France in the 18th century The beginning of the Great French Revolution

The French Revolution radically changed not only France, but the whole of Europe.

Background

In the XVIII century. French kings had absolute power (see the lesson for absolute monarchy). The population was divided into three estates (clergy, nobility, the rest of the unprivileged population - the third estate). The 1st and 2nd estate owned land, did not pay taxes and held the highest positions in the country, the third paid taxes and was limited in political rights. In this situation, the peasants wanted to get ownership of the land, and the bourgeoisie to acquire political rights.

By the end of the 18th century. the conflict between the old feudal system and the development of capitalist relations became noticeable in the country. The dominance of traditional senior relations in agriculture was a serious obstacle to the development of capitalist relations in the country.

In the 1780s. in France, there was a socio-economic crisis. France's external debt has reached enormous proportions. The difficult economic situation was associated with the unsuccessful foreign policy... Thus, the Seven Years' War led to the loss of most of the colonies by France. Large sums of money were spent to support the North American colonists in their fight against the British crown. The difficult situation was aggravated by a poor harvest in 1788, which led to famine.

To replenish the treasury, Louis XVI decided to establish new taxes, for which he was forced to convene the States General (a meeting of representatives of the estates from all over the country).

Developments

May 5, 1789- the convocation of the States General (the highest estate-representative body). Included were representatives of three estates (270 people from the nobility, 291 from the clergy, 557 from the third estate).

June 17, 1789- the deputies of the third estate proclaim themselves the National Assembly. They are soon joined by some of the deputies from the clergy and nobility.

July 9, 1789- The National Assembly proclaimed itself a Constituent Assembly (called upon to draft a French Constitution).

Participants

Louis XVI (1754-1793) - French king from the Bourbon dynasty, ruled in 1774-1792.

Marie Antoinette - French queen, wife of Louis XVI, daughter of the Emperor of Austria.

Parallels

English Revolution of the 17th century. started in a similar way. After convening parliament to collect new taxes, King Charles faced stubborn opposition. The British Parliament assumed supreme power, as did the States General - the National Assembly - the Constituent Assembly.

Abstract

France in the 18th century was a monarchy based on bureaucratic centralization and a standing army. The socio-economic and political regime that existed in the country was formed as a result of complex compromises worked out in the course of a long political confrontation and civil wars XIV-XVI centuries. One of such compromises existed between the royal power and the privileged estates - for the refusal of the clergy and nobility from political rights, the state power protected the social privileges of these two estates by all means at its disposal. Another compromise existed in relation to the peasantry - during the long series of peasant wars of the XIV-XVI centuries. the peasants achieved the abolition of the overwhelming majority of monetary taxes and the transition to subsistence relations in agriculture.

The third compromise existed in relation to the bourgeoisie, in whose interests the government also did a lot, preserving a number of privileges of the bourgeoisie in relation to the bulk of the population (the peasantry) and supporting the existence of tens of thousands of small enterprises, the owners of which constituted the layer of the French bourgeoisie. However, the regime that emerged as a result of these complex compromises did not ensure the normal development of France, which in the 18th century. began to lag behind its neighbors, primarily England. In addition, over-exploitation increasingly armed the popular masses against themselves, whose interests were completely ignored by the state.

Rice. 1. Louis XVI ()

After a number of unsuccessful attempts to get out of a difficult financial situation, Louis XVI (Fig. 1) in 1787 decided to gather a collection of notables - influential representatives of the three estates. But the notables unexpectedly rejected the king's proposal, saying that the question of taxes can be decided only by the highest assembly of estates - the States General - which in five years will be convened by the state ranks of France. When Jacques Necker became parliamentary for the second time, he insisted that the States General be convened in 1789. The government did not, however, have any definite program.

The Royal Regulations on January 24, 1789, deciding to convene the States-General on April 27, indicated that the purpose of the future meeting was "to establish a permanent and unchanging order in all parts of government concerning the happiness of subjects and the welfare of the kingdom, to heal the diseases of the state as quickly as possible and to eliminate all abuses"; at the same time, the king expressed a desire that "both on the extreme limits of his kingdom and in the least known villages behind each was provided with the opportunity to bring his wishes and complaints to his attention." The right to vote was given to all French people who had reached the age of twenty-five, who had a permanent place of residence and were included in the tax lists (the latter restriction excluded a significant number of poor citizens from the right to vote). The elections were two-stage (and then sometimes three-stage), that is, the deputies were elected not by the population itself, but by their elected representatives.

On May 5, 1789, the meetings of the States General were opened at Versailles. Arguments began about the conduct of meetings. The third estate demanded more rights for itself, declaring itself to be the representative of 96% of the nation. On June 17, the deputies of the third estate, supported by the lower strata of the clergy and nobility, proclaimed themselves the National Assembly, inviting the rest of the deputies to join them. On June 20, deputies of the third estate gathered in the ballroom and swore an oath not to disperse until the Constitution was drafted. At the suggestion of Honore Gabriel Mirabeau, the identity of the deputies was declared inviolable. The deputies of the third estate continued their meetings and attracted to their side a significant part of the clergy and some of the nobility.

On July 9, 1789, the National Assembly declared itself the Constituent Assembly - the highest representative and legislative body of the people. On July 11, Louis resigned to Necker and ordered him to leave Paris immediately.

Bibliography

1. Vedyushkin V.A. Burin S.N. General history. History of Modern Times. 7th grade. - M .: 2010.
2. S. Soloviev. Course in New History. - M .: 2003.
3. K. Bulychev. Secrets of the New Time. - M .: 2005.
4. Great French bourgeois revolution / Otv. ed. Kucherenko G.S. - M .: Academy of Sciences of the USSR. INION, Institute of World History, 1987.

1. School-collection.edu.ru ().
2. Bibliotekar.ru ().
3. Hrono.ru (.
4. Declaration of the rights of man and citizen ().

Homework

1. Why was Louis XVI forced to convene the States General?
2. What rights did the deputies of the National Assembly seek?
3. What events went down in the history of France under the title "Great Fear"?
4. What is the historical significance of the adoption of the Declaration of Human and Citizen Rights?

France until the end of the 18th century.

Socio-economic development

In the second half of the XVII century. France pre-s-tav-la-la is one of the largest and most central-t-ra-li-zo-van-yh go-su-darties of Ev-ro-py. By-be-yes in Thirty-ts-ti-years-no-no (1618-1648) provide-pe-chi-la to her in-en-no-in-li-ti-ches-pre-ob- la-da-nie in Ev-ro-pe. France was a country ag-rar-noy, with more than 28 million people in . the population of France consisted of about 21 million people. By 1800 in France, according to a hundred-tis-ti- ke, us-chi-you-va-los 27 million people); about 90% of its composition-whether-whether-to-yane, who-the-eye-on-brought-la-brought-up-on-logs (they grew or almost three times), many perished and lost. However, in the country, it was not fast-t-ro, there were ras-se-yan-ma-nu-fak-tu-ry, who used the labor of the cross yang. It was, in the main, tech-s-til-ny pre-p-r-yatiya, you-pus-kav-shih products, both on the internal and on the external -niy market. French-tsuz-with-kaya pro-thought-laziness from-go-to-la-la the main form of subject-me-you grew-ko-shi: do-ro-gie fabric-ni , go-be-le-ny, cha-sy, vi-na and other to-va-ry. Su-shche-t-in-va-li and t-t-ra-li-zo-van-nye ma-nu-fak-tu-ry: weapon pre-p-r-yatiya, bu- mazh-nye ma-nu-fak-tu-ry, book-pe-cha-ta-nie, etc. In some flat-to-native northern districts France has already developed and aren-da ka-pi-ta-lis-ti-chas-ko-t-pa.

A local courtyard-with-t-in France, alive at the expense of the land and crust-yan that came to him, os-ku-de-va-lo. "Dvor-ryan-with-t-in the mantle", that is, the court-thieves, su-deyskie-chi-ny, etc. go-tsev from bur-zhu-asia. But in contrast to the en-g-li-dzhen-t-ri french-tsuz-c-ky dvu-rya-nin could not for-mother-of-no torg-gov-lei- or pro-mouse de-nos-tyu. Dvo-ryan-with-t-in-en-noe - "dvor-ryan-with-t-in shpa-gi" - also pri-ho-di-lo in upa-dock. Nes-how many times about-from-to-di-were "chis-t-ki" two-ryan-s-t-va: two-ryan-nin should-wives were yuri-di-chs-ki do- Show your rights. Na-rozh-dav-sha-yasya french-tsuz-s-kaya bur-zhu-asia in the 17th century. was-la still weak-boy-, did not pre-ten-do-va-la on poli-ti-ti-ti-ti-ti-ness and needed a support -ke ab-so-lyu-tiz-ma.

The second half of the XVII century. in France, in the main, passed in the fight against ab-so-lyu-tiz-ma, strengthened-liv-she-that during the right di-na-la-ri-shelier (1624-1642). After his death and the death of Liu-do-vi-ka XI-II Bur-bo-na (1643) re-gen-t-shey with a little-year-old Liu-do-vi- ke XIV (he was only 5 years old) became his mother An-na Av-s-t-rii-skaya. Fak-ti-chi-ki country ruled its fa-vo-rit Italian-Yanets Ma-za-ri-ni, in-the-best-shy card-di-nal-s-kiy dignity.

Politics of Ma-za-ri-no and Fron-dy. Ma-za-ri-ni, if-li-tik smart and from-in-mouth-li-out-, like-add-but Ri-shelier, try-mil-sya to see if -ti-ku ab-so-lyu-tiz-ma. This is a call-va not-enough-with-t-in different layers of society. In the south-for-the-pas-de of France, there was a resurrection, with which-ry-ry-ra-p-ra-saw-were the messengers of the vlas-ty-me howl -ska. In the op-in-zi-tion to the right-wi-tel-s-t-wu na-ho-di-lied and par-la-men-you go-ro-dov, since the power of the la their san-k-tion on new na-logi. Kog-da para-rizh-s-cue par-la-ment - the highest su-deb-naya pa-la-ta - from-ka-zal-sy ut-ver-dit na-lo-gi, ko- ro-lion-with-kim at-ka-zom were-forbidden for his se-da-nia. The fight-ba went off, and par-la-ment Pa-ri-zha made a decision about a number of re-forms against ko-ro-lev-s-kih uk -zov, pod-der-jean-noe na-ro-home and go-rod-with-ki-mi ma-gis-t-ra-ta-mi. In 1648, there were two li-de-ra pa-rizh-with-ko par-la-ment-ta. In the answer pa-ri-zha-not pos-t-ro-or in Pa-ri-same you-sya-chi bar-ri-cad. This movement was called-va-no Fron-doy. She is usually considered par-la-men-t-s-coy-, although she was a shi-ro-coy native and pro-lasted from 1648 to 1649 In 1650-1653 Fron-do car-g-la-vi-la part of aris-tok-ra-tii, which-paradise pot-re-bo-wa-la og-ra-ni-chit ko-ro-lev-s- kuyu power and create the General state. The second Front-da on-lu-chi-la is called "Fronts of Princes". Ma-za-ri-ni is right with this Front-doy.

The absolutism of Louis XIV.

In 1661, Ma-za-ri-ni came to an end, and Liu-do-vik XIV began to rule alone. Namely, under Liu-do-vi-ke XIV, French-tsuz-s-ky ab-so-lyu-tism reached its own apo-gay, but this was the beginning of his decline. ka. This pe-ri-od hour-zy-va-yut "golden ve-com", "ve-com Lu-do-vi-ka XIV", and his self-go - " co-role-sol-n-tse ". Under him, the power of the king sharply increased and the go-su-dar-s-t-ven-naya cen-t-ra-l-zation increased. Poz-ve-li-chi-va-nie special-would-be-ro-la, tor-zhes-t-ven-th-thief-thief tse-re-mo-ni-al, endless nye praz-d-ness-t-va, co-arming of a magnificent co-ro-lion-with-co-res-zi-den-tion in Vers-sa-le - all this is but there was a sim-in-li-zi-ro-vat tor-zhes-t-in ab-so-lyu-tiz-ma.

The main media-with-t-va go-su-dar-s-t-va pog-lo-shcha-whether wars. Of the 54 years of self-righteousness, Liu-do-vi-ka XIV 33 went to war. However, their main goal is to beat ge-ge-monii in Ev-ro-pe - there was no dos-tig-nu-ta. Almost de-n-re-jerky heavy wars, which France ve-la both with from del-us countries, and to -li-qi-yami of the countries, consuming a lot of funds and man-ve-ch-kh lives. In the re-zul-ta-te four-you-reh of the wars at Liu-do-vi-ke XIV, the country-seeding is strongly sok-ra-ti-els. If in the last quarter of the 17th century. in France there were more than 15 million people, then in the beginning of the 16th-2nd centuries - only 12 million -on for Is-pan-with-something us-ice-with-t-in (1701-1714). During this war in the Se-ven-nsky mountains, do not quit-ha-li the restoration of the ka-mi-zar-ditch (from the word che-mis - ru-bash-ka: re-emerged kres-t-yane na-de-va-li on-top of clothes, white ru-ba-hi).

Wars are strong-but-dor-va-whether eco-no-mi-ch-something-lo-ze-go-su-dar-s-t-va. In Pa-ri-the same and other cities, after-yan-but felt-el-not-enough-with-t-in the people of the masses, bur-zhu-asia and yes, two-ryan-s-t-va. Pro-is-ho-di-li me-te-zhi and restoration. Yes, the same torture-ki ta-lan-t-li-in-go eco-no-mis-ta - ge-ne-ral-no-go con-t-ro-le-ra pro-mouse-len -nos-ty, trade-gov-whether and fi-nan-sov of France Kohl-ber-ra could not you-weight-ti France from ty-lo-go eco-no-mi- well-ko-go-lo-ze-niya. Kol-ber ak-tiv-but pro-did-d-l-ti-ku mer-kan-ti-liz-ma. He introduced the pro-tek-ts-onis-t-s-kie po-li-us, sub-si-di-ro-val creation of large-scale ma-nu-fak-tur, pre- gave them different pri-vi-le-gii. For the acquisition and development of new koloni were created with the participation of go-su-dar-s-t-va East India, West -Indian, Le-van-tii-sky tor-th-th companies.

The crisis of French absolutism

After the death of Liu-do-vi-ku XIV, pres-tol went to his five-year-old right-well-ku Liu-do-vi-ku XV (1715-1774). Duke Phi-lipppe Or-le-en-s-cue, who was 8 years old, became the re-gen-tom under him. The main problem-yes-who-in-th-th-th-th-th-th-th-tel-s-t-va was-lo you-weight-ty country from eco-no-mi-ch-k-go kri-zi -sa. He-ne-ral-ny-t-ro-le-rum was called-chen shot-lan-dez John Low, who led France to fi-nan-so-vo- moo kri-zi-su, you-letting a huge amount of money-t-in nothing is provided with money bans-to-notes.

In the 40-60s of the XVI-II century. France took part-t-in-va-la in the wars, which-rye was-lie-ni-whether her and without that-t-lo, eco-no-mi-sos -that. France vys-tu-pi-la on the side of Prussia in the howl-not against Av-s-t-ry (1740-1748), but in Se-mi-she-she- not (1756-1763) - against An-g-lii. In re-zul-ta-those after-ice-war, she lost all her colonies in New Light and in India.

The financial crisis of the two-ras strengthened-li-val-sya og-rom-us-mi tra-ta-mi on his sophisticated growth-kosh, the content of the para-ra-z- ti-ch-ti-thief-thief aris-tok-ra-tii. The co-role was time-consuming oho-te, fa-vo-rit-kam (mark-ki-za de Pom-pa-dur, gra-fi-nya Du-bar-ri). Es-whether Liu-do-vi-ku XIV pri-pi-sy-wa-li words: "Go-su-dar-s-t-vo is me", - then Liu-do-vi-ku XV: "After us at least top-notch."

In the middle of the XVI-II century. us-ko-ri-els-development of pro-mouse-len-nos-ty, trade-gov-li and sel-with-ko-ho-zyay-st-va. The population of France grew up, reaching 26 million in 1790, of which 84% were sel-ki-mi zhi-te-la-mi. The process of introducing ka-pi-ta-lis-ti-ch-k-go uk-la-da into agrarian relations pro-te-kal more in -ten-siv-no. Usi-li-las so-qi-al-naya dif-fe-ren-qi-ation of kres-t-yan-s-t-va. In some districts of France, part of the two-ryan-earth-lion-la-del-tsev pe-re-ho-di-la na ka-pi-ta-lis-ti-ches- kiy ve-de-niya kho-zyay-st-va. Krest-t-yanam came-over-le-zha-lo about 40% of the land in the form of price-zi-you (forever-no-us-ice-with-t-ven-no- go hold). The cross-yanin could not leave, and the owner (usually sen-or) could not bend him and deprive him of the earth. About 90% of the kres-t-yang were personally free, but nevertheless, in some places, the personal issue of kres was still preserved. -ty-yan (i.e., ser-important). Krest-t-yane - both personally free, and personally for-vie-si-were-were-connected-to-us by many old ordinary cha-ev. Almost to the very same re-in-lu-tion, the custom-tea "mer-t-wow-ki" was preserved, that is, plate-that with pe-re-yes-che us-ice-s-t-va, for you-baking bread and for a grain-na in vl-de-ni-yah sen-ora, etc., although a long time ago a long time ago, there were no stoves, no mill-ts, and the very seniors no longer lived in their own place. Soh-ra-nya-lis not only tsen-zi-va, but also sham-par (na-tu-ral-n-log), de-sy-ti-na in favor of the cer-k- vi, all-possible road-going, mos-toe and others are gone.

Although France was-ta-wa-las-with-ko-ho-zyay-st-ven-noy country-, the industrial-ness of the game-ra-la is already significant role in her eco-no-mi-ke. For the French-tsuz-with-coy pro-mouse-len-no-ty was-lo ha-rak-ter-but shi-ro-something ras-p-ros-t-ra-no-hand-no pro-from-water-s-t-va, but ma-nu-fak-tu-ra dos-tig-la you-so-coy ste-pe-no development. Increased the number of large centers-t-ra-li-zo-van-ma-nu-fak-tur, they na-chi-na-yut take-sy cars. Us-ko-rya-e-xia for-mi-ro-va-ni-shchef-ran-tsuz-with-ko-go market, develops-viv-va-is-Xia internal and international trade.

Together with the development of ka-pi-ta-lis-ti-chi-ches-ts, the age-ras-ta-is the role of tor-go-in-pro-thought kru-gov, usi-li-wa-em-Xia their eco-no-mi-chs-kaya and so-chi-al-naya meaning. One-on-one-to-further development of trade-gov-li and pro-mouse-len-nos-ty in France was interrupted by ab-so-lyu-tism. Development of ka-pi-ta-lis-ti-ti-ti-ti-t-b-va-lo destruction building, saving-ra-nyav-she-go-Xia in the village-with-com-ho-zyay-st-ve, as well as the central system and the -vi-le-guy-, pre-do-it-la-e-de-del-nim pri-vi-le-gi-ro-van-nym com-pa-ni-yam and vl-del-tsam “ko -ro-lev-s-kikh ma-nu-fak-tour ". Skla-dy-va-niyu public-run-tsuz-from-to-go market me-sha-li ost-tat-ki fe-odal-noy-d-rob-len-nos-ty: from-day-with-t-vie of a single system-te-we of measures and weights, an internal one, etc.

Discontent vy-zy-va-la sis-te-ma citizen-dan-with-who-no-ra-ven-s-t-va and sos-vy-le-gui-, ko- to-ry-mi ob-la-da-whether two-ryan-s-t-in and do-ho-ven-s-t-in. They, for example, were-were-in-gods-de-us from the up-la-you of the main w-nos-ti in ad-mi-nis-t-ra-tions, su-de, armies. In the second half of the XVI-II century. against ab-so-lyu-tiz-ma under-ni-ma-et-sya powerful wave-on op-po-zi-tion. Pro-mouse-len-ni-ki, who were no longer needed in the care of ab-so-lyu-tiz-ma, were they at the head of this op-in-z- tion. In-ten-tsi-al-nym her co-yuz-no-one became the people of the masses and, first of all, kres-t-yan-s-t-in. A part of the obur-zhu-aziv-she-go-Xia double-ryan-s-t-va also fell into co-yuzu with the bur-zhu-azi-she. In the op-po-zi-tion to ab-so-lyu-tiz-mu na-ho-di-lis par-la-men-you in the head with par-rizh-s-kim. They need-bo-va-whether og-ra-no-che-niya ab-so-lyu-tiz-ma in favor of pri-vi-le-gi-ro-van-s-lvii. It was-la aris-tok-ra-ti-chs-kaya op-po-zi-tsion ab-so-lyu-tiz-mu.

Thus, by the end of the 16th-2nd centuries. in France, na-ras-ta-et general-t-ven-no-up-to-will-with-t-in pro-mouse-len-nikov, whether-be-ral-no-go two-ryan-s-t-va, kres-t-yan and on-em-s-t-w-chih.

French Enlightenment

By the se-re-di-not of the XVI-II century. there was a powerful take-off of the French She-go anti-fe-odal aspirations of the French-tsuz-coy bur-zhu-asia and the People's masses. Its creator-tsa-mi became a shining ple-venom of you-giving-thinking-whether-te-lei-, pi-sa-te-lei-, scientists. A lot of words appeared in many different branches of science (by the time of the 16th-2nd centuries there were already more lee 600), many volumes from-da-niya: "Estes-t-ven-naya is-to-riya" Byuf-fon, "Encyclo-pe-diya na-uk and re -me-sat "Did-ro and D" Alam-be-ra. En-tsik-lo-pe-diya then did-solve, then zap-re-did-ls - all of it went out. Lo 28 volumes; for the first time, it explained such words as de-put-tat, des-po-tia, con-s-t-tu-tion, pri- vi-le-gia and others. You-ho-di-li and bib-li-og-ra-fi-ch-ch-zhur-na-ly; in France, they became shi-ro-ko from-weight -t-us books about pu-te-shes-t-vi-yah Ku-ka, La-pe-ru-za, Ray-na-la and others. whether-edema-ki so-bi-ra-whether only mo-us-you-ri and aris-tok-ra-you, then to se-re-di-not of the XVI-II century bib-li-edema-ki were already at pi-sa-te-lei, chi-nov-nikov, ap-te-ka-rei, ot-kup-shchi-kov, etc. In many French -with-kih-ro-dakh us-t-ra-willow-were book-auk-tsi-ones; books pe-cha-ta-were in Holland, Switzerland, and the whole armies of the book-load carry them to France. -mo-da-nah with a double or triple bottom; kni-go-no-shi pe-rep-ly-va-li with no rivers; in almost all large cities of France - Pa-ri-the same, Lil-le, Rou-ane, Mar-se-le, etc. - in the sub-va-lah, in the ro-shen-nyh-ni-tsakh, old kon-nyush-nyah kept-ra-nya-las pri-ve-zen-naya because of the border-ni-tsy not-le-gal-naya- te-ra-tu-ra.

In the second half of the XVI-II century. all over the country, not su-shche-t-in-va-whether secret ti-pog-ra-fi and warehouses with forbidden books. Zap-re-shchen-ny li-te-ra-tu-ru when-judged-yes-if-for-burning par-la-men-you, chi-nov-ni-ki and other officials tsi-al-nye faces, but in most-shin-s-t-ve in the case of cha-ev li-te-ra-tu-ra it was not destroyed, burn it -ki with unnecessary boo-ma-ha-mi. Zap-re-schen-ny books are usually sold according to pre-ro-gim prices, and since-since gra-mot-ness among-di-na-se-le- nia meaningful-but-grew-la, then their chi-ta-li yes-ku-che-ry, mountain-nich-ny, and sometimes and vill-la-ny. Ras-p-ros-t-ra-not-like-like-te-ra-tu-ry in France oka-for-lo su-shchess-t-ven-ny influence on arrivals -li-ze-re-vo-lu-tsi-on-no-th explosion: pro-is-ho-di-la, as it were, “du-ho-na se-ku-la-ri-za- tziya "- mass-co-voe high-in-god-de-noe from the spirit-hov-no-gne-ta.

French pros-ve-ti-te-li - fi-lo-so-phy, pi-sa-te-li, eco-no-mis-you, is-to-ri-ki - convinced pro tiv-ni-ki fe-odal-no-abso-lyu-tis-t-s-ko-go under-ver-ha-li sp-merciless criticism of his ide-olo-gi -kish-kie mustache, vys-tu-pa-li for svo-bo-du and citizens-dan-with-something ra-ven-s-t-in. Du-khov-us-leaders-dy-mi of this te-ch-niya were Vol-ter, Mon-tes-kye, Rus-so, Did-ro, D "Alam-ber and others pros-ve-ti-te-li. Their ideas zak-lu-cha-li in a huge re-in-lu-tsi-on-ny po-ten-tsi-al and play -or an enormous role in the development of the spiritual culture of France of the 16th-2nd centuries, when the big influence on the countries of the West Noah Eu-ro-py, North and South America, Russia and other countries.

Eve of revolution

The crisis of the fe-odal-but-absolutely-lyu-tis-t-with-th system in France was sharply substantiated at the end of the 80s of the 16th-2nd centuries. In 1787-1789. once-ver-zero-th-th-th-th-th-th-th-th-th-th-th-th-th-th crisis Usu-gu-beat him to-go-thief with An-g-li-she in 1876, from-to-jerk-out french-tsuz-s-ky market for more cheap an-g-liy-skikh from-de-liy. Upa-dock and zas-that pro-from-water-s-t-va, without-ra-bo-t-tsa oh-va-ti-if the country. Because of the uncommon tea-but-su-ro-voy-we in 1788, there was a bad crop-zhai-that came to neh-vat-ke grain on, do-ro-go-vis-not pro-do-will-s-t-viya. Justified the needs and misfortunes of the people of the masses. 68

With all the eye-sight-nose-ty, about-na-ru-li-las-like-the-state-under-s-t-woo-th-th class get out of the crisis ... Go-su-dar-s-t-ven-ny debt from 1.5 billion grew in 14 years by 1789 exactly three times. Mo-nar-hiya turned out to be on po-ro-ge fi-nan-so-in-go ban-to-rot-s-t-va. Ge-ne-ral-ny-t-ro-ler Tyur-go pre-lo-lived to-live part of the n-logs on pri-vi-le-gi-ro-van-nye sos-lo -via. There was a project of a devil-of-the-cat-no-go in-the-ground-no-direct-na-lo-ga.

In 1787, on-de-yas to-get-ch-to-hold-ku two-ryan-s-t-va and du-ho-ven-s-t-va - two pri-vi-le -gi-ro-van-s-los-viii-, mon-nar-hiya soz-va-la-gathering "no-tab-ley-" - selected-ko-ro-lem -some pre-s-ta-vi-te-lei of these estates. However, they on-from-cut from-for-decided-to-approve the pre-lo-women-re-forms and pot-re-bo-va-whether to convene Ge-not- ral-nye staff, counting-you-vaya og-ra-no-chit ko-ro-lion-s-ku power in their in-te-re-sakh. Lo-zung so-zy-va Ge-ne-ral-nyh shtatov, who did not co-bi-ra-lis since 1614, was under-h-va-chen shi-ro-ki -mi kru-ga-mi third of his estate, propose-vi-nouve-she-go his own poly-ti-ch-ch-ku prog-ram-mu. The co-call of the sht-tov was called for the spring of 1789. In the cities and the trees, you-ra-ba-you-were-na-ka-zy de-pu -that-there, in some-ryh, it's clear-but-to-pa-li tre-bo-va-nia and on-dezh-dy con-vies. In most-shin-s-t-ve kres-t-yan-s-kikh na-ka-call on-li-ti-ti-ti-b-va-nia did not stand out, for -that would-be-need-bo-va-tion of-menus of "bad habits-cha-ev", reduction of n-logs, etc. Ku-pe-ches-kie na-ka-zy co-der-zha-whether the-bo-va-va-nia from-me-me-me-n-ve-ko-va reg-la-men-ta-tion pro-mouse-len-nose- ti, equal to the-lo-go-about-lo-wishing of all the estates and even not-so-ro-th og-ra-no-che-niya ro-lion-with-coy power. In the turn, there was even the word "con-s-t-tu-tsion", which many expected from the General staff. Lu-do-wick XVI (1774-1792) you-needed-den was on the us-stupid. To the post of ge-ne-ral-no-go kon-t-ro-le-ra fi-nan-sov, pro-mouse-len-nos-ty and torg-gov-is he a prize-shaft seamstress-tsar-s -ko-ki-ki-ra Nek-ke-ra - side-of-no-ka moderate re-forms, in a pu-lar-no-go in industrial and phi -nan-so-oy circles.

Proceeding from the number of de-pu-ta-tov of the third estate, the number of de-pu-ta-tov is ud-in-it. You-bi-rat could-whether all husband-chin-chi-naya from the age of 25, who had a post-yan-ny place, lived-tel-s-t-va and vno-siv- shie on-log. Go-lo-co-va-nie pre-la-ha-mo, as before, de yam, that is, not according to the im-shes-t-ven-no-mu s-that-y-te-lei, but according to the pri-vi-le-gi-yam, which-ry-mi they were used), that is, the first two conditions could have twice as many places as the third.

French Revolution of the 18th century

The formation of a revolutionary situation and the beginning of the revolution (May 5, 1789 - August 10, 1792)

Since the spring of 1788, a powerful national movement has been deployed. Bread riots, on-pa-de-nia on the ground-whether sen-orov, once-g-rom on-lo-go-out offices, sta-chi-nye slaves high tup-le-niya - all this has become commonplace. The largest of them was the out-of-dumb-down of the work of the Pa-ri-zha in response to the torture of the bo-ha-so-go Re-Vel-en to lower the slave for the slave pay. Ra-bo-chie time-g-ro-mi-whether his house and ma-nu-fak-tu-ru, I will get into a ru-co-plow fight with howl-ska-mi. Print almost was-in-bo-di-las from the price-zu-ry. You-ho-di-lo into the light of a lot of bro-shur, pam-f-le-tov, av-to-ra-mi who-ryh were-were-l-cis-you from whether-be-ral-noble or a third estate. One of the most po-lyar became and bro-shu-ra ab-ba-ta Siy-es-sa "What is this third estate?" In these brooches, for-mu-li-ro-va-las prog-ram-ma pe-re-do-people dov-ryan-s-t-va and the third viya: citizen-dan-with-something ra-ven-s-t-in, whether-be-ral-rights-va and freedom-dy, og-ra-no-che-ni-nar-chii pre-with-ta-vi-tel-ny uch-dir-de-ni-em.

On May 5, 1789, at a huge party on-ro-da in Vers-sa-le, the Ge-ne-ral-nye staffs gathered. We got together, as in the past, at the same time. The first estate - du-ho-ven-s-t-vo - pre-s-tav-lal 291 de-po-tat; about 200 of them, rural-s-kyu-re, who knew the life of their own pri-ho-zan, were inclined to re-for-mam. Only 90 out of 270 de-pu-ta-tov from the two-ryan-s-t-va were we-t-ro-eny l-be-ral-no.

The third estate is pre-s-tav-la-whether 578 de-pu-ta-tov. In most-shin-s-t-ve it was a lawyer, you-go-ts from in-tel-li-gen-tion, merchants, banks-ki-ry, pro-mice len-ni-ki, earth-lion-la-del-tsy. But among them there were no those who sometimes already on-zy-va-if the fourth-class, i.e., notes. De-poo-ta-you third-of-his-class-from-ver-g-li-po-s-lv-tsip pre-s-ta-vi-tel-s-t-va and for -se-da-nii 17 June pro-who-g-la-si-whether se-bya Na-tsi-onal-ni-ni-ni (400 go-lo-sov against 90), t that is, full-of-urine-mi-s-with-ta-vi-te-la-mi of the whole nation (by this time, from the first and second th status in the third pe-resh-whether about 100 de-pu-ta-tov). Collecting the prize-va-lo do not pay on-logs, if it will be ras-poo-shu-but. Co-role pri-ka-hall to close-dig the hall for-se-da-niy and pos-ta-vil there the first detachment for the och-ra-ny. On the morning of June 20, de-poo-ta-you Na-tsi-onal-no gathering pe-res-li in the hall for a ball game and at the call-woo de-po- ta-ta Mi-ra-bo pok-la-lis not run-to-go, until you-ra-bo-ta-na con-s-t-tu-tsion.

On June 27, the co-role was you-needed-den to pre-write the rest of the de-poo-ta-tam pri-vi-le-gi-ro-van-s-vy a single thread to the Na-tsi-onal-th collection. July 9 Na-tsi-onal-gathering, sos-that-is-the-neck already from all three states-viii-, pro-who-g-la-si-lo se-by Uch-re -di-tel-ny.

Wanting to cut off on-chi-nav-shu-yusya re-vo-lu-tion, the co-role of pop-ro-bo-shaft to enter into Parizh on-em-ny troops. On July 11, Nek-ker was displaced. On July 12-13, there were no skirmishes with the howls, they went into action. People zag-va-you-shaft weapon shops and shouting. Town-s-kie zak-ta-you, where did the import go-li-us for pro-to-free-s-t-vie, were-were-ruined ...

The taking of the Bastille

On the morning of July 14, a thief-wal-Xia went to the House of in-va-li-dov, where he took ar-se-nal, and seized weapons. Then the crowd moved to the cross-post of the Bas-ti-lia, who served-in-li-ti-my prison and became a sim -of-in-la and des-in-tiz-ma. People pot-re-bo-shaft, so that the co-men-dant cre-po-ti-ka-hall to remove the guns from the ba-shen and give out the weapon, for some -roe was stored in the cross-post. But the co-man-dant from-ka-hall-to do it. Tol-py pa-ri-jean and soldier french-tsuz-s-koy guards took the Bas-ti-lia by storm, the gar-ni-zones of the kre-pos-ti surrendered. Ko-men-dan-tu kre-pos-ti mark-ki-zu de Lo-ne from-ru-bi-li go-lo-wu, water-ru-zi-li it to pee and how to- fairies on-n-whether on go-ro-doo. Bas-ti-lia was-la-ru-she-na.

Three lists have survived, in which there are those who took Bas-ti-lia. In one of them, 662 people are named and their professions are indicated. Most of all in the list of owners of small lavas and re-mes-len-niks - 426 people, under-masters, students -covs and workers - 149, sol-dates - 77, com-mer-san-tov - 4, servants - 5, teacher - 1. After taking Bas-ti -liya France was-la oh-wa-che-on a powerful rise of the people-of-the-movement. Nation over-gal old or-ga-nas of power, for-mi-ro-wa-la-na-native mi-lition. Krest-ty-yane na-pa-da-li on the locks sen-orov and mo-us-you-rey-, from-bi-ra-li zah-va-chen-nye sen-ora-mi ob- shin-nye earth-li. Mayor Pa-ri-zha was from-b-r Bai-i, ko-man-blowing Na-tsi-onal guard-di-e Pa-ri-zha - La-fay-et. Fak-ti-chi-ki ab-so-lyu-tism was over-g-nut, the emigration of two-ryan-s-t-va began. Re-al-naya po-li-ti-chi-kaya power on-ho-di-las in the hands of the Uch-re-di-tel-no-gathering, that is, it was-la from-nya-ta in aris-tok-ra-tii and pe-resh-la, in the main way, to the third estate.

Frightened by the raz-ma-hom of the people, the movement of the Uch-re-di-tel-ny meeting in August 1789 brought two important for-to-but-yes-tel-tel-ta. On the night from 4 to 5 aug-gus-ta - many sov-re-men-ni-ki na-zy-va-whether her "night chu-des" - was you-ra-bo-tan za-ko -nop-ro-ect, which-to-ry-ni-mal-sya in the form of ob-na-ro-to-van-ny dec-re-tov from 4 to 11 aug-gus-that, from -me-nyav-shikh-s-lov-pre-imu-shche-t-va, fe-odal pra-va, church-ny de-sy-ti-well and ob-yav-lav-shikh ra-ven-s-t-in all before the con-in-up-la-te go-su-dar-s-t-ven-n-logs. However, all the prices, sham-pa-ry are the main ones, connected with the land by the win-nos-ti - os-ta-wa-were in si-le and under -why-whether you-ku-poo. These dec-re-you are in-li-li-li-li-li-li-li-ti-ke of partial us-tu-pok kres-t-yanam and pro-bi-li a gap in the fe- one-of-a-kind relations. Along with that, the Collection of races-sy-la-lo ka-ra-tel-nye detachments against those kres-t-yan, which-rye-bo-va- or more drastic measures. It was announced about the destruction of all kind of pri-vi-le-giy and "will-nose-tei-". What-to-do-to-to-it-not-enough-kres-t-yan and go-to-kind-with-koi plebs, it was decided to publish it -nie to the future con-s-t-tu-tion, since she herself could not be under-go-to-le-na so fast.

August 26, 1789 Meeting of the acceptance of the "Dec-la-ra-tion of the rights of man-ve-ka and grazh-da-no-na" - do-ku-ment og-rum-no-go re-in-lu-tsi-he-no-th knowledge. In its basis, the ideas of Pros-message, pro-who-g-la-sha-were the principle of na-kind-no-go su-ve-re-ni- te-ta, ra-ven-s-t-in all in front of the law, right-in-man-lo-ve-ka on safety and co-ro-tiv-le- nie ug-not-te-niyu, freedom of speech, print-part and so-weight. No doubt-not-but that the "Dec-la-ra-tia not-for-the-vie-si-us-ti-ti-ti-US", due to the earlier, on July 4, 1776, was la influence on the "Dec-la-ra-tion of the rights of man-ve-ka and citizen-da-no-na". In the post-ice-her, the 17th article of the "Dec-la-ra-tion" pro-who-g-la-sha-els »Right-in-the-hour so-s-t-ven-nos-ty.

The revolution has been ras-ta-la, but the eco-no-mi-ch-ch-ch-l-y of France has not improved. Neh-vat-ka bread-ba, spe-ku-la-tzia, do-ro-go-visa-for usi-li-va-li not-do-wol-s-t-in na-ro-da. 5 ok-tyab-ry about 20 thousand people-century moved to Vers-sal - re-zi-den-tion of the ko-ro-lion-with-koy family and Uch-re-di -tel-but-th meeting. Refusal of co-ro-la to-write "Dec-la-ra-tion of rights" and dec-re-you 4-And av-gus-ta summoned mas-co-voe no-do-ve -rie to ko-ro-lu.

On the same day, about 6 thousand awakened women, and after them, the rest of the thieves went to Versal-s-ky two-rets. Nation tre-bo-shaft pe-re-ez-da co-ro-lion-with-coy family in Pa-rizh. 6 ok-tyab-rya in the table-li-tsu pe-re-eha-li co-role and Uch-re-di-tel-nye meeting; so-kim-ra-zom co-role oka-zal-sya under con-t-ro-lem na-ro-da and you-needed-den was under-p-sat dec-re-you 4-11 av -gus-that and "Dec-la-ra-tion of the rights of man-ve-ka and citizen-da-no-na." Native movement 5-6 ok-tyab-rya sor-va-lo hostile re-vo-lu-tion for-thoughts of the palace, zak-re-pi- lo her first requests and the provision of conditions for her further development.

Activities of the Constituent Assembly

Having strengthened their positions, the Uch-re-di-tel-ny meeting, in which most of the most-shin-s-t-in pri-over-le-zha-lo pro-mouse -len-ni-kam and li-be-ral-no-mu two-ryan-s-t-wu, by-lu-chi-lo the opportunity to continue your work and to carry out further re-forms. A prominent role in it is played by the mar-kiz La-fay-et, the participant-t-nickname of Ameri-kan-with-coy re-vo-lu-tion, and the Count Mi-ra-bo, ora-tor-tri-boon, a man-age of not-for-a-good-but-mind, not-a-burden-given passions and gro-mad-no-go chas-to-l-biya. However, in the Assembly there were already new forces, until they were put forward in the first rows; among them - young-lo-doy ad-vo-kat from Ar-ra-sa Mak-si-mi-li-an Ro-de-p-er (1758-1794) and some his side-ni-ki.

Following the principle of tsi-pu grazh-dan-s-k-go ra-ven-s-t-va, in 1790-1791. Gathering from-me-ni-lo sos-lov-nye pri-vi-le-gii, li-vi-di-ro-va-lo in-s-t-here us-ice-s-t -ven-no-two-ryan-s-t-va, two-ryan-s-kie ger-would and ti-tu-ly. Ut-ver-w-daya svo-bo-do pre-p-ri-ni-ma-tel-s-t-va, it is destroyed-zhi-lo go-su-dar-s-t-ven- ny reg-la-ment-ta-tion and tse-ho-vuyu system-te-mu. From-me-na vnut-ren-nih-ta-mo-wives, to-go-to-go-to-ra 1786 with An-g-li-her way-so-s-t- in-va-la skla-dy-va-niyu na-tsi-onal-no-go market.

Providing the bourgeoisie-zhu-asia freedom of competition and hire sob-s-t-ven-zh-ga-ni-za-tions and struggle for their in-te-re-sy. Sometime in 1790-1791 took part in the strikes of the slaves and began to arise slave unions, the uch-re-di-tel-ny meeting so-called war-yen-ny-law about su-ro-how ras-p-ra-ve with vo-zha-ka-mi and under-s-t-re-ka-te- la-mi, that is, about the death-t-noy kaz-not without judgment. On July 14, 1791, the law of Le Cha-pelier (after the pre-lo-living of his de-pu-ta-ta) was adopted about the prohibition of the or-ha -nie-for-tions and one hundred-check. This law was canceled only in 1864.

A new ascent of the cross-yang-with-kih re-stood-ni-bu-dil The gathering will return to the ag-rar-no-th question-ro-su. December-re-volume 2 no-yab-rya 1789 ... Declared on-tsi-onal imu-sches-t-vom, they were-were-f-e-e-e-e-e-zhu. As-ku-ku-la-la pro-da-wa-las for you-so-kuyu price-nu, her-ku-pa-li in the main bur-zhu-asia and for-zhi-toch -nye kres-t-yane. Poor kres-t-yane could not buy these lands.

Constitution of 1791

In September 1791, the Uch-re-di-tel-nye meeting for-ver-shi-lo vy-work-bot-ku Kon-s-ti-tu-tion. All citizens-yes-were-not-were-de-le-ny on "active" and "passive", that is, on those who had the right to out-of-rate and not having -shhh this right-va. "Active-ny-mi" citizens-da-na-mi were husbands from the age of 25, who were so-s-t-ven-ni-ka-mi and pay-ti-whether direct pay-off is not less than 1.5-3 liv-ditch (size of three-day pay-you average for work) ... Of the 9 million men, this righteousness ob-la-da-li 4.3 million. bi-ra-were you-bor-shchi-ki (there were about 50 thousand of them), then de-poo-ta-you. Choose-bor-shchi-ki vno-si-whether not three-d-nev-ny-, but de-xia-tid-nev-ny-n-log, but can-di-da-you in de-pu-ta -you Collections should-should-we-should-pay-s-log in one mark-se-rib-ra (i.e. 52 liv-ra) and ob-la-give more ze-stranded sob-s-t-ven-nos-tju. Con-s-t-tu-tion did not ra-p-grow-t-ra-nya-las on the colo-nii, the slave-s-t-in them did not get rid of them.

The constitution of the us-ta-no-vi-la in France kon-s-ti-tu-tsi-on-ny mon-nar-chiyu. For-ko-no-da-tel-naya power with-over-le-zha-la one-no-pa-lat-no-mu , is-half-no-tel-naya - us-ice-with-t-ven-no-moo-nar-hu and named min-nis-t-ram. The co-role could, at the time, from-to-lo-thread approved by the Council-ra-ni-em for-ko-us, since he had the right to “der-zhi-va -that's something. " France raz-de-la-las on 83 de-par-ta-ment-ta, in which the power wasted -ta-mi and di-rek-to-ri-yami, in the go-ro-dakh and de-roar-nyah you choose-mi-ni-tsi-pa-li-te-ta-mi.

Thus, the Uch-re-di-tel-nye collection of ut-ver-di-lo and yuri-di-chi-ki is for-mi-lo so-qi-al-noe and on -li-ti-tch-something of the state-under-with-t-in the haves. In la-ge-re-vo-lu-tion, so-tsi-al-no-po-li-ti-ts-me-zhe-va-nie. The third estate was no longer one. National masses and more rad-cal-nye layers of bur-zhu-asia vys-tu-pa-li for pro-long-ze-vo-lu-tion. The ver-hee of the bur-zhu-asia and the l-b-ral-two-ryan-s-t-in, after-receiving-what-what they did-bi-wa-were, striving to-to-mo-zit her.

Varenna Crisis

This division is clear-cut-but-on-ru-lived during the time of the Varen-n-th crisis, caused by-van-go in- coy run-with-t-va co-ro-la. Lu-do-wick XVI with seven decided to flee from Para-zha to Varennes, where many emigres gathered from France and close, in Belgium, a hundred-yala av-s-t-riy-sky army, on ko-to-rui and rass-count-you-wa-la ko-ro-lion-s-kaya family. On the night of June 21, 1791, under the view of ku-che-ra, carrying-she-go ba-ro-nes-su Korf, Liu-do-vic XVI and Marya An-tu-anet-ta, pe-re-dressed-gor-nich-noy-, you-ex-are from Pa-ri-zha, as if accompanying the Russian ba-ro-ness-su, but on the sa -mom de le fran-tsuz-s-kuyu her-tso-gi-nu de Tour-nel to Belgium. But at the first post-station, the son of the station missed the co-ro-la, and crowd-pa na-ro-da zas-ta-vi-la from-p-ra-vit run-le-ts under the con-it back to Pa-rizh. Namely, this is the event of a call-va-lo for-mi-ro-va-vie of good-wolves from-rows (vol-lon-te-dov) in protection re-in-lu-tion. At the time of the trip to Paris, the guard was present to the ship. On the streets, Pa-ri-zha raz-bi-va-li buts-you co-ro-la and na-zy-va-if his change-no-com.

Clubs, popular societies, press

Discontent of the people of the masses and part of the li-be-ral-no-two-ryan-s-t-va de-yatel-nos-ty hundred-yav-shih at the power of the moderate mo-nar-his-tov-con-s-ti-tsi-she-lis-tov na-ho-di-lo his reflection in the clubs, which-rye the world-ro-va-were in pol-ti-ti-ti-ti-t-re-s and play-ra-whether the role has not yet arisen in France in ti-ti-ti some parties. They were klu-fel-yans, yako-bin-ts, kor-del-erov, etc. In 1791-1792. on-for-lee de-mok-ra-tich-nym was the club of kor-del-yers, to ko-ro-mo cha-go-te-whether so na-zy-va-e brothers-s-kie society-t-va, that is, the un-unity-of-not-re-mes-len-nikov, "passive" citizens; in no-go-di-li Ma-rat, Dan-ton, De-mu-len and others. erov - mo-na-hov, but-siv-shih vl-sy-ni-tsy and under-yasy-vav-shikh-that ve-rev-coy (from the fr. cor-de).

The club of yako-bin-tsev, co-bi-rav-shy in St. Yako-ba, had a great influence; member-with-t-in it op-la-chi-va-los do-ro-go, especially ben-but vna-cha-le. He united the parties of different orientations. The club had fi-li-als in pro-wins-tsi-yah. In 1791, there were more than 400 of them, in the future - more than 1000. Its members were Mi-ra-bo and Ro-bes-p-er. In re-zul-ta-te ras-ko-la in 1791, klu-ba yako-bin-tsev ob-ra-zo-val-sya (except yako-bin-s-ko-go) con- s-ti-ti-tsi-on-no-mo-nar-hi-tsi-ti-ti-ti-ti-ti-ti club of fel-yans, prose-van-ny so in n-n-n-va- niyu du-hov-no-go or-de-na, in mo-us-you-re co-that-ro-th members of the club-ba za-se-da-li. Li-de-ra-mi klu-ba were M. La-fay-et, A. Bar-nav, A. La-meth.

The revolution has caused a lot of newspapers to come to life. Big-aw-to-ri-tete for-in-eva-la ga-zet-ta "Friend na-ro-da", from-da-va-ma-ra-tom. Her chi-ta-li is more than anything in the suburbs, working quarters, ta-lakhs and societies. There was-if-ka-la-po-lar-ness of ga-ze-you zhur-na-fox-that Eber "Pa-pas-sha Du-shen", in which he is li-chal aris-tok-ra-tov and bo-ha-chey-, using the French-tsuz-s-ky folk-lore, and sometimes a simple-speech heat- rut.

The beginning of the revolutionary wars

The revolution in France vy-zy-va-la devil-po-coy-st-vo and not-vist mon-nar-khov and two-ryan-s-t-va ev-ro-pei-skikh der -jav. Most of all, they were afraid of France-tsuz-with-coy re-vo-lu-tion of Av-s-t-ria and Prussia. In February-le 1792 in Sak-so-nii in the castle of Pil-nits the pra-vi-tel-s-t-va Av-s-t-rie and Prussia zak-lyu-ch- whether the military union against the re-in-lu-tsi-on-noy France. The ko-role and its side-ni-ki were striving for war-not, because we-de-whether there is one-s-t-vene-nye spa-treatment from re-in-lu -tion. Some of the fel-yans, as well as Ro-bes-p-er, Ma-rat and many members like-bin-with-k-go club-ba were against wars and oops - go to her. Zhi-ron-dis-you, mainly to-go and industrial circles from de-par-ta-men-ta Zhi-ron-dy and other de -par-ta-men-tov, were-if-for the war-well, and count-you-va-whether on the fast-t-ruyu-do-do.

The top was taken by the side-ron-ni-ki of the war, and on April 20, 1792 France announced the war to Av-s-t-ry. It was-la-la-on-re-in-lu-tsi-on-noy France against the mon-nar-hi-ch-ch-koy Ev-ro-py. Na-cha-lo wars were-lo unsuccessful for France: the old army de-zor-ga-ni-zo-va-na, many officers emig -ri-ro-va-li; in-bos-te-ry were not trained, badly in-shouting, not to-ve-rya-if the officers-tse-ram.

Legislative Assembly

Another 1 October 1791 after the acceptance of Kon-s-ty-tu-tion from-to-ry-els Za-ko-no-da-tel-ny meeting ... Its composition is from-li-chal-Xia from Uch-re-di-tel-no. The right part of the Za-ko-no-yes-tel-th meeting composed of-tav-li-fel-yany - a party of large fi-nan-systems and not -tsi-an-tov, su-dov-la-del-tsev-ra-bo-tor-gov-tsev and plan-ta-to-ditch, large-scale land-stranded sob-s-t-veins -ni-kov, pro-mouse-len-nikov and pri-we-kav-she-go to her li-be-ral-no-two-ryan-s-t-va. This party was-la for-in-te-re-so-va-na in the preservation of mon-nar-chii and Kon-s-t-tu-tion of 1791.

The left side of the collection consisted of de-pu-ta-tov, associated with yako-bin-s-kim klu-bom. Soon they split into two groups. One of them on-lu-chi-la is called zhi-ron-dis-tov (many on-for-more prominent de-poo-ta-you of this party were from-b-ra-us in de-par-ta-men-te Zhi-ron-da) - their pre-s-tav-la-whether torg-gov-tsy, pro-mouse-len-ni-ki and new earth-lev-la-del-tsy, mainly in the south, south-west and south-east-exact de-par-ta-men-tov, for-in-te-re-co-van-nyh in the pe-re-us-t-swarm-st-ve society-t-va. At the first time, they also support the Con-s-t-tu-tion of 1791, but in the future they pe-decide on the res-pub- li-kan-s-kie on-position.

The extreme left group-pa de-pu-ta-tov in the Za-ko-no-da-tel-nii meeting was-la pre-s-tav-le-na mon-tan-yara-mi ... They have-got-chi-whether this is the name-va-nie in that-mu that in Za-ko-no-da-tel-tel-nii za-ni-ma-li mest-ta na sa of the top of the benches in the hall for-se-da-niy-, on the "go-re" (la mon-tag-ne). In the conditions of the mas-so-in-go re-in-lu-tsi-he-no-go ascent 48 para-rizh-s-kih sections na-cha-li ak-tiv -but take part in the society-t-ven-noy life. Sections us-ta-nav-li-va-li connect with each other and pre-p-ri-ni-ma-li the number of actions. They are in the main and under-go-to-see-whether re-vo-lu-tion August 10, 1792 In na-cha-le av-gus-ta, dey-st -vuya sov-place-t-but with fe-de-ra-ta-mi, sections of the energetic-but-go-to-see-whether over-the-ze of the mon-nar-chii. Walls of houses in Pa-ri-same for-dog-t-re-whether pri-zy-va-mi to the restoration. On-for-lee, the decision-shi-tel-but us-t-ro-en-nye sections with-nya-if pos-ta-nov-le-nie about ot-me-not mon-nar-chii ( 32 sections out of 48).

Page 1

The most important factor that predetermined all of France's foreign policy in the 18th century, as well as in many ways its domestic policy, was the War of the Spanish Succession. Let's dwell on this in more detail.

The cause of the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) was the death of the Spanish monarch Charles II, who left no direct heirs. Louis XIV, in connection with the tangled dynastic relations in Spain itself, expressed the opinion that he was the heir to the Spanish crown. In fact, the war was fought not so much for Spain itself, but for its colonies - numerous American, African possessions, as well as Italian and Dutch colonies. France's acquisition of such a "legacy" implied France's virtually unlimited world hegemony.

For a number of reasons, France fails to emerge victorious from this war, and England laid the foundation for her maritime dominion by the destruction of the Franco-Spanish fleets and the conquest of a number of colonies. Louis XIV dies in 1714, leaving France to his four-year-old great-grandson, later Louis XV.

Thus, before the French diplomacy, at the time of 1714, there were the following tasks in foreign policy, necessary to keep France as a great power:

To oppose the further consolidation of England's status as "Queen of the Seas";

To prevent excessive rapprochement between England and Austria;

And finally, whenever possible, support their traditional allies - Turkey and Sweden, in the fight against Austria.

However, under the minor Louis XV, his regent Philip of Orleans, nephew of the late king, was engaged in foreign policy. Philip, being regent, built the country's foreign policy proceeding not from the principle of expediency, but proceeding from his dynastic claims. The fact is that the regent had certain rights to the throne.

Thus, in the period from 1714 to 1726, during the regency of Philippe Orleans, foreign policy was marked by the following events, which were not aimed at strengthening France, but at satisfying the ambitions of the regent:

The alliance of France with its natural opponents - England and the Netherlands (1717);

War of French Succession (1718-1720) between Spain on the one hand and France, England, Holland and the Holy Roman Empire. In this war, Spain lost, and the momentary quadruple alliance fell apart.

In 1726, Louis XV announced that he was taking power into his own hands, but the government of Cardinal André Fleury (1653-1743) actually ruled, who decided virtually all domestic and foreign policy issues until his death. The king was completely removed from control.

The main leitmotif of the foreign policy of the government of Cardinal Fleury was the policy of "non-intervention". The cardinal tried to avoid any collisions. But, largely contrary to the wishes of the cardinal, France was involved in two wars - for the Polish and Austrian inheritance.

The first of these, the War of the Polish Succession (1733-1735) was between the coalitions of Russia, Austria and Saxony on the one hand, and on the other between Sardinia, Spain and Sardinia. France, as a whole, achieved the weakening of Austria and annexed Lorraine to its possessions.

The second - the war for the Austrian succession (1741-1748), was caused by an attempt by a number of countries to challenge the will of the deceased emperor of Austria Charles IV. In general, the war did not lead to any significant consequences in the European arena.

During last war Cardinal Fleury dies, and Louis XV declares the independent government of the country. The general inability of the king to rule led to negative consequences.

Under the king, France participated in another war - the Seven Years (1756-1763), where it came out on the same side with Austria, its long-standing strategic rival, and Russia, a relatively recent strategic rival. The main result of this war for France is the loss of its main colonies. These colonies passed to England and Spain.

Until the end of the king's life, no significant events in the foreign policy of France occurred, and the king was completely removed from foreign and domestic policy(his phrase "after us even a flood" became widely known).

When analyzing French foreign policy under Louis XV, scholars usually identify the following global trends:

The reign of the successor of Louis XIV is the beginning of the complete disintegration of French absolutism and the failures of its foreign policy;

We know the ancient history of the Fatherland thanks to chronicles - weather reports of the main events with an exact indication of their dates. Ancient chronicles have come down to us in the lists of the XIV-XVIII centuries. According to the place and time of compilation, the chronicles are divided into categories: Novgorod, Suzdal, Moscow, etc. Lists of the same category are also highlighted by edition (Izvo ...

Higher authorities
The highest body of power in the USSR became The Supreme Council USSR, endowed with legislative power and consisting of two chambers: the Council of the Union and the Council of Nationalities. The Council of the Union was elected by territorial districts, the Council of Nationalities - by union, autonomous republics, autonomous regions and national districts. Both chambers recognized ...

Frankish Empire in the VIII-IX centuries.
The immunity system inevitably had to entail an increase in fragmentation, local separatism. But under Charlemagne (768-814) the state of the Franks reaches its highest power, covering a huge territory. Moreover, Charles in 800 was crowned by the Pope in Rome with the imperial crown, which emphasized him with ...

Topic 14. The Great French Revolution. France in the 18th century. The beginning of the Great Revolution - page №1 / 1

TEMA 14. THE GREAT FRENCH REVOLUTION.
1. France in the 18th century.

2. The beginning of the Great Revolution.

3. Jacobin dictatorship.

4. General Bonaparte.
1. France 18th century this is the story of the reign of three Louis and the Great Revolution. Louis XIV (1638-1715) remained in history as the author of the saying "The state is me." The system of state power in which the monarch (king, king, emperor) can make decisions only of his own free will, without any representatives of the people or nobility, is called absolutism. Under him, France began to rapidly turn into the trendsetter of the whole world. Even the British enemies tried to copy the Parisian styles of clothing and hairstyles. Wanting to add splendor to his reign, Louis made his court dazzlingly luxurious. Artists, furniture makers, jewelers created products of unprecedented elegance. The Sun King - so the flattering courtiers called the king.

As a child, Louis suffered many unpleasant moments during the uprising of the Parisians. Therefore, he decided to build for himself a new luxurious Palace of Versailles outside Paris. All this required huge expenses. Louis XIV introduced several new taxes, which put a heavy burden on the peasants. The rapid industrial development of France came into clear conflict with its medieval way of life, but Louis did not touch the privileges of the nobles and left the class division of society. However, he made great efforts to organize overseas colonies, especially in America. The king fought with all his neighbors. They ended unsuccessfully for France as a whole. Some of the territorial acquisitions were too expensive.

The heir to Louis XIV was his great-grandson Louis XV (1710-1774), who became famous, in turn, with the phrase: "After us, even a flood." The magnificent façade of the state he inherited hid rotten pillars. It soon became clear that he was able to make government decisions under female influence. At the end of his reign, the French peasants were already free. But few of them had land in private ownership, they had to pay numerous taxes, church tithe and poll tax to the state. The feudal lord in the district still possessed tremendous power. He owned a forestry, a mill, a bakery and the surrounding lands. For the lease of land from the lord, the peasants performed many duties in his favor. Private ownership of land seemed like a pipe dream to them. It was simply impossible to disobey the gentleman - in his possessions only he possessed judicial power. More and more peasants became beggars and vagrants. Increasingly, they raised riots and took revenge on the feudal lords for the numerous offenses inflicted on them.

In contrast to the countryside, in the city at this time the rise of industry begins. But the royal court preferred to encourage the development of luxury goods manufactories. Machines were used little in production - it was still far from the industrial revolution. Trade was in a strange state. Thanks to a large military and merchant fleet, foreign trade flourished, but domestic trade barely developed. Merchants had to pay high fees inside the country. During the transportation of goods, they had to fear for their lives and goods. The development of trade was hampered by the lack of a unified system of measure, weight and money.

The entire population of the country was still divided into estates. The first two, the clergy and nobles, were privileged - they did not pay taxes and owned land. The third estate was distinguished by its variegation. It included the bourgeoisie, merchants, bankers, business owners, officials, ordinary citizens. They were united by only one thing - they all had no political rights. The third estate was annoyed by luxury royal court... There was no money in the treasury, and the royal palace shone with magnificent balls and rich receptions. IN last years The reign of Louis added a conflict with the Paris Parliament, which sought reforms of the judicial system, the convocation of the States General and financial reforms. Simply put, the entire reign of Louis XV marks the crisis of French absolutism. To all the warnings, the king answered: "Enough for my life, let my successor get out as he knows!"

2. Weak attempts at reform were decided by Louis XVI Bourbon (1754-1793), grandson of Louis XV. Rumors about the honesty and good nature of the new king aroused bright hopes among the people. Not alien to the ideas of the Enlightenment, the new king cut court expenses and abolished some feudal rights. In August 1774, Louis appointed Turgot General Comptroller of Finance, who put forward a whole program of financial transformations. Turgot proposed to distribute taxes evenly, to extend the land tax to the privileged estates, to buy out feudal duties, to introduce freedom of grain trade, to abolish internal customs, workshops and trade monopolies.

The nobility strongly rebelled against attempts to infringe on their privileges. It united its efforts in order to free itself from the payment of not only taxes imposed by Turgot, but also those that were established under Louis XV. At the same time, the liberalization of bread prices hit the townspeople painfully, and a wave of discontent swept across the country. This greatly shaken Turgot's position and his reputation in the eyes of the king. His resignation was predetermined. Her the main reason were not so much the mistakes of Turgot himself and the pressure on the king from the reactionaries, as Louis's uncertainty about the correctness of the chosen path of reforms, which stemmed from the softness of his character and lack of economic education.

France's debt has reached unprecedented proportions. There was only one way out - to introduce new taxes. Without the consent of representatives of all three estates, he could not make this decision. To this end, on May 5, 1789, for the first time since 1614, in the Palace of Versailles, the king convenes the States General and orders him to approve his decision. There was no limit to the indignation of the deputies of the third estate. They proclaim themselves to the National Assembly and call on the deputies from the clergy and nobility to join them. The proclamation of the National Assembly actually affirmed that the true sovereign of France is the French people themselves, represented by their representatives. ... The king orders the meeting to be closed, but not all have dispersed. The rest proclaimed the creation of a Constituent Assembly. The revolutionary development of events worried the aristocracy. Under their pressure, Louis agreed to concentrate an army around Paris. Troops began to gather in the city. In response, the Parisians seized an armory and on July 14, 1789 rushed to storm the fortress-prison of the Bastille - there were rumors that its guns were ready to open fire on Paris. The garrison capitulated. Today, the first day of the revolution - July 14, Bastille Day, the most important national holiday in France.

To defend the revolution, the formation of units of the National Guard began. The King recognized the powers of the Constituent Assembly. Its deputies on August 26, 1789 adopt the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Class and feudal privileges were abolished. Freedom of speech and press, the inviolability of private property were proclaimed. A new tricolor revolutionary flag is approved. On it, the white stripe of the French Bourbon dynasty was added to the red and blue colors of the third estate. This was to mean the reconciliation of Louis with the people.

In the first revolutionary months, Louis still tried to influence the development of events, trying to direct them in an acceptable way for the royal Storming of the Bastille.

prestige bed. On September 18, 1789, he approved the decree of the Constituent Assembly on the abolition of the feudal rights of lords. But with each new day, real power more and more slipped away from the royal hands. On the streets of Paris, embittered agitators aroused ordinary Parisians with outrageous speeches, the paralysis of power was reflected in the supply of the capital. On October 5 and 6, 1789, crowds of Parisian women besieged Versailles demanding bread and the transfer of the royal family to Paris. The king was forced to agree.

In Paris, Louis fell into apathy. Queen Marie Antoinette took advantage of the situation. She was openly hostile to any transformations, and considered all revolutionaries to be corrupt channels. The Queen considered bribery to be a universal remedy for all problems. Marie Antoinette pinned great hopes on foreign powers, primarily Austria and Prussia. She hoped to provoke a war against revolutionary France and restore the old order with the help of foreign bayonets. Under pressure from Marie Antoinette, Louis turned to foreign powers with secret appeals for help.

3. By the summer of 1791, the political and economic situation had deteriorated again. In the cities of France, food problems have aggravated, the nobles are fleeing the country in fear. Louis XVI decides to join them. The Russian ambassador organizes an escape for his entire family. But at the border, the carriage with the fugitives was stopped. The king had to return to Paris. The consequence of this was the adoption in September 1791 of the first Constitution, which limited the power of the king. The Constitution introduced suffrage for male taxpayers from the age of 25, deprived the church of land, abolished internal customs, and divided the country into departments. The name and political orientation of the French parliament have changed. The Legislative Assembly, under pressure from the Girondins (named after the Gironde department), in the spring of 1792 began revolutionary wars against Austria and England. The famous "Marseillaise" called upon thousands of volunteers to defend the revolution. To save himself, the king declared his loyalty to the revolution and swore allegiance to the 1791 constitution.

Opponents of solving internal problems in this way were the Jacobins / named after the monastery of St. Jacob /. The economic crisis, mass riots, the growing brutal uprising of the Vendée peasants lead to the political victory of the Jacobins, the new bourgeoisie - the capital that arose during the years of the revolution through the sale and purchase of national property and inflation - over the old order and capital that developed before the revolution. The Parisians, not knowing what to do, blame the king for all the troubles - no one believed him anymore. On August 10, 1792, the Jacobins led a new uprising in Paris. The next stage of the revolution began. In the conditions of external and internal war The Jacobin government went to the most extreme measures. The royal family was arrested. The Legislature, under pressure from the Jacobins, deposed the king and proclaimed the First French Republic. From that moment on, King Louis XVI turned into an ordinary citizen of Louis Capet, about which the revolutionary newspapers never tired of repeating. The new supreme legislative body, the Convention, takes over the main functions of state power.

Under pressure from the Jacobins, the Convention decides to execute the king. The king's references to the rights given to him by the constitution, and the Girondins' efforts to rescue him did not help. On January 21, 1793, in Paris, on the Place de la Revolution, Louis XVI cold-bloodedly ascended the scaffold and died under the knife of the guillotine.

The execution of the French king outraged all the monarchs of Europe. Almost all European states united in the war against France. The west of the country was engulfed in uprisings by royalists, supporters of the monarchy. The Girondins blamed the Jacobins for the riots that began. In response, using the support of the Parisians and the National Guard, the Jacobins expelled all their political opponents from the Convention and established the Jacobin dictatorship - a regime of terror against the opponents of the revolution. The Public Safety Committee, headed by Maximilian Robespierre / 1758-1794 /, was instructed to restore order in the country as soon as possible. The convention canceled all feudal payments, ordered the sale of the lands of the emigrant nobles, and introduced fixed prices for food. Under the law on "suspicious" began a merciless terror against the rebels. Executions have become widespread. The guillotine worked without stopping. The prisons were overcrowded.

The terror led to a split among the Jacobins themselves. The bourgeoisie believed that the revolution should stop. But the Sansculottes, the urban lower classes, demanded new reforms. Robespierre unleashed the full might of the Jacobin terror on his former comrades-in-arms and supporters. On his order, prominent leaders of the revolution were executed - Jacques Roux, Hebert, Chaumette, Danton. This is how the last period of the Jacobin dictatorship began. Robespierre was hated by everyone - the bourgeoisie, which had grown rich in the revolution; peasants who did not receive land from the Jacobins; the townspeople, dissatisfied with the widespread speculation and

maximum wage law. Everyone is tired of the terrible Jacobin terror. The people hated the republic. The opponents of the Jacobins united. On July 27, 1794 (9 Thermidor according to the new revolutionary calendar), the deputies of the Convention decided to arrest and execute Robespierre. The Jacobin dictatorship fell and the Thermidorian reaction was established. Thermidorians began to call those who came to power on 9 Thermidor, supporters of a republic that would protect property and freedom of entrepreneurship. Now terror fell upon the Jacobins.

4 . In August 1795, the Thermidorian Convention adopted a new Constitution, which consolidated the republic in France and consolidated all the gains of the revolution, including the legality of the sale of the lands of emigrants, the church and the king. Legislative power was transferred to a bicameral Legislature. The executive branch was represented by five directors. Hence the name of the executive branch - Directory. Royalists, supporters of the monarchy, immediately organized a revolt against the Directory and attempted to disperse the Convention. The savior of the Convention was Bonaparte, who suppressed the rebellion with his gunners. The grateful Convention promoted him to general.

Napoleon Bonaparte first became known to the Convention in 1793, when uprisings against the revolution broke out in different parts of the country. He participates in the suppression of the Provencal uprising, the center of which was Avignon. In the first half of 1794, Napoleon was in the Italian army, which was operating against the Austrian army. Then he receives an appointment to the Vendee, but remains in Paris without permission, where he was in the right place on time and at the right time.

At this time, the Directory is waging active wars against external enemies. When it was required to find a candidate for the post of commander for a campaign in Northern Italy, occupied by Austrian troops. The Directory chose Bonaparte. Italian campaign 1796-1797 covered the young commander with glory. France, having defeated Austria and her allies, concluded a profitable peace. Bonaparte's victories increased the prestige of the army. The general saw in her a force capable of solving internal problems, and he felt himself a man called upon to influence the fate of his people.

The government decides to deal a decisive blow to England in Egypt. An expedition under the command of Napoleon is being equipped there. During his military expedition to Egypt, the situation in France changed dramatically. The directory did not enjoy authority either among the poor or among the "new rich". The people demanded to establish a strong government. Having received news in the summer of 1799 that the affairs of the French in Italy are going badly and that dissatisfaction with the directory prevails in France itself, Napoleon realizes that the moment has come to take power into his own hands and urgently returns to Paris.

In the capital, with the assistance of Napoleon, on November 9 (18 Brumaire), 1799, a coup d'etat was carried out - the Directory "voluntarily" resigns. Relying on the army, he abolishes the current Constitution and transfers power to three consuls. It is clear that he himself was the first on the list. In the spring of 1800, the first consul organizes a campaign to Italy. The result of the campaign was the domination of France in Italy and Germany, the establishment of a continental blockade of England.

At the same time, Napoleon Bonaparte concluded an agreement with the Pope, which determined the relationship between church and state. France began to turn into a real monarchy. Napoleon moved to the Tuileries Palace and surrounded himself with a splendid courtyard where many returning emigrants began to appear. On December 2, 1804, Pope Pius VII himself anointed the "people's choice" in the Cathedral of Our Lady of Paris. Pius VII wanted to place the imperial crown on the head of Napoleon, but the latter, with a quick movement of his hand, tore it out of hands of the Pope and put it on himself. To strengthen personal power, he guaranteed the preservation of the results of the revolution: civil rights, property rights to the land of the peasants, as well as those who bought the confiscated land of emigrants and the church during the revolution, in France in 1804 the Civil Code was adopted, which went down in history as the code of Napoleon. Many of its provisions are still valid in France today.

Napoleon Bonaparte

collection of scientific articles

M .: Science. 1988

FOREWORD

The great French revolution is the biggest event world history XVIII century, one of the decisive frontiers of the transition from feudalism to capitalism, one of the most powerful accelerators of historical progress.

Among the bourgeois revolutions of modern times - previous and subsequent - it occupies special place as the largest battle between capitalism and feudalism in France and around the world. In France, it dealt a crushing blow to the Old Order: it destroyed the privileges of the nobility and feudal peasant duties, significantly weakened the power of the church, eliminating church and monastic land tenure, put on sale large funds of "national property", assigned the land they cultivated to the peasants, increased the size of the peasant land tenure, ensured freedom of enterprise, enriched the bourgeoisie and greatly contributed to the subsequent transformation of this part of the third estate of feudal France into the ruling class of capitalist France.

The Great French Revolution condemned and executed the king, established a republic, and defended its conquests from numerous internal and external enemies. She proclaimed the famous slogan "Freedom, Equality, Fraternity."

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed the basic bourgeois-democratic freedoms - of speech, press, personality, assembly. These slogans and principles then played an exceptionally positive role, but already during the years of the revolution itself were perceived by many, including utopian socialists, as something historically Limited, since they acted in conditions of freedom of "sacred and inviolable" private property, social inequality and human exploitation. human.
The influence of the revolution extended far beyond the borders of France. It has acquired a truly European scale and global significance.

“The entire 19th century,” wrote Lenin, “the century that gave civilization and culture to all mankind, passed under the sign of the French Revolution. In all corners of the world he did only what he carried out, carried out in parts, completed what the great French revolutionaries of the bourgeoisie, whose interests they served, had created, although they did not realize this, hiding behind words about freedom, equality and brotherhood ”1.

Bourgeois in character, the French Revolution was a genuine democratic movement of the broad popular masses.

VI Lenin emphasized: “The French revolution ... is called great precisely because it managed to rouse the broad masses of the people to defend their conquests, who rebuffed the whole world; here lies one of her great merits ”2.

The historical example of the decisive revolutionary struggle of the French people for a radical reorganization of society, freedom and social justice has not lost its significance today.

It is no coincidence that disputes about the reasons, features, driving forces, the nature, scope and depth, achievements and consequences of the Great French Revolution are still a very significant side of the modern ideological and political struggle, and the holiday of July 14 - Bastille Day - remains primarily a holiday of democratic France.
The Great French Revolution has long become one of the classic themes of world historiography.

Scientists of our country play an outstanding role in the development of specific historical, methodological and historiographic problems of its history. Enlightenment and Revolution; agrarian revolution; the struggle of the Mountain and the Gironde; Jacobin dictatorship; Thermidorian reaction; radical movements; foreign policy; Enlightenment, Great French Revolution and Russia; historiography; controversies about the French Revolution and their place in the modern ideological and political struggle - these are the leading research topics of Soviet specialists.

Preparations for the 200th anniversary of the Great French Revolution have now taken on a wide scale and have become an important factor in scientific, ideological and political life.
In France and in many other countries, special commissions, committees, groups, etc. have been created, the interest of historians in this topic has grown significantly.

In Paris, several issues of a special "Bulletin" were published, largely reflecting the state, tendencies and ideological orientation of the latest works and ideas.
The issue of the scale, forms and nature of the anniversary occupies a prominent place in the political life of France, in the struggle between the left and right forces of the country. Our foreign opponents in their attacks on Marxism-Leninism, the Great October and the countries of the socialist camp more and more often resort to arbitrarily interpreted examples from the history of the French Revolution of the 18th century.

The adherents of conservative views, who deny the world-historical significance of social revolutions in social progress and reject the Marxist doctrine of the change in socio-economic formations, declare that the Great French Revolution was not a historical necessity, for capitalist relations were established in France even before 1789; that it was even harmful, because it caused economic devastation, anarchy, terror, a series of wars that bled France and Europe as a whole. In their opinion, she was the "first model" of totalitarianism and served as a model for the "Bolshevik regime."

Supporters of bourgeois liberalism, to a greater or lesser extent, exaggerate the role of the revolution at the end of the 18th century, considering it not as the most important stage in the transition from feudalism to capitalism, but as the ancestor of abstractly interpreted freedom, progress, democracy, human rights, and in this sense, as an event. the opposite of the October Revolution.

Therefore, the further Marxist development of the history of the Great French Revolution, an even more complete disclosure of its progressive historical role and at the same time its limitations, and the identification of its bourgeois character on the basis of the latest scientific data, are highly relevant.

The collection offered to the readers' attention includes articles devoted to little-studied aspects of the prehistory and history of the revolution, such as the typology of popular movements in the 18th century. ideology and politics of the ruling class of France on the eve of the revolution, some ideological currents of the period of the revolution itself, their features, their connection with the pre-revolutionary era.

A number of articles are written in line with more traditional topics for modern historiography: they examine the socio-economic history of the revolution and its impact on other countries. The editorial board hopes that this publication, prepared for the 200th anniversary of the Great French Revolution, will contribute to the further development of the problems of its history.