Topic 8. CARTOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS

8.1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONVENTIONAL SIGNS

On maps and plans, the image of terrain objects (situations) is presented in cartographic symbols. Cartographic symbols - a system of symbolic graphic designations used to depict various objects and phenomena on maps, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Symbols are sometimes also called "map legend".
For ease of reading and memorization, many conventional signs have styles that resemble the view of the local objects depicted by them from above or from the side. For example, conventional signs of factories, oil rigs, isolated trees, bridges are similar in form to the appearance of the listed local items.
Cartographic symbols are usually divided into large-scale (contour), off-scale and explanatory (Fig. 8.1). In some textbooks, linear conventional signs are singled out as a separate group.

Rice. 8.1. Symbol types

large-scale (contour) signs are called conventional signs used to fill in the areas of objects expressed on the scale of a plan or map. According to a plan or map, it is possible to determine with the help of such a sign not only the location of the object, but its size and shape.
The boundaries of areal objects on the plan can be depicted with solid lines of different colors: black (buildings and structures, fences, roads, etc.), blue (reservoirs, rivers, lakes), brown (natural landforms), light pink (streets and areas in settlements), etc. The dotted line is used for the boundaries of agricultural and natural lands of the area, the boundaries of embankments and cuts near roads. The boundaries of clearings, tunnels and some structures are indicated by a simple dotted line. The fill characters inside the outline are arranged in a certain order.
Linear symbols(a kind of large-scale conventional signs) are used when depicting objects of a linear nature - roads, power lines, borders, etc. The location and planned outline of the axis of a linear object are depicted accurately on the map, but their width is greatly exaggerated. For example, the symbol of a highway on maps at a scale of 1:100,000 exaggerates its width by 8 to 10 times.
If an object on a plan (map) cannot be expressed by a scale symbol due to its smallness, then off-scale symbol, for example, a landmark, a separately growing tree, a kilometer post, etc. The exact position of an object on the ground is shown main point off-scale symbol. The main point is:

• for signs of a symmetrical shape - in the center of the figure (Fig. 8.2);
• for signs with a wide base - in the middle of the base (Fig. 8.3);
• for signs that have a base in the form of a right angle - at the top of the corner (Fig. 8.4);
• for signs that are a combination of several figures - in the center of the lower figure (Fig. 8.5).

Rice. 8.2. Symmetrical signs
1 - points of the geodetic network; 2 - points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers; 3 - astronomical points; 4 - churches; 5 - plants, factories and mills without pipes; 6 - power plants; 7 - water mills and sawmills; 8 - fuel depots and gas tanks; 9 - mines and adits operating; 10 - oil and gas wells without rigs

Rice. 8.3. Signs with a wide base
1 - factory and factory pipes; 2 - waste heaps; 3 - telegraph and radiotelegraph offices and departments, telephone exchanges; 4 - meteorological stations; 5 - semaphores and traffic lights; 6 - monuments, monuments, mass graves, tours and stone pillars over 1 m high; 7 - Buddhist monasteries; 8 - separately lying stones

Rice. 8.4. Signs having a base in the form of a right angle
1 - wind turbines; 2 - gas stations and filling stations; 3 - windmills; 4 - permanent river signaling signs;
5 - free-standing deciduous trees; 6 - free-standing coniferous trees

Rice. 8.5. Signs that are a combination of several figures
1 - plants, factories and mills with pipes; 2 - transformer boxes; 3 - radio stations and television centers; 4 - oil and gas rigs; 5 - tower-type structures; 6 - chapels; 7 - mosques; 8 - radio masts and television masts; 9 - kilns for burning lime and charcoal; 10 - mazars, suborgans (religious buildings)

Objects, expressed by off-scale conventional signs, serve as good landmarks on the ground.
Explanatory symbols (Fig. 8.6, 8.7) are used in combination with large-scale and off-scale; they serve to additionally characterize local objects and their varieties. For example, the image of a coniferous or deciduous tree in combination with a symbol of a forest shows the species of trees prevailing in it, an arrow on a river indicates the direction of its flow, transverse strokes on a symbol of a railway show the number of tracks.

Rice. 8.6. Explanatory conventional signs of the bridge, highway, river

Rice. 8.7. Stand characteristics
In the numerator of the fraction - the average height of the trees in meters, in the denominator - the average thickness of the trunks, to the right of the fraction - the average distance between the trees

The maps contain signatures of their own names of settlements, rivers, lakes, mountains, forests and other objects, as well as explanatory signatures in the form of letters and numbers. They provide additional information about the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of local objects and relief. Letter explanatory signatures are most often given in abbreviated form according to the established list of conditional abbreviations.
For a more visual representation of the terrain on the maps, each group of conventional signs relating to the same type of terrain elements (vegetation cover, hydrography, relief, etc.) is printed with ink of a certain color.

8.2. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS OF LOCAL ITEMS

Settlements on topographic maps at a scale of 1:25,000 - 1:100,000 they show everything (Fig. 8.8). Next to the image of the settlement, its name is signed: cities - in capital letters of a direct font, and a settlement of a rural type - in lowercase letters of a smaller font. Under the name of a rural-type settlement, the number of houses (if known) is indicated, and if there are district and village councils in them, their abbreviated signature (PC, CC).
The names of urban and suburban settlements are printed on the maps in italic capital letters. When depicting settlements on maps, their external outlines and the nature of the layout are preserved, the main and through passages, industrial enterprises, prominent buildings and other buildings that are important as landmarks are distinguished.
Wide streets and squares depicted on the scale of the map are shown with large-scale conventional signs in accordance with their actual size and configuration, other streets are shown with conventional off-scale signs, the main (main) streets are highlighted on the map with a wider gap.

Rice. 8.8. Settlements

Settlements are depicted in the most detail on maps at a scale of 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. Blocks with predominantly fire-resistant and non-fire-resistant buildings are painted over with the appropriate color. Buildings located on the outskirts of settlements are shown, as a rule, all.
On a map of scale 1: 100,000, the image of all main streets, industrial facilities and the most important objects of landmark value is mainly preserved. Separate buildings within blocks are shown only in settlements with very sparse buildings, for example, in dacha-type settlements.
When depicting all other settlements, the buildings are combined into quarters and filled with black paint, the fire resistance of buildings on the map 1:100,000 is not highlighted.
Selected local items Landmarks that matter are plotted on the map most accurately. Such local items include various towers and towers, mines and adits, wind turbines, churches and separately located buildings, radio masts, monuments, individual trees, barrows, remnant rocks, etc. All of them, as a rule, are depicted on maps conventional off-scale signs, and some are accompanied by abbreviated explanatory captions. For example, the signature check ug. with the sign of the mine means that the mine is hard coal.

Rice. 8.9. Selected local items

Road network on topographic maps is depicted in full and in detail. Railways show everything on the maps and are divided according to the number of tracks (one-, two- and three-track), according to the gauge (normal and narrow gauge) and condition (operating, under construction and dismantled). Electrified railways are distinguished by special conventional signs. The number of tracks is indicated by dashes perpendicular to the axis of the conventional sign of the road: three dashes - three-track, two - double-track, one - single-track.
On the railways, stations, sidings, platforms, depots, wayposts and booths, embankments, excavations, bridges, tunnels, semaphores and other structures are shown. Own names of the station (sidings, platforms) are signed next to their conventional signs. If the station is located in a settlement or near it and has the same name as it, then its signature is not given, but the name of this settlement is underlined. The black rectangle inside the station symbol indicates the location of the station relative to the tracks: if the rectangle is located in the middle, then the tracks pass on both sides of the station.

Rice. 8.10. Railway stations and facilities

Conventional signs of platforms, checkpoints, booths and tunnels are accompanied by the corresponding abbreviated signatures ( sq., bl. n., B, tun.). Next to the conventional sign of the tunnel, in addition, its numerical characteristic is placed in the form of a fraction, in the numerator of which the height and width are indicated, and in the denominator - the length of the tunnel in meters.
Highway and ground roads when depicted on maps, they are divided into paved and unpaved roads. Paved roads include freeways, improved highways, highways, and improved dirt roads. Topographic maps show all paved roads available in the area. The width and material of the pavement of motorways and highways are signed directly on their conventional signs. For example, on the highway the signature 8(12)A means: 8 - width of the covered part of the road in meters; 12 - width of the road from ditch to ditch; A- coating material (asphalt). On improved dirt roads, only the width of the road from ditch to ditch is usually given. Freeways, improved highways, and highways are highlighted in orange on maps, improved dirt roads - in yellow or orange.

Figure 8.11. Highways and dirt roads

Topographic maps show unpaved dirt (country), field and forest roads, caravan routes, trails and winter roads. In the presence of a dense network of roads of a higher class, some secondary roads (field, forest, dirt) on maps of scales 1:200,000, 1:100,000, and sometimes 1:50,000 may not be shown.
Sections of dirt roads passing through wetlands, lined with bundles of brushwood (fascines) on wooden beds and then covered with a layer of earth or sand, are called fascinated road sections. If on such sections of the road, instead of fascines, a flooring of logs (poles) or simply an embankment of earth (stones) is made, then they are called gats and rowings, respectively. Fashin sections of roads, gati and rowing on the maps are indicated by dashes perpendicular to the conventional sign of the road.
On highways and dirt roads, bridges, pipes, embankments, excavations, tree plantings, kilometer posts and passes (in mountainous areas) are shown.
Bridges they are depicted on maps with conventional signs of various designs depending on the material (metal, reinforced concrete, stone and wood); at the same time, two-tier, as well as drawbridges and drawbridges are distinguished. Bridges on floating supports are distinguished by a special symbol. Next to the conventional signs of bridges with a length of 3 m or more, and located on roads (except for motorways and improved highways), they sign their numerical characteristics in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the length and width of the bridge in meters, and the denominator - the carrying capacity in tons. Before the fraction indicate the material from which the bridge is built, as well as the height of the bridge above the water level in meters (on navigable rivers). For example, the signature next to the symbol of the bridge (Fig. 8.12) means that the bridge is stone (construction material), in the numerator - the length and width of the roadway in meters, in the denominator - the carrying capacity in tons.

Rice. 8.12. Overpass over the railroad

When designating bridges on freeways and improved highways, only their length and width are given. Characterization of bridges with a length of less than 3 m is not given.

8.3. HYDROGRAPHY (WATER BODIES)

Topographic maps show the coastal part of the seas, lakes, rivers, canals (ditches), streams, wells, springs, ponds and other bodies of water. Their names are signed next to them. The larger the scale of the map, the more detailed the water objects are depicted.
Lakes, ponds and other bodies of water are shown on maps if their area is 1 mm2 or more on the scale of the map. Reservoirs of smaller sizes are shown only in arid and desert regions, as well as in cases where they have the value of reliable landmarks.

Rice. 8.13. Hydrography

Rivers, streams, canals and main ditches topographic maps show everything. At the same time, it was found that on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1:50,000, rivers up to 5 m wide, and on maps of a scale of 1:100,000 - up to 10 m, are indicated by one line, wider rivers - by two lines. Channels and ditches with a width of 3 m or more are depicted with two lines, with a width of less than 3 m - with one.
The width and depth of the rivers (channels) in meters are signed as a fraction: in the numerator - the width, in the denominator - the depth and nature of the bottom soil. Such signatures are placed in several places along the river (channel).
River speed (m/s), depicted by two lines, indicate in the middle of the arrow showing the direction of the flow. On rivers and lakes, they also sign the height of the water level in low water in relation to sea level (marks of water edges).
On the rivers and canals they show dams, gateways, ferries (transportation), fords and give corresponding characteristics.
wells are indicated by blue circles, next to which the letter is placed TO or signature art. To. (artesian well).
Ground water pipelines show solid blue lines with dots (through 8 mm), and underground - broken lines.
To make it easier to find and select sources of water supply in the steppe and desert regions on the map, the main wells are distinguished by a larger symbol. In addition, if there is data to the left of the symbol of the well, an explanatory signature of the ground level mark is given, to the right - the depth of the well in meters and the filling rate in liters per hour.

8.4. SOIL AND VEGETATION COVER

Soil -vegetable cover are usually depicted on maps with large-scale symbols. These include conventional signs of forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, swamps and salt marshes, as well as conventional signs depicting the nature of the soil cover: sands, rocky surface, pebbles, etc. When designating the soil and vegetation cover, a combination of conditional signs. For example, in order to show a swampy meadow with bushes, the contour is the area occupied by the meadow, inside which the symbols of the swamp, meadow and bushes are placed.
The contours of areas covered with forests, shrubs, as well as the contours of swamps, meadows are indicated on the maps by a dotted line. If a linear local object (ditch, fence, road) serves as the boundary of a forest, garden or other area, then in this case the symbol of a linear local object replaces the dotted line.
Forest, shrubs. The forest area inside the contour is painted over with green paint. The tree species is shown with a deciduous, coniferous tree icon, or a combination of both when the forest is mixed. If there is data on the height, thickness of trees and density of the forest, its characteristics are indicated with explanatory signatures and numbers. For example, the signature indicates that coniferous trees (pine) predominate in this forest, their average height is 25 m, the average thickness is 30 cm, the average distance between tree trunks is 4 m. When depicted on the map, clearings indicate their width in meters.

Rice. 8.14. Forests

Rice. 8.15. shrubs

Areas covered undergrowth of the forest(height up to 4 m), solid shrubs, forest nurseries inside the contour on the map are filled with appropriate conventional signs and painted over with pale green paint. In areas of continuous shrubs, if data are available, they show the type of shrub with special icons and sign its average height in meters.
swamps they are depicted on the maps with horizontal shading in blue, dividing them according to the degree of passability on foot into passable (broken shading), difficult to pass and impassable (solid shading). Passable swamps are considered to be no more than 0.6 m deep; their depth on maps is usually not signed.

Rice. 8.16. swamps

The depth of difficult and impenetrable swamps is signed next to the vertical arrow indicating the location of the sounding. Impenetrable and impassable swamps are shown on the maps with the same symbol.
Salt marshes on the maps they are shown by vertical shading in blue with their division into passable (broken shading) and impassable (solid shading).

On topographic maps, as their scale decreases, homogeneous topographic symbols are combined into groups, the latter - into one generalized symbol, etc. In general, the system of these designations can be represented as a truncated pyramid, at the base of which are signs for topographic plans at a scale of 1:500, and at the top - for survey topographic maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000.

8.5. COLORS OF TOPOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS

Colors topographic symbols are the same for maps of all scales. Line marks of lands and their contours, buildings, structures, local objects, strongholds and boundaries are printed when publishing black color, relief elements - brown; reservoirs, streams, swamps and glaciers - blue(mirror of water - light blue); areas of tree and shrub vegetation - green(dwarf forests, elfins, shrubs, vineyards in light green), fire-resistant neighborhoods and highways in orange, non-fire-resistant neighborhoods and improved dirt roads in yellow.
Along with topographic symbols for topographic maps, conditional abbreviations of own names political and administrative units (for example, Lugansk region - Lug.) and explanatory terms (for example, power plant - el.-st., southwestern - SW, worker's settlement - r. p.).

8.6. CARTOGRAPHIC FONTS USED ON TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS AND MAPS

A font is a graphic style of letters and numbers. Fonts that are used on topographic pianos and maps are called cartographic.

Depending on a number of graphic features, cartographic fonts are divided into groups:
- according to the slope of the letters - straight (ordinary) and italic with slopes to the right and left;
- according to the width of the letters - narrow, normal and wide;
- by lightness - light, bold and bold;
- by the presence of undercuts.

On topographic maps and plans, two types of basic fonts are mainly used: topographic and skeleton italics (Fig. 8.17).

Rice. 8.17. Core fonts and cursive numerals

Topographic (hairline) font T-132 is used to sign rural-type settlements. It is drawn with a line thickness of 0.1-0.15 mm, all elements of the letters are thin hair lines.
Base italic finds application in the design of topographic maps, agricultural maps, land management pianos, etc. On topographic maps, explanatory signatures and characteristics are made in italics: astronomical points, ruins, factories, factories, stations, etc. The design of the letters has a pronounced oval shape . The thickness of all elements is the same: 0.1 - 0.2 mm.
Computational Font or cursive letters of numbers, belongs to the group of cursive fonts. It was designed for entries in field journals and computational sheets, since in geodesy many processes of field and cameral work were associated with recording the results of instrumental measurements and their mathematical processing (see Fig. 8.17).
Modern computer technology provides a wide, almost unlimited choice of fonts of different types, sizes, patterns and slopes.

8.7. SIGNS ON TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS AND MAP

In addition to conventional signs, there are various inscriptions on topographic plans and maps. They constitute an important element of the content, explain the depicted objects, indicate their qualitative and quantitative characteristics, and serve to obtain reference information.

According to their meaning, the inscriptions are:

• own names of geographical objects (cities, rivers, lakes
  and etc.);
• part of a conventional sign (garden, arable land);
• conventional signs and own names at the same time (signatures of the names of cities, objects of hydrography, relief);
• explanatory captions (lake, mountain, etc.);
• explanatory text (transfer information about the distinctive features of objects, specify their nature and purpose) (Fig. 8.18).

The inscriptions on the cards are made in different fonts, differing in the pattern of letters. Up to 15 different fonts can be used on maps. The pattern of the letters of each font has elements that are unique to this font, which is based on knowledge of the features of various fonts.
Certain fonts are used for groups of related objects. For example, roman fonts are used for city names, italic fonts for names of hydrographic objects, etc. Each inscription on the map should be well read.
There are distinctive features in the arrangement of inscriptions of their own names. The names of settlements are located on the right side of the contour parallel to the northern or southern side of the map frame. This position is most desirable, but not always feasible. The names should not cover the images of other objects and fit in the map frame, so it is necessary to place the names to the left, above and below the contour of the settlement.

Rice. 8.18. Examples of inscriptions on maps

The names of areal objects are placed inside the contours, so that the signature is evenly distributed over the entire area of ​​the object. The name of the river is placed parallel to its channel. Depending on the width of the river, the inscription is placed inside or outside the outline. It is customary to sign large rivers several times: at the source, at characteristic bends, at the confluence of rivers, etc. When one river flows into another, the inscriptions of the names are placed so that there is no doubt about the name of the rivers. Before the confluence, the main river and tributary are signed, after the confluence, the name of the main river is required.
When arranging inscriptions located not horizontally, special attention is paid to their readability. The following rule is followed: if the elongated contour along which the inscription is to be placed is located from northwest to southeast, then the inscription is placed from top to bottom; if the contour stretches from northeast to southwest, then the inscription is placed from bottom to top.
The names of the seas and large lakes are placed inside the contour of the basins along a smooth curve, in the direction of their length and symmetrically to the shores. The inscriptions of small lakes are placed as inscriptions of settlements.
The names of the mountains are placed, if possible, to the right of the top of the mountains and parallel to the southern or northern frame. The names of mountain ranges, sand formations and deserts are signed in the direction of their length.
Explanatory inscriptions are placed parallel to the north side of the frame.
Numerical characteristics are arranged depending on the nature of the information they transmit. The number of houses in rural-type settlements, elevations of the earth's surface and water lines are signed parallel to the northern or southern side of the frame. The speed of the river flow, the width of the roads and the material of their coating are located along the axis of the object.
Labels should be located in the least loaded places of the cartographic image, so that there is no doubt about which object they refer to. The inscriptions should not cross the confluence of rivers, the characteristic details of the relief, images of objects that have the value of landmarks.

Basic rules for constructing cartographic fonts: http://www.topogis.ru/oppks.html

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What are conventional signs?
2. What types of symbols do you know?
3. What objects are depicted on maps with large-scale symbols?
4. What objects are depicted on maps with off-scale symbols?
5. What is the purpose of the main point of the off-scale symbol?
6. Where is the main point located on the out-of-scale symbol?
7. What is the purpose of color schemes?
8. What is the purpose of using explanatory labels and numbers on maps?

One of the hallmarks of a high level cs:go game is knowing the names of all the places on the map. But there are a lot of cards and on each there are many different names. We have found a solution for you!

In order to make it easier to remember the names of places on the map (city, plant, mid, long, zig, etc.) and already today to give the correct information on the map, you need to complete 4 points:

1. Turn off CS:GO if you have it running
2. Unzip archive with file replacement to the folder: C:\Program Files (x86)\Steam\SteamApps\common\Counter-Strike Global Offensive\csgo\resource\overviews. Or if there is no such folder, then here: C:\Program Files\Steam\SteamApps\common\Counter-Strike Global Offensive\csgo\resource\overviews. If there is no such folder, then you installed the game in a non-standard location. Then find the folder with the game and open the folder there: \csgo\resource\overviews
3. Enjoy!

Now you can see in the game on the minimap and on the big map the Russian designations of the map places in cs:go

ATTENTION: don't get banned for that! VAC will not be issued to you. You're just replacing a few pictures. Valve does not allow this. Everything was tested on various servers, on official Valve servers and in competitive mode.

Russian designations of cs:go maps

Write in the comments if you are interested. If there are many who wish, we will make such designations for other maps. For now, only: Dust 2, Inferno, Mirage. If you see an error on the map, then write about it in the comment

Declassified topographic maps of the General Staff of the USSR freely roam the Internet. We all love to download them, view them, and often print them on sheets of paper for further use for their intended purpose - i.e. go hiking with them.

Topographic maps of the General Staff are the most accurate and best. Any other purchased cards printed in modern times will not carry so much accuracy and specificity. Symbols and designations on the topographic maps of the General Staff are much more complex than any other designations of maps bought in the store. We all remember them from geography lessons at school.

As an experienced user of such maps, I would like to describe at the beginning of this article the most important, in my opinion, designations. If the rest are more or less understandable, since they are almost all identical with other types of maps (not the General Staff), then these are something new and still incomprehensible. Actually, I will start with the symbols of rivers, fords, forests and roads.

Rivers and water resources

River speed and direction (0.6 m/s)
Characteristics of rivers and canals: 30 - Width (m), 0,8 - Depth (m), TO- Soil type ( TO - rocky P - sand, T - solid, V - viscous)
Water level mark, coast height above sea level (393m)
Brody: 0,3 - depth, 10 - length, TO- rocky ground 1,0 - speed (m/s)
swamp passable
swamp impassable
Bridge characteristics: D- building material D - wood, TO - stone, JB - reinforced concrete) 43 - the length of the bridge, 4 - width of the carriageway (m), 10 - carrying capacity in tons

Forest clearing and width in meters (2m)
Field and forest roads
Zimnik, operating road only in the winter season, during the cold period. Can pass through swamps.
Dirt road, 6 - width of the carriageway in meters
Gat - a road with a wooden surface, a flooring made of logs, 3 - roadway width
gat
Railway canvas
gas pipeline
Power lines (TL)
Dismantled railroad
Single track, narrow gauge railway. Also railway bridge
Highway: 6 — the width of the covered part, 8 - the width of the entire road from ditch to ditch in meters; SCH- coating material ( B - cobblestone, G - gravel, TO - crushed stone Shl - slag SCH - crushed stone)

Relief

Steep banks of rivers, rocky outcrops, parmas
Relief contours with relative height designation (260 m)
Mountainous area without vegetation cover, covered with kurum stones and remnant rocks
Mountainous area with vegetative cover and sparse trees, forest border visible
Rocks-outliers with a height in meters
Glaciers
Rocks and cliffs
Elevation mark (479.2 m)
Steppe region. near the edge of the forest
Sands, deserts

Photo of some geographical objects

The main winter road, laid through the taiga forest. Thickets here in summer (Yakutia)

Forest dirt road (Ivdelsky district, Northern Urals)

Gat - a road with a wooden surface (Lobnensky forest park, Moscow region)

Rock outcrop, parma (Stone "Giant", Middle Urals)

Rocks-outliers (rock Old Man-Stone, Middle Urals)

It should be understood that all available topographic maps of the USSR General Staff have long been outdated. The information contained on them can date back to the 70-80s of the last century. If you are interested in the details of passing along certain trails, roads, the presence of settlements and geographical objects, then you should check the accuracy of information from other sources in advance. Paths and roads may no longer exist at all. Small settlements can be abandoned and represent wastelands, often already overgrown with young growth.

But, in any case, the maps of the General Staff still carry more accurate information, and you can more productively calculate your route and distance from them. In this article, I did not fill your heads with unnecessary symbols and conventional signs of topographic maps. I posted only the most important and significant for the mountain-taiga and steppe region. Those who are interested in the details can look.

Maps of the General Staff of the USSR were made using the Soviet system of layout and nomenclature of topographic maps. This system is still used in the Russian Federation and in some former Soviet republics. There are newer maps, the state of the terrain on which is approximately 60-80s of the last century, and older maps, the so-called General Staff of the Red Army, made by pre-war geodetic intelligence. "The maps are compiled in the Gauss-Kruger conformal transverse-cylindrical projection, calculated from the parameters of the Krasovsky ellipsoid for the six-degree zone," - And if you don't understand, don't worry! The main thing is to remember (or write down, save this article) those points that I cited above. Knowing them, you can skillfully use maps and plan your route without using gps.

Conventional signs There are contour, linear and off-scale.

• contour(areal) signs shown, for example, lakes;
• Linear signs - rivers, roads, canals.
• Off-scale signs on the plans, for example, wells, springs are noted, and on geographical maps - settlements, volcanoes, waterfalls.

Rice. 1. Examples of off-scale, linear and area symbols

Rice. Basic symbols

Rice. Conventional signs of the area

Contours

There is a separate category of symbols - isolines, i.e., lines connecting points with the same values ​​of the depicted phenomena (Fig. 2). Lines of equal atmospheric pressure are called isobars, lines of equal air temperature - isotherms, lines of equal heights of the earth's surface - isohypses or horizontal lines.

Rice. 2. Examples of isolines

Mapping methods

To depict geographical phenomena on maps, various methods are used. ways .Way of habitats show areas of distribution of natural or social phenomena, such as animals, plants, some minerals. traffic signs used to show sea currents, winds, traffic flows. high quality background show, for example, states on a political map, and quantitative background - division of the territory according to some quantitative indicator (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Cartographic methods: a - method of areas; b - signs of movement; c - method of qualitative background; d - quantitative background - dotted signs

To show the average value of the phenomenon in any territory, it is most expedient to use the principle of equal intervals. One way to get an interval is to divide the difference between the largest and smallest exponent by five. For example, if the largest indicator is 100, the smallest is 25, the difference between them is 75, its 1/5 -15, then the intervals will be: 25-40, 40-55, 55-70, 70-85 and 85-100 . When showing these intervals on the map, a lighter background or sparse shading depicts a lower intensity of the phenomenon, darker tones and dense shading - a greater one. This type of mapping is called cartogram(Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Examples of cartograms and cartograms

To the way chart diagrams resorted to show the total magnitude of the phenomenon in any area, for example, electricity production, the number of schoolchildren, fresh water reserves, the degree of plowing of the land, etc. map called a simplified map that does not have a degree network.

Relief depiction on plans and maps

On maps and plans, relief is shown using contour lines and elevations.

Horizontals, as you already know, these are lines on a plan or map connecting points on the earth's surface that have the same height above ocean level (absolute height) or above the level taken as a reference point (relative height).

Rice. 5. Image of relief by contour lines

In order to depict a hill on a plan, you need to define it relative height, which shows how far vertically one point on the earth's surface is higher than another (Fig. 7).

Rice. 6. Image of a hill on a plane

Rice. 7. Determination of relative height

Relative height can be determined using a level. Level(from fr. niveau- level, level) - a device for determining the difference in height between several points. The device, usually mounted on a tripod (tripod), is equipped with a telescope adapted for rotation in a horizontal plane and a sensitive level.

Spend hill leveling - this means measuring its western, southern, eastern and northern slopes from the bottom to the top with the help of a level and driving in pegs in those places where the level was installed (Fig. 8). Thus, four pegs will be driven in at the bottom of the hill, four - at a height of 1 m from the ground, if the height of the level is 1 m, etc. The last peg is driven in at the top of the hill. After that, the position of all the pegs is applied to the terrain plan and a smooth line first connects all points with a relative height of 1 m, then - 2 m, etc.

Rice. 8. Hill flattening

Please note: if the slope is steep, the horizontals on the plan will be located close to each other, if it is gentle, they will be far apart.

Small dashes drawn perpendicular to the horizontal lines are berghashes. They show in which direction the slope goes down.

Horizontals on the plans depict not only hills, but also depressions. In this case, the berghashes are turned inward (Fig. 9).

Rice. 9. Image of contour lines of various forms of relief

Steep slopes of cliffs or ravines on the maps are indicated by small teeth.

The height of a point above mean ocean level is called absolute height. In Russia, all absolute heights are calculated from the level of the Baltic Sea. Thus, the territory of St. Petersburg is above the water level in the Baltic Sea by an average of 3 m, the territory of Moscow is 120 m, and the city of Astrakhan is 26 m below this level. Elevation marks on geographical maps indicate the absolute height of points.

On a physical map, the relief is depicted with the help of layered coloring, i.e., with colors of different intensities. For example, areas with a height of 0 to 200 m are painted over in green. At the bottom of the map there is a table that shows which color corresponds to which height. This table is called height scale.

Conventional signs of topographic maps provide complete information about the area. They are generally accepted and are used for topographic maps and plans. Topographic maps are an important material not only for tourists, but also for geodetic organizations, for authorities that are engaged in planning the area and transferring the boundaries of sites.

Knowledge of conventional signs helps not only to read the map correctly, but also to draw up detailed plans for the area, taking into account the new objects that have appeared.

Topographic maps are a kind of geographical maps. They carry detailed information about the terrain plan, indicating the location of various technical and natural objects relative to each other.

Topographic maps vary in scale. All of them carry less or more detailed information about the area.

The map scale is indicated on the side or bottom of the map. It shows the ratio of sizes: indicated on the map to natural. Thus, the larger the denominator, the less detailed the material. Let's say a 1:10,000 map will have 100 meters in 1 centimeter. To find out the distance in meters between objects, the distance between two points is measured with a ruler and multiplied by the second indicator.

1. The most detailed is the topographic plan of the area, its scale is 1:5,000 inclusive. It does not count as a map and is not as accurate as it does not take into account that the earth is round. This somewhat distorts its informativeness, nevertheless, the plan is indispensable when depicting cultural, domestic and economic objects. In addition, the plan can also show micro-objects that are difficult to find on the map (for example, vegetation and soils, the contours of which are too small to be depicted in other materials).
2. Topographic maps at a scale of 1:10,000 and 1:25,000 are considered to be the most detailed among maps. They are used for household purposes. They depict settlements, industrial and agricultural facilities, roads, hydrographic networks, swamps, fences, borders, etc. Such maps are most often used to obtain information about objects in areas that do not have significant forest cover. The objects of management are depicted most reliably in them.
3. Maps with a scale of 1:50,000 and 1:100,000 are less detailed. They schematically depict the contours of forests and other large objects, the image of which does not require much detail. It is convenient to use such maps for air navigation, compiling road routes and so on.
4. Less detailed maps are used for military purposes to carry out assigned planning tasks for various operations.
5. Maps with a scale of up to 1:1,000,000 allow you to correctly assess the overall picture of the area.

Having decided on the task at hand, the choice of material seems to be absolutely not a difficult task. Depending on how detailed information about the area is needed, the desired map scale is also selected.

Working with a topographic map requires a clear knowledge of the schematic designation of the depicted objects.

Types of conventional signs:

• areal (scale) - for large objects (forest, meadow, lake), their dimensions are easy to measure on the map, correlate with the scale and obtain the necessary information about the depth, length, area;
• linear - for extended geographic objects, the width of which cannot be indicated, they are applied as a line corresponding to the scale in order to correctly display the length of the object (road, power strip);
• off-scale - they are used to designate strategically important objects, without which the map would be incomplete, but in a rather arbitrary size (bridge, well, individual tree);
• explanatory - characterizing an object, for example, the depth of a river, the height of a slope, a tree that indicates the type of forest;
• depicting landscape components: relief, rocks and stones, hydrographic objects, vegetation, artificial structures;
• special - are applied to maps for individual sectors of the economy (meteorological, military signs).

The designations of topographic maps in certain cases, especially for certain groups of objects, allow some conventions:

• the main information that the image of a settlement carries is the building density and the location of the boundaries of the object, for this it is not necessary to mark each building, you can limit yourself to the main streets, intersections and important buildings;
• symbols of a group of homogeneous objects allow the image of only the extreme ones;
• when drawing a line of roads, it is necessary to indicate their middle, which should correspond to the situation on the ground, and the width of the message object itself should not be displayed;
• strategically important facilities such as factories and factories are marked on the spot where the main building or factory chimney is located.

Due to the correct application of signs on the map, you can get a detailed idea of ​​the relative position of objects on the ground, the distance between them, their heights, depths, and other important information.

The map must be objective and this requirement includes the following provisions:

• correctly chosen standard symbols, if this is a special map, then the symbols should also be well-known in a certain area;
• the correct image of line elements;
• one map must be drawn in one image style;
• micro-objects must also be marked exactly, if there is a certain number of such objects of the same size on the ground, they must all be marked on the map with the same sign;
• the color indicators of the elements of the landforms must be maintained correctly - heights and lowlands are often depicted in colors, next to the map there should be a scale that shows what height on the ground this or that color corresponds to.

Conventional signs of topographic maps and plans are applied in accordance with uniform rules.

So:

1. Object sizes are displayed in millimeters. These signatures are usually placed to the left of the conventional signs. In relation to one object, two numerical indicators are given, indicating the height and width. If these parameters match, one signature is allowed. For round objects, their diameter is indicated, for signs in the form of a star, the diameter of the circumscribed circle. For an equilateral triangle, the parameter of its height is given.
2. The thickness of the lines should correspond to the scale of the map. The main objects of plans and detailed maps (factories, mills, bridges, locks) are plotted with 0.2-0.25 mm lines, the same designations on small-scale maps from 1:50,000 - with 0.2 mm lines. The lines denoting minor signs are 0.08–0.1 mm thick. On plans and large-scale maps, signs may be increased by one third.
3. The symbols of topographic maps should be clear and legible, the gaps between the inscriptions should be at least 0.2–0.3 mm. Strategically important objects can be slightly increased in size.

Separate requirements are put forward to the color scheme.

So, background coloring should provide good readability, and conventional signs are indicated by the following colors:

• green - designations of glaciers, eternal snows, swamps, solonchaks, intersections of coordinate lines and hydrography;
• brown - landforms;
• blue - water bodies;
• pink - line gaps of the highway;
• red or brown - some signs of vegetation;
• black - shading and all signs.

1. Objects marked with off-scale symbols on topographic maps and plans must correspond to the position on the ground. To do this, they need to be placed according to certain rules.

The situation on the ground corresponds to:

• the center of the sign of objects of the correct form (round, square, triangular) on the plan;
• the middle of the base of the symbol - for perspective displays of objects (lighthouses, rocks);
• designation corner vertices - for icons with an element of right angles (tree, pole);
• the middle of the bottom line of the sign - for designations in the form of a combination of figures (towers, chapels, towers).

Knowledge of the correct placement and application of signs will help to correctly draw up a topographic map or terrain plan, making it understandable to other users.

The designation of groups of objects by conventional signs should occur in accordance with the rules below.

1. Geodetic points. These objects should be marked as detailed as possible. The mark of the centers of the points is applied exactly to the centimeter. If the point is located on an elevated area, it is necessary to note the height of the mound or mound. When drawing the boundaries of land surveys, which are marked with pillars and numbered on the ground, the numbering should also be displayed on the map.
2. Buildings and their parts. Building outlines should be plotted on the map according to building layout and dimensions. High-rise and historically important buildings are depicted in the most detail. The number of floors is indicated starting from two floors. If the building has an orientation tower, it must also be displayed on the map.

Small buildings, such as pavilions, cellars, building elements, are displayed at the request of the customer and only on detailed maps. The numbering of buildings is reproduced only on large maps. Additionally, letters can indicate the materials from which the building is built, its purpose, fire resistance.

Conventional signs are used to highlight buildings under construction or dilapidated buildings, cultural and religious buildings. Objects on the map should be placed exactly as in reality.

In general, the detail and detail of the description of the characteristics depends on the purpose of compiling the map and is negotiated by the customer and the contractor.

1. Industrial objects. The number of storeys in buildings does not play a role. More important objects are administrative buildings and pipes. For pipes over 50 meters, it is necessary to sign their actual height.

At enterprises with mines and mining, it is customary to designate objects located on the surface. The display of underground routes is carried out in agreement with the customer, indicating the working and non-working branches. For quarries, a numerical designation of their depth is required.

1. Railways are shown with their gauge designation. Inactive roads must also be marked on the maps. For electrified roads and tram tracks, a power line should be displayed nearby.

The designation of road slopes, embankments and their height, slopes, tunnels and their characteristics are applied on the map. Dead ends, turntables and road endings must be applied.

Highways are marked with a certain sign, which depends on the coverage. The roadway must be marked with a line.

1. Hydrographic objects are usually divided into three groups:

• permanent;
• indefinite - existing all the time, but whose outlines often change;
• intermittent - changing depending on the season, but with a pronounced source and direction of the channel.

Permanent reservoirs are depicted with solid lines, the rest - with a dash-dotted line.

1. Relief. When depicting the terrain, horizontal lines or contour lines are used indicating the heights of individual ledges. Moreover, lowlands and elevations are depicted similarly, using strokes: if they go outward, then an elevation is depicted, if inward it is a depression, beam or lowland. In addition, if the contour lines are close to each other, the slope is considered steep, if they are far away - gentle.

A good topographic map should be extremely accurate, objective, complete, reliable and clearly define the contours of objects. When drawing up a map, it is necessary to take into account the requirements of the customer.

Depending on the purpose for which the topographic map is intended, some simplifications or minor distortions of secondary objects are allowed, but the general requirements must be met.