospects for mankind. Neural networks are already solving problems beyond the power of artificial intelligence. Neurocomputers are especially effective where an analogue of human intuition is needed for pattern recognition (face recognition, reading handwritten texts), preparing analytical forecasts, translating from one natural language to another, etc. It is for such problems that it is usually difficult to write an explicit algorithm. In the near future, it is possible to create electronic media comparable in capacity to the human brain. But in order to implement all the bold ideas of scientists, a solid theoretical base is needed. And a young, rapidly developing science, a kind of union of biology and informatics - bioinformatics, will help to ensure it.
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Annex 1
fig.1. The human nervous system - central, autonomic and peripheral
fig.2. Reflex arc formation
fig.3. A neuron with many dendrites that receives information through synaptic contact with another neuron.
fig.4. The structure of an artificial neuron
Appendix 2
Brief glossary of terms and concepts
axon - a process of a nerve cell (neuron) that conducts nerve impulses from the cell body to innervated organs or other nerve cells. Bundles of axons form nerves.
Hippocampus - a structure located in the deep layers of the lobe of the temporal brain.
Gradient - a vector showing the direction of the fastest change of some quantity, the value of which changes from one point in space to another.
Dendrite - a branching cytoplasmic process of a nerve cell that conducts nerve impulses to the cell body.
Organ of Corti -receptor apparatus of the auditory analyzer.
lcv - lateral geniculate body.
Locus - a specific segment of DNA that has a particular property.
Neuron - a nerve cell consisting of a body and processes extending from it - relatively short dendrites and a long axon.
Pattern - spatio-temporal picture of the development of some process.
Receptive field -peripheral area, the stimulation of which affects the discharge of a given neuron.
Receptors - endings of sensitive nerve fibers or specialized cells (retinas of the eye, inner ear, etc.) that convert stimuli perceived from the outside (exteroreceptors) or from the internal environment of the body (interoreceptors) into nervous excitation transmitted to the central nervous system.
Synapse - a structure that transmits signals from a neuron to a neighboring (or to another cell).
Soma - 1) body, torso; 2) the totality of all cells of the body, with the exception of reproductive cells.
Somatosensory cortex -area of the cerebral cortex, where afferent projections of body parts are presented.
Thalamus - the main part of the diencephalon. The main subcortical center that directs impulses of all types of sensitivity (temperature, pain, etc.) to the brain stem, subcortical nodes and the cerebral cortex.
