Lecture 8

8.1. Driving forces of development

The concept of Eric Erikson (1902-1994) is rightfully one of the most significant theories of developmental psychology, both in its contribution to the study of the patterns of personality development in ontogenesis, and in its influence on the formation of the problem field of research in the field of developmental psychology and the creation of private theories. Although Erickson himself considered himself to be a supporter of psychoanalysis, he created an original epigenetic theory of development in the context of ego psychology.

It is possible to highlight a number of fundamental differences between psychoanalysis and Erickson's theory in the interpretation of the laws of personality development:

* in the focus of E. Erickson's attention is the structure of the Ego and its development.
Freud focuses on the structures of the id (it) and the superego
(Super-I);

* Freud presents the relationship "child - society" as an
tagonistic, hostile, whose history is tragic
confrontation between the individual and society, the struggle of two worlds - the world
childhood and the world of adults. Erickson considers relationships
individual and society as a relationship of cooperation, provide
the harmonious development of the personality;

* Freud assigned a decisive role to sexuality. E. Erickson, at
knowing its meaning, objects to the postulate of the primacy of
fantile child sexuality. He believed that the latter
is not the main source of development;

* 3. Freud's concept closes in the paradigm of two factors
as a determinant of development. E. Erickson proposes more complex
a new system of reasons, conditions and factors of personality development,
including her activity and communication. Personality activity
immanently assumed in the recognition of two options for
walking psychosocial crisis and, accordingly, two
development options - constructive and destructive. Role

106 ■ Developmental psychology. Lecture notes

and the meaning of the child's communication with the social environment are revealed by E. Erickson in terms such as "the radius of significant relations" and "ritual".

Personal development, according to E. Erickson, is determined by the unity and interaction of three main lines: somatic, psychosocial, psychosexual. The main content of personality development is the process of formation of ego identity. Identity is understood as self-identity and includes three main parameters: self-identity as an internal identity to oneself in time and space; recognition of a person's self-identity by a significant social environment; confidence that internal and external identity is maintained and stable.

So, the concept of "identity" includes the subjective feeling of continuous identity with oneself; deep functional self-unity; awareness of one's own temporal extent; awareness of the uniqueness of one's own personality; a sense of community in the social ideals and values ​​of the group to which the individual belongs, a sense of social support and recognition. Personal identity is a condition for the effective functioning of a person in a particular culture and system of social relations. E. Erickson examines the whole process of personality development from the point of view of identity formation and transformation.

Epigenetic principle determines the sequence of stages of personality development. Epigenesis is the presence of a holistic innate plan that determines the main stages of development. The plan provides for a phased formation of organs, i.e., psychological abilities. It postulates the presence of "critical periods" for the emergence and development of personality structures. In each period, there is a special sensitivity to the formation of some personality trait, and if this period is missed, personal development is distorted. Each stage is based on the previous one - there is a succession and interconnection of stages.

Development is the process of overcoming psychosocial crises that naturally arise at each age stage. The essence of the crisis lies in the choice between alternative paths of development. Depending on the choice, personal development takes on a different orientation - it can be positive, harmonious or negative, with developmental disorders and disorders of the emotional, personal and cognitive spheres. If the choice is made positively,

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then the formation of personality occurs according to a positive scenario, if negatively - according to a destructive scenario. A destructive scenario is an obstacle to the formation of personal identity and is accompanied by many problems.

A positive resolution of the crisis contributes to the formation of a positive neoplasm or a strong personality trait; negative - a destructive neoplasm that prevents the formation of ego identity.

The crisis is taking place within the radius of significant social relations. Society helps in resolving the crisis by offering ritualization, stable socio-cultural forms of interaction between the individual and his social environment, which create the necessary conditions for a successful resolution of the crisis. Ritualization has a number of features:

1. Ritual actions have a general meaning, understandable and time
shared by all participants. For example, a prom night when
the presentation of a certificate of maturity "assigns" to a boy or girl
new rights and responsibilities of an adult.

2. Ritual actions combine stability and repeatability
interaction with a certain novelty. Psychological meaning
combination of stability and novelty of the ritual consists in creating an op
optimal conditions for the development of the child's personality. Stability
and stability provide a sense of security and confidence
in the near future, willingness and opportunity to actively participate
to interact with an adult. The child is guided by
script-ritual, can predict the actions of the partner and dos
early enough learns to adjust to the interaction, into the distance
then taking the lead in performing the ritual.
Bringing elements of novelty to the ritual expands the boundaries of the cart
the child's abilities, teaches him to act in new situations, when
teaches not to be afraid of the new. For example, laying down a small child
how to sleep or his awakening to close adults is with
fight is a special ritual. Emotionally central to it
loaded actions - smiling, kissing, rocking, stroking
nie, lullaby and other courtesies that create the atmosphere
warmth and safety. At the same time, ritual actions every time
include something new that expands the boundaries of self-reliance
the child and his acquaintance with the world.

3. Ritual actions not only persist throughout
the whole life of a person, but they are transformed and acquire new forms
we, absorbing the experience and growing competence of the child.

108 ■ Developmental psychology. Lecture notes

Forms of interaction opposite to rituals, leading to the reproduction of a negative scenario of personality development - ritualisms. An example of ritualism is totalitarianism. Society offers a person both ritualizations and ritualisms, which determines the variety of scenarios for personal development.

Each stage of development is characterized by a modus (modality) - the way the personality functions, its way of acting and attitude to the world.

8.2. Periodization of personality development

E. Erickson identifies eight ages, covering the entire life cycle from birth to death. The central line of development is the formation of ego identity. Table 4 presents the main characteristics of development: psychosocial crisis, the radius of significant relationships, positive and destructive neoplasms and ritualization.

Infancy, oral-sensory stage(0-1 years old) is of fundamental importance for the further development of the personality. In psychoanalysis, birth is treated as a trauma; the child is helpless, the mother creates a special supportive environment. The mother determines by her care and upbringing, conditioned by culture and traditions, either a position of trust, openness to the world, or mistrust and hopelessness. At this stage of development, the incorporative mode is realized, expressed in the actions "receive - give", "take - hold". "Deifying" ritualization presupposes a certain stability and reciprocity in the relationship between mother and child. Recognition is an early form of identity.

Belief in kindness, justice, rationality and stability of the world, which form an optimistic position, ensures the child's readiness to experience frustration and further development. The child learns to establish reasonable boundaries of trust.

Early age, muscle-anal stage(1-3 years) is characterized by a psychosocial crisis - a choice between autonomy and shame and doubt. The development of the child's actions, the mastery of the muscular system and its regulation, the appearance of speech provide the conditions for the development of autonomy and the realization of the "I myself" attitude. Identity appears in the form "I am what I can freely desire." The leading modus is retentive-elimina-

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tive (restraining-rejecting), expressed by the actions of "hold, delay" - "release". Separation from the mother and the desire for independence are realized within the framework of judicious ritualization. The type of family upbringing - accepting, encouraging independence or prohibiting, authoritarian - largely determines the resolution of the crisis. Shame occurs when a child loses or is incapable of self-control and is at the mercy of external parental control. A sense of self-control without losing self-respect creates free will. Obsession manifests itself in the ritual of repetition, compulsiveness, excessive shame, dependence and insecurity, or outright defiance and stubbornness. Preschool age, locomotor-genital stage- age of the game(3-6 years) is considered in connection with the Oedipus complex. The source of the psychosocial crisis is the Oedipus complex, feelings and experiences associated with relationships with parents. The leading modus is invasion and penetration. The castration complex creates fear in boys, and guilt in girls. Moral feelings are born. The child is faced with an alternative: either to abandon the setting and achievement of goals, or to show initiative and ingenuity in the search for socially acceptable goals that meet his desires. The essence of the crisis lies in the choice between initiative and guilt. Society offers dramatic ritualization to resolve this crisis. In fact, this is a play, role-playing dramatization - the ability to play, model the relationships of adulthood. In the game, bans are removed, in the game everything can be everything. Play or dramatic ritualization opens up opportunities for free exploration and experimentation without threatening to experience feelings of guilt associated with the violation of social prohibitions. In the process of playing, the child masters these roles and develops the ability to proactively set goals. In the case of a positive resolution of the crisis in favor of the initiative, such a positive quality as purposefulness is formed - the ability to set goals and make efforts to achieve them. Otherwise, such a quality is formed as lethargy, that is, a refusal to take the initiative. An example is the phenomenon of "learned helplessness" as a refusal to achieve goals, a refusal to be active in achieving goals when faced with the slightest difficulties, and any tasks that the child faces are perceived as difficult. Salient feature

Periodization of personality development (according to E. Erickson)

Table 4

	Psycho-	Radius	Positive	Destructive
Stages	social	significant	neoplasm	neoplasm	Ritualization
	the crisis	respect	personality	personality
1. Infancy	Basic	Mother	Hope is faith	Leaving, refusal	Deifying
(oral	the trust -		into rationality and	from communication,
touch)	basic under-		reliability of the world	activities,
0-1 years	trust in the world			knowledge of the world
2. Early	Autonomy -	Parents	Will - way ^ in	Obsession	Judicious
childhood	shame		overcoming		(law and order)
(muscle-	and doubt		to doubt and
anal)			difficulties in getting
1-3 years			pursuing a goal
3. Age of the game	Initiative -	Family	Purposeful	Lethargy	Dramatic
(locomotor-	guilt		ness
genital)
3-6 years old
4. School	Hard work -	Neighbors,	Competence,	Inertia	Formal
age	inferior	school	skill		(technologist
(latent)	ness				cheskaya)
6-12 years old
5. Teenage	Ego-identity	Groups	Loyalty	Negation	Ideological
age	ness - change	peers
(pubertal)	identity
(12-19 years old)	ness

6. Youth	Intimacy -	Friends,	Love	Exclusivity	Grouping
(youth)	insulation	partners
(genital)
20-25 years old
7. Maturity	Productive	Divided	Care	Rejection	Mentoring,
26-64 years old	ness -	work			educational
	stagnation	and a common house
8 old age	Ego-integra-	Humanity	Wisdom	Contempt	Philosophical
	tion -
	despair

112 Developmental psychology. Lecture notes

such a child is passivity, the desire to be under the care of an authority figure.

School age, latent stage(6-12 years) covers the period from the start of schooling to the onset of puberty. The Oedipus complex was overcome at the previous stage. The latent stage is characterized by the interruption of sexual development. The most important process is the process of sublimation, that is, the switching of energy to socially desirable goals. This is the age of a psychosexual moratorium, restrictions on sexual life. Society sets goals for the child related to the mastery of culture, and offers technological ritualization. Formal technological ritualization responds to the tasks of developing competence, helping to make a choice between hard work and a sense of inferiority. Speaking about mastering technologies, we have two aspects in Evidu: subject, mastery of subject disciplines (language, natural science, mathematics, etc.); technologies of cooperation, communication and interaction.

The child must learn to communicate and build joint activities to achieve common goals. Mastering technology leads to the need to take responsibility, readiness for self-restraint, and even submission. The main neoplasm of this age is competence (determined by efforts, abilities and skills, the ability to cooperate with others in learning and work). The main skill of the child is his ability to learn. The opposite quality of competence is inertia, which can appear in two versions. Inertia is associated with feelings of inferiority, which leads to two behaviors. The first is overcompetition, when a child, prompted by a sense of inferiority, strives to be the first in all spheres. The second is passive withdrawal from tasks, activities in fantasy, imagination, compensatory activities. This is also a manifestation of inertia associated with the refusal to set goals and search for ways to achieve them.

At school age, a choice arises between the formation of abilities for creativity and creation and a feeling of inferiority, which limits the individual's capabilities in solving the problems of self-education and self-development. Ego identity appears in the form "I am what I can learn."

Adolescence, adolescence, puberty(12-19 years old) - critical for the formation of identity. The essence of the psychosocial crisis is the choice between ego identity and

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confusion of identity. The radius of significant relationships is peer groups. Strong quality is loyalty. A pathological property is denial or rejection of a role. Ritualization is ideological.

It is at this age that the formation of the main, personal new formation - ego-identity, the integration of multiple images of the I into a single whole, the formation of a sense of self-identity in time and space, recognition of the identity of the I as a significant social environment.Ego-identity is the core, the core of the personality, which allows you to preserve your I am throughout the entire life cycle.

Why does an identity crisis arise in adolescence, what is its essence? This crisis is being prepared by a number of conditions. First, by the processes of rapid somatic development and puberty. A teenager is faced with a cardinal change in the physical body I, which sets the task of forming a new image of the self. Secondly, the emergence of problems of self-determination and life choice. Society and he himself pose questions: "Who am I?", "What is the meaning of my life?", "Who will I be?", "What is my future profession?", "What principles do I adhere to in this life?" etc.

Self-identity in time presupposes not only retrospective, but also perspective, planning for the future in the context of life choices. The essence of this crisis is either the acquisition of the integrity of the I, or ego-identity, or the mixing of ego-identity, that is, the inability to answer questions and build an integral structure of the I.

To solve these problems, society offers the adolescent ideological ritualization - a system of worldviews, values, principles, norms, rules, views on life in relation to the professional and ideological spheres. On the contrary, ritualism in the form of totalitarianism "frees" the adolescent from choice, imposing the only "correct" model of building life. The "dignity" of totalitarianism is that it relieves a young man from seeking, from suffering and torment of choice. Ideological ritualization presupposes the possibility of choice, experiment, prospects for the future associated with the prospects of society. The functions of ideology are to establish a correspondence between the world of ideals and the world of reality; definition of ethnic identity, that is, belonging to a particular ethnos, nation, culture; encouragement to participate in collective, collaborative activities where personal interests

114 Developmental psychology. Lecture notes

sy must be correlated with public interests; proposing specific models of leadership and collaboration; presentation of various religious, political trends, philosophical worldviews. Ideological ritualization is associated with the participation of young people in different groups, movements, organizations.

According to Erickson, the mechanisms of acquiring identity can be three processes:

1. Introjection (Freud) is an investment from outside to inside. In gesh-
talt therapy introjects are called undigested constructs
mi, uncritically transferred from the outside to the inside. This is the most take
an active mechanism that does not ensure the acquisition of the true identity
ticity.

2. Identification is a mechanism based on
ration, modeling of the steering behavior of significant figures. Have
adolescents usually have m% one hundred identification with their parents, the hero
pits, actors, musicians, athletes, etc.
Leaning their heroes, represented by the culture of the society.

3. Mechanism of role-based experimentation, providing
achieving ego identity. The teenager takes on the role
tries it on himself, loses. It can be compared to theater
rum of masks, when the hero, changing masks, changes himself abruptly. During
day or several hours can play the role of the "soul of the company",
now "an unrecognized genius", now an outcast. Teenagers have me instantly
hobbies, addictions. Inconsistency, instability of the story
ideas, interests, moods reflect the process of role-playing experiment
mentations. The peculiarity of adolescence is that this
the process of role-based experimentation is carried out in the conditions
psychosocial moratorium on the final acceptance of the role.

A number of specific symptoms of adolescence / adolescence can be distinguished, associated with the crisis of the formation of ego identity. The first is the blurring of the sense of time, in the form of a loss of time perspective, in adolescent amnesia - forgetting events while maintaining a feeling of a very tense inner life. For a teenager, it can be night - like one minute, and one minute can be experienced for hours. The second symptom is a relative, partial loss of productivity, I mean in creative, educational activities. In adolescence, previous achievements in sports stagnate, the teenager begins to study worse. The third feature is withdrawal from close relationships, the desire for loneliness, isolation, the desire to be alone with your feelings and experiences. Keeping diaries

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kov, characteristic of this age, is the possibility of self-reflection alone with oneself. The last symptom is the formation of a negative identity. This is the acceptance of a system of values ​​that is exactly the opposite of the one that society proposes. When trust is broken, a negative identity is often formed between the child and the parents. Many adolescents seem to question what society has to offer and “try on” the exact opposite identity.

If the listed symptoms of the crisis persist after its completion, one can speak of a violation of the development of identity. Tasks of parents for support in resolving the crisis: to move to a position of equality with the adolescent; accept his right to an independent life choice; provide an opportunity for role-based experimentation; encouraging initiative, be ready for support and cooperation.

Identity statuses- characteristic of the development of ego-identity. The concept of identity statuses was first declared in the works of E. Erickson and was further developed in the works of his students and followers, primarily D. Marcia. Today, identity status is one of the central concepts of personality psychology.

Resolving an identity crisis presupposes choice in the field of profession and in the field of ideology, including politics and religion. Depending on how the choice was made, we can talk about different statuses of identity. The most important indicator of maturity is going through a crisis - through a period of trial, doubt and reflection. The criteria for identifying identity statuses, according to D. Marcia, are: passing the crisis, exploring the possibilities of choice, making a choice. Accordingly, four identity statuses can be distinguished (Scheme 5): 1) pre-decision - there was no crisis, the choice was made; 2) moratorium - the crisis is urgent, the research continues, the final choice has not been made; 3) achieved identity - the crisis is over, the choice is made; 4) diffuse identity - there was no crisis, or it took place, but the choice was not made. There can be two types - pre-critical diffusion, post-critical diffusion, well expressed by the word "pofigism".

At present, they are talking about other spheres of choice - ethnic, family, gender, interpersonal identity. Identity statuses can be viewed as a normative sequence for the development of ego identity: Diffusion => Decision =>

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Criterion > making a choice

Prejudgment

Achieved identity

Diffuse identity

Moratorium

Yes Criterion

passing the crisis

Scheme 5. Statuses of ego identity

Moratorium ~> Achieved identity, allowing for significant variability in the trajectories of achieving identity, studied in the works of D. Marcia, A. Waterman.

Identity development is a process that goes on without interruption throughout our life. In adulthood, we can again return to the identity crisis, reconsider our life choices, and again, having gone through the moratorium, find identity. One of the promising directions in modern developmental psychology is related to the study of how the development of identity occurs in maturity.

A positive new formation is loyalty as the ability to be true to one's attachments and promises, despite the inevitable contradictions in the value system.

A destructive neoplasm is denial, which can appear in two forms. The first is the rejection of the role and the mixing of roles, that is, the impossibility of achieving identity; the second is the acceptance of a negative identity that does not correspond to the inner essence of the person.

Early maturity, youth, genital stage(20-25 years) - a period of psychosocial crisis. The essence of the crisis is the choice between intimacy and isolation. The formation of ego identity is accompanied by a sense of uniqueness, uniqueness, awareness of the individuality of the self. As a result, a feeling of loneliness arises.

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feelings, anxiety and fear associated with the questions: will I be accepted as I am? will they understand me? Will I take place in life as a person? Will the goals be achieved in those areas of life, the exit to which was carried out? Another reason for the crisis is associated with an increase in the energy of sexual desires and with the need to find a partner, establish stable sexual relations, and create a family. The radius of meaningful relationships is friends, people who are ready for separation, acceptance and confirmation of identity in joint forms of activity and activity. A young man is faced with a choice: either to establish such relationships of intimacy and intimacy that will allow him to realize his identity, or to remain alone and thereby not get the opportunity to realize his identity, in self-realization. Thus, the choice between intimacy and isolation is a developmental task at a given age stage.

The ritualization offered by society, the ritualization of grouping. What is meant? A person who realizes his uniqueness and originality bears the imprint of a crisis - withdrawal from close relationships, communication is quite difficult, that is, it is alarming to violate the border of an intimate space. Therefore, society offers a form of grouping that makes it easy to find "soul mates" and establish relationships. The phenomenon of youth subculture, grouping according to tastes, interests, beliefs, makes it easy to get to know each other, establish relationships of mutual understanding, support and cooperation and engage in interaction in accordance with the existing system of rules.

Ritualism is elitism - the cultivation of all and all kinds of castes, groups, the establishment of the superiority of one group over another. This form of social interaction leads to alienation, repulsion, isolation.

A positive new formation of youth is love as the ability to entrust oneself to another person and remain faithful to these relationships, even if they require concessions and self-denial. Love manifests itself in a relationship of mutual concern, respect and responsibility for another person. Love presupposes a readiness for self-restraint in the interests of a partner, to remain faithful to oneself and to a partner.

Exceptionalism is a destructive neoplasm. We find a manifestation of exclusivity in hostility to everything that is not mine. For example, xenophobia is hostility towards everything else. The well-known practice of youth groups

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feasts: their own against strangers, "wall to wall". The manifestation of exclusivity is the flip side of intimacy, if intimacy implies closeness and cooperation, then exclusivity is the beginning of the manifestation of rejection, hostility and readiness for confrontation.

Average maturity(26-64 years old) - psychosocial crisis - a choice between generativity (productivity) and inertia, stagnation and stagnation. The radius of meaningful relationships is shared labor and shared home. At this stage, the person takes responsibility for everything that happens in the world, in the work collective, in the family. Ritualization - mentoring and upbringing associated with caring and transferring experience to a new generation. A positive neoplasm is caring, a destructive one is rejection.

The peculiarity of this stage is that, having reached maturity, starting a family, making the choice of a profession, a person takes responsibility for the social well-being of himself and those around him. The essence of the crisis lies in the choice: whether to accept this responsibility or to refuse it. If a person accepts responsibility, then this is a choice in favor of productivity. Erickson believes that throughout maturity, there is a constant expansion of the radius of significant relationships and thereby the responsibility of the individual. Each has its own measure of "common home". Its expansion avoids stagnation, stagnation, stereotypes and provides an outlet for creativity. The development metaphor is “scissors” between what we can (achieved level of development) and what we want - our goals. As soon as there are no "scissors", that is, the limit of our desires and our capabilities coincide, there will be no development. Crises of adulthood are crises of the meaning of life, the solution of which is that a person, realizing his life, sets new life goals that exceed his capabilities. And this is where development begins. The mentoring situation is also productive because if you teach something, you are eager to learn more yourself. Expanding the circle of care is a guarantee of future development. Going beyond the possibilities for productivity is the only way to maintain an active, progressive course of development.

If a person refuses to take on care and responsibility, if he does not have the ability to love and establish close relationships; if he is not included in active, productive activity, then there is a danger of the formation of rejection. Rejection can be directed both at oneself -

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autoaggression, and outside. The number of suicides, violence, aggression, and crime is growing in society. Therefore, society deliberately creates a kind of buffers (the state, law enforcement agencies, various social services), protection against rejection. With the loss of productivity, a person directs his efforts only to his own needs and consumption, which leads to a crisis, the loss of the meaning of life, and a feeling of hopelessness.

Late maturity, old age(65 years - before death) - time of psychosocial crisis - choice between ego integration and despair. The radius of meaningful relationships is the entire human race. Positive neoformation is wisdom, negative is contempt, ritualization is philosophical, ritualism is dogmatism. The period of old age is a period of cessation of active productive and social activity; decrease in physical strength and capabilities, loss of many psychological capabilities; completion of the parent function. In old age, there is a generalization of sensory modes. The essence of the psychosocial crisis is the choice between the road of personality decay, despair, loss of the Self, or ego integration. This task is solved thanks to philosophical ritualization, which allows summing up the results of life, accepting the irreversibility of life and the inevitability of death, and seeing the continuation of the I in subsequent generations. Ego integration, the preservation of the I, in spite of physical death, are possible only under the condition of realizing one's own life as a link in the history of the human race.

Dogmatism is manifested in the fact that a person, not being able to preserve his Ego, goes along the path of world stagnation. Rejection of innovations, innovations, the desire to keep everything as before, strict adherence to the rules, rituals, norms, in spite of the realities of life changes. Dogmatism leads to emotional and personal impoverishment, a decrease in intelligence, not solving the problem of integrating I.

The path of constructive resolution of the crisis leads to the formation of life wisdom as a meaningful and independent interest in life itself, in spite of death itself. The destructive resolution of the crisis leads to contempt for life as a chain of unrealized and missed opportunities and for oneself as "excruciating pain for wasted years."

So, the life cycle of personality development is considered by E. Erickson as an integral system, where each of the stages is interconnected and interdependent.

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Evaluating the concept of E. Erickson, it is necessary to note its "strengths", revealing the prospects for further research:

* personality development is considered in a holistic life
a cycle covering the entire human ontogeny;

* development is seen as a dialectic process of overcoming
dealing with crises, resolving emerging contradictions;

* development is understood as a process that is largely dependent on
caught by the activity of the personality itself. Highlighted like mini
mum, two different scenarios of development. Is there any development
a neat and initially programmed process;

* the relationship between the individual and society acts as a relationship with
work in which positive personal development is impossible
it is possible outside of social ^ relations;

* identification of two types of neoplasms - destructive and
positive - defines the space of possible trajectories
personality development.

Eric Erickson, a student of Freud, created a new theory based on the teachings of Freud about the phases of psycho - sexual development. Erickson's theory is a theory of psycho - social development, it includes eight stages of development of the "I", at each of which reference points are worked out and specified in relation to oneself and to the external environment. Erickson noted that the study of personal individuality is becoming the same strategic task in the second half of the twentieth century, which was the study of sexuality in the time of Z. Freud, at the end of the nineteenth century. The difference between Erickson's theory and Freud's theory is as follows:

Firstly, the 8 stages according to Erickson are not limited only to childhood, but include the development and transformation of the personality. throughout life from birth to old age, arguing that both adult and mature age are characterized by their own crises, during which the corresponding tasks are solved.

Secondly, in contrast to Freud's pansexual theory, human development, according to Erickson, consists of three interrelated, albeit autonomous processes: somatic development, studied by biology; the development of the conscious self, studied by psychology, and social development, studied by the social sciences.

The basic law of development is the "epigenetic principle", according to which, at each new stage of development, new phenomena and properties appear that were not present at the previous stages of the process.

Erickson identifies 8 main tasks that a person, one way or another, solves during his life. These tasks are present at all age stages, throughout life. But each time one of them is updated with the next age crisis. If it is resolved in a positive way, then the person, having learned to cope with such problems, then feels more confident in similar situations. Not having successfully passed any age period, he feels like a schoolboy who does not know how to solve problems of some type: “they suddenly ask, suddenly they find out that I don’t know how.”

This situation is not irreversible: it is never too late to learn, but it is complicated by the fact that the time allotted for solving this problem has been lost. New age crises bring new problems to the fore, each age stage "throws up" its own tasks. And for old, familiar ones, there is often not enough strength, time, or desire already. And so they drag on in the form of negative experience, experience of defeats. In such cases, they say that the person is followed by a “tail of problems”. Thus, E. Erickson examines the correspondence between the stages of growing up and the problems that a person, not solving at a certain stage, then drags along with him throughout his life.

Stages of development of the psyche according to Erickson :

Stage I. Oral-sensory

Compliant the oral stage of classical psychoanalysis.

Age: first year of life.

Stage objective: basic trust versus basic distrust.

: energy and hope .

The degree of an infant's confidence in the world depends on the care shown to him. Normal development occurs when his needs are quickly satisfied, he does not feel unwell for a long time, he is lullied and caressed, played and talked to. The mother's behavior is confident and predictable. In this case, it is produced the trust to the world he came to. If he does not receive proper care, it is produced mistrust, fearfulness and suspicion.

The task of this stage- to work out the necessary balance between trust and distrust in the world. This will help, already being an adult, not to fall for the first advertisement, but also not to be a “man in a case”, distrustful and suspicious of everything and everyone.

As a result After successful passage of this stage, people grow up who derive their vital faith not only from religion, but also from social activities and scientific pursuits. People who have not successfully passed this stage, even if they profess faith, in fact, with every breath express distrust of people.

Stage II. Muscular-anal

Matches with the anal stage of Freudianism.

Age 2nd - 3rd years of life.

Stage task: autonomy against shame and doubt.

Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: self-control and willpower.

At this stage, the development of independence on the basis of motor and mental abilities comes to the fore. The child learns various movements. If parents leave the child to do what he can do, he develops the feeling that he owns his muscles, his motives, himself and, to a large extent, the environment. Independence appears.

If educators are impatient and rush to do for the child what he himself is capable of, shyness and indecision develops. If parents constantly scold the child for a wet bed, dirty pants, spilled milk, a broken cup, etc. - a feeling of shame and lack of confidence in their abilities to control themselves and the environment is consolidated in the child.

External control at this stage, he must firmly convince the child of his strengths and capabilities, and also protect against anarchy.

Exodus this stage depends on the relationship between cooperation and self-will, freedom of expression and its suppression. From feelings of self-control, how freedom to dispose of oneself without loss self-respect, originates from a lasting feeling of goodwill, readiness for action and pride in their achievements, self-esteem. Out of sensation loss of freedom to dispose of oneself and the feelings of a stranger overcontrol steady tendency to doubt and shame.

Stage III. Locomotor-genital

Stage infantile genitality, corresponds to the phallic stage of psychoanalysis.

Age: 4 - 5 years old - preschool age.

Stage task: initiative (enterprise) versus guilt.

Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: direction and dedication .

By the beginning of this stage, the child has already acquired many physical skills, begins to invent activities for himself, and not just respond to actions and imitate them. Shows ingenuity in speech, the ability to fantasize.

The preponderance of qualities in character largely depends on how adults react to a child's ventures. Children who are given initiative in the choice of activities (running, wrestling, tinkering, cycling, sledding, skating), develop entrepreneurship. Strengthens her parents' willingness to answer questions (intellectual enterprise) and not interfere with fantasizing and starting games.

If adults show a child that his activities are harmful and undesirable, questions are intrusive, and games are stupid, he begins to feel guilty and carries this guilt into adulthood. Danger this stage - in the emergence of a sense of guilt for their goals and actions in the course of enjoying new locomotor and mental power, which require energetic curbing. Defeat leads to submission, guilt, and anxiety. Overly optimistic hopes and wild fantasies are suppressed and restrained.

At this stage, the most important separation between potential human triumph and potential total destruction occurs. And this is where baby forever becomes divided within itself: for a child's kit that preserves an abundance of growth potentials, and a parental kit that supports and enhances self-control, self-management and self-punishment. A sense of moral responsibility develops.

The child at this stage tends to learn quickly and greedily, to grow up rapidly in the sense of separation of duties and affairs. He wants and can do joint business, together with other children, he comes up with and plans business. Mimics ideal prototypes. This stage links early childhood dreams with the goals of active adulthood.

Stage IV. Latent

Corresponds to the latent phase of classical psychoanalysis.

Age 6-11 years old.

Stage objective: hard work (skill) versus feelings of inferiority.

Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: system and competence .

Love and jealousy are at this stage in a latent state (which is what its name says - latent). These are the elementary school years. The child shows the ability for deduction, organized games, regulated activities. Interest in how things are arranged, how to adapt them, to master them. During these years, he resembles Robinson Crusoe and is often interested in his life.

When children are encouraged tinkering, build huts and aircraft models, boil, cook and do handicrafts when they are allowed bring the work started to the end, praise for the results, then the child develops skill, the ability to technical creativity.

When parents see one thing in the child's work activity “ mischief" and " mess”, This contributes to the development of a sense of inferiority in him. Danger this stage - a feeling of inadequacy and inferiority. If the child despairs in his tools and work skills or the place he occupies among his comrades, then this can discourage the desire to identify with them, the child considers himself doomed to mediocrity or inadequacy. He learns to conquer confession doing useful and necessary business.

The environment of the child at this stage is already not limited to home... Influence not only of the family, but also of the school. The attitude towards him at school has a significant impact on the balance of the psyche. Lagging behind causes feelings of inferiority. He has already learned from experience that there is no feasible future in the bosom of the family. Systematic training- in all cultures occurs at this stage. It is during this period that the wider society becomes important in terms of empowering the child to understand meaningful roles in society's technology and economy.

Freud calls this stage latent, because violent drives are dormant. But this is only a temporary calm before the storm of puberty, when all earlier drives reappear in a new combination in order to become subordinate to genitality.

Stage V. Adolescence and early adolescence

Classical psychoanalysis notes at this stage the problem of "love and jealousy" towards one's own parents. A successful decision depends on whether he finds the object of love in his own generation. This is a continuation of the latent stage according to Freud.

Age 12 - 18 years old.

Stage objective: identity versus role mixing.

Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: dedication and loyalty .

The main difficulty at this stage is identification confusion, inability to identify one's “I”.

The teenager matures physiologically and mentally, he develops new views on things,

a new approach to life. Interest in the thoughts of other people, in what they think of themselves.

The influence of parents at this stage is indirect. If a teenager, thanks to his parents, has already developed trust, independence, enterprise, and skill, then his chances of identification, i.e. on the identification of one's own identity increase significantly.

The opposite is true for a teenager who is distrustful, insecure, filled with feelings of guilt and a consciousness of his inferiority. Symptoms appear when self-identification is difficult confusion of roles... This is often the case with juvenile delinquents. Girls who are promiscuous in adolescence are very often fragmentary representation about their personality and their disorderly connections do not correlate either with their intellectual level or with the system of values.

The isolation of the circle and the rejection of "outsiders". Identification marks of “friends” are clothes, make-up, gestures, words. This intolerance (intolerance) is a defense against the "darkening" of the consciousness of identity. Teenagers stereotype themselves, their ideals, their enemies. Often, adolescents identify their “I” with an image that is the opposite of what their parents expect. But sometimes it is better to associate yourself with “hippies”, etc., than not to find your “I” at all. Teens test each other's ability to be faithful. The readiness for such a test explains the attractiveness of simple and harsh totalitarian doctrines to young people.

Stage VI. Early adulthood

Freud's genital stage.

Age: the courtship period and the early years of family life. From late adolescence to early middle age. Here and below, Erickson no longer clearly names the age.

Stage task: closeness versus isolation.

Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: affiliation and love .

By the beginning of this stage, the person has already identified his “I” and has joined in labor activity.

Closeness is important to him - not only physical, but also the ability to take care of another person, to share everything essential with him without fear of losing himself. The newly minted adult is ready to show moral strength in both intimate and companionable relationships, while remaining faithful even if significant sacrifices and compromises are required. The manifestations of this stage are not necessarily in sexual attraction, but also in friendship. For example, close ties are formed between fellow soldiers who fought side by side in difficult conditions - an example of closeness in a broad sense.

Stage hazard -avoidance contacts that oblige intimacy. Avoiding the experience of intimacy for fear of losing the ego leads to feelings of isolation and subsequent self-absorption... If neither in marriage nor in friendship he achieves intimacy - loneliness... There is no one to share my life with and no one to take care of. Danger This stage consists in the fact that a person experiences both intimate, and rival, and hostile relationships towards the same people. The rest are indifferent. And only after learning to distinguish the fight of rivals from a sexual hug, a person masters ethical sense- a hallmark of an adult. Only now appears true genitality... It cannot be considered a purely sexual task. It is a combination of ways of partner selection, cooperation and rivalry.

Stage VII. Adulthood

This and the subsequent stage is no longer considered by classical psychoanalysis, it covers only the period of growing up.

Age: mature.

Stage task: generative versus stagnation.

Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: production and care .

By the time this stage occurs, the person has already firmly connected himself with a certain occupation, and his children have already become adolescents.

This stage of development is characterized by general humanity - the ability to take an interest in the fate of people outside the family circle, to think about the life of future generations, the forms of the future society and the structure of the future world. For this, it is not necessary to have children of your own; it is important to actively take care of young people and to make life and work easier for people in the future.

Those who have not developed a sense of belonging to humanity focus on themselves, and their main concern is the satisfaction of their needs, their own comfort, and self-absorption.

Generativeness - central to this stage - is the interest in organizing life and instructing the new generation. Although there are individuals who, due to failures in life or special giftedness in other areas, do not direct this interest to their offspring. Generativeness includes productivity and creativity, but these concepts cannot replace it. Generativeness - the most important stage both psychosexual and psychosocial development.

When such an enrichment can't reach, there is a regression to the need for pseudo-proximity, with a feeling of stagnation and impoverishment of personal life. Man begins to pamper myself as if he were his own child. The very fact of having children or the desire to have them is not yet generative.

The reasons for the lag- excessive selfishness, intense self-creation of a successful person at the expense of other aspects of life, lack of faith, trust, the feeling that he is the desired hope and concern of society.

Stage VIII. Maturity

Age: pension.

Stage task: ego integrity versus despair.

Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: self-denial and wisdom.

The main work in life is over, the time has come for reflection and fun with grandchildren.

A feeling of wholeness, meaningfulness of life arises in someone who, looking back at what he has lived, feels satisfaction. To whom the lived life seems to be a chain of missed opportunities and annoying blunders, he realizes that it is too late to start all over again and cannot return what he has missed. Such a person is seized by despair at the thought of how his life could have developed, but did not work out. Hopelessness. Lack or loss accumulated integrity expressed in the fear of death: the one and only life cycle is not accepted as the end of life. Despair expresses the consciousness that there is little time left to live to try to start a new life and experience other paths to integrity.

Disgust hides despair, albeit in the form of a “mass of petty disgust” that does not add up to one big remorse.

Comparing this stage with the very first, we see how the circle of values ​​closes: the integrity of an adult and infantile trust, confidence in integrity, Erickson denotes with the same word. He argues that healthy children will not be afraid of life if the old people around them have sufficient integrity not to fear death.

E. Erickson's theory arose from the practice of psychoanalysis. However, unlike the theory of 3. Freud, his developmental model is psychosocial, not psychosexual. Thus, the emphasis was placed on the impact of culture and society on development, rather than the impact of pleasure obtained from the stimulation of erogenous zones. In his opinion, the foundations of the human self are rooted in the social organization of society.

E. Erickson was the first to use the psychohistorical method (the application of psychoanalysis to history), which required him to pay equal attention to both the psychology of the individual and the nature of the society in which a person lives.

According to E. Erickson, each stage of development has its own expectations inherent in a given society, which an individual can justify or not justify, and then he is either included in society or rejected by it. These considerations of E. Erickson formed the basis of the two most important concepts of his concept - "group identity" and "ego-identity". Group identity is formed due to the fact that from the first day of life, the upbringing of a child is focused on including him in a given social group - on the development of the attitude inherent in this group. Self-identity is formed in parallel with group identity and creates in the subject a sense of stability and continuity of his I, despite the changes that occur to a person in the process of his growth and development.

The formation of ego-identity, or, in other words, the integrity of the personality, continues throughout a person's life and goes through a number of stages. Each stage of the life cycle is characterized by a specific task that is put forward by society. Society also determines the content of development at different stages of the life cycle. However, the solution of the problem, according to E. Erickson, depends both on the already achieved level of psychomotor development of the individual and on the general spiritual atmosphere of the society in which this individual lives.

The task of infancy is to build a basic trust in the world, to overcome feelings of disunity and alienation. The task of an early age is to fight against feelings of shame and strong doubts about their actions for their own independence and independence. The task of the playing age is to develop active initiative and at the same time to experience feelings of guilt and moral responsibility for their desires. During the period of study at school, a new task arises - the formation of industriousness and the ability to handle tools, which is opposed by the awareness of one's own ineptitude and uselessness. In adolescence and early adolescence, the task of the first integral awareness of oneself and one's place in the world appears; the negative pole in solving this problem is uncertainty in understanding one's own I (“diffusion of identity”). The task of the end of adolescence and the beginning of maturity is to find a life partner and establish close friendships that overcome feelings of loneliness. The task of the mature period is the struggle of man's creative forces against inertia and stagnation. The period of old age is characterized by the formation of the final integral idea of ​​oneself, one's life path, as opposed to possible disappointment in life and growing despair.

The solution to each of these problems, according to E. Erickson, is reduced to the establishment of a certain dynamic relationship between the two extreme poles. Personality development is the result of the struggle between these extreme possibilities, which does not fade away during the transition to the next stage of development. This struggle at a new stage of development is suppressed by the solution of a new, more urgent task, but incompleteness makes itself felt during periods of life's failures. The balance achieved at each stage marks the acquisition of a new form of ego-identity and opens up the possibility of including the subject in a wider social environment. When raising a child, one should not forget that “negative” feelings always exist and serve as dynamic counterparts of “positive” feelings throughout life.

The transition from one form of self-identity to another causes identity crises. Crises, according to E. Erickson, are not a personality disease, not a manifestation of a neurotic disorder, but "turning points", "moments of choosing between progress and regression, integration and delay."

In the book by E. Erickson "Childhood and Society", his model of "eight human ages" is presented. According to Erickson, all people in their development go through eight crises, or conflicts. Psychosocial adaptation, achieved by a person at each stage of development, at a later age can change its character, sometimes radically. For example, children who were deprived of love and warmth in infancy may become normal adults if they receive additional attention in later stages. However, the nature of psychosocial adaptation to conflicts plays an important role in the development of a particular person. The resolution of these conflicts is cumulative, and how a person adapts to life at each stage of development influences how he deals with the next conflict.

According to Erickson's theory, development-specific conflicts become critical only at certain points in the life cycle. At each of the eight stages of personality development, one of the developmental tasks, or one of these conflicts, becomes more important than others. However, despite the fact that each of the conflicts is critical only at one of the stages, it is present throughout life. For example, the need for autonomy is especially important for children between the ages of 1 and 3, but throughout life, people must constantly check the degree of their independence, which they can show each time they enter into new relationships with other people. The stages of development given below are represented by their poles. In fact, no one becomes completely gullible or distrustful: in fact, people vary the degree of trust or distrust throughout their lives.

As a result of the struggle between positive and negative tendencies in solving basic problems during epigenesis, the main “virtues of personality” are formed - the central neoplasms of age. Since positive qualities are opposed to negative ones, the virtues of the individual have two poles - positive (in the case of solving the main social problem of age) and negative (in the case of an unsolved problem).

Thus, the basic belief versus the basic distrust gives rise to HOPE - REMOVAL; autonomy against shame and doubt: WILL - IMPULSE; initiative against guilt: PURPOSE - APATHY; hard work against feelings of inadequacy: COMPETENCE - INERTIA; identity versus diffusion of identity: LOYALTY - RENEWAL; closeness versus loneliness: LOVE - CLOSE; generation against self-absorption: CARE - REJECTION; self-integration versus loss of interest in life: WISDOM - CONDITION.

Life cycle stages and their characteristics, given by E. Erickson, presented in table. 3 (the table is given by).

1. Trust or distrust. The formation of this first form of ego-identity, like all subsequent ones, is accompanied by a developmental crisis. Its indicators by the end of the first year of life: general stress due to teething, increased awareness of oneself as a separate individual, weakening of the mother-child dyad as a result of the mother's return to professional activities and personal interests. This crisis is easier to overcome if by the end of the first year of life, the ratio between the child's basic trust in the world and the basic distrust develops in favor of the first.

2. Autonomy or shame and doubt. When children begin to walk, they discover the possibilities of their bodies and the ways to control them. They learn to eat and dress, use the toilet, and learn new ways of getting around. When a child manages to do something on his own, he gains a sense of self-control and self-confidence. But if a child constantly fails and is punished for it or called sloppy, dirty, incapable, bad, he gets used to experiencing shame and self-doubt.

3. Initiative or guilt. Children aged 4-5 years transfer their exploratory activity outside their own body. They will learn how the world works and how you can influence it. The world for them consists of both real and imaginary people and things. If their research activities are generally effective, they learn to deal with people and things in a constructive way and develop a strong sense of initiative. However, if they are severely criticized or punished, they get used to feeling guilty for many of their actions.

4. Hard work or feelings of inferiority. Between the ages of 6 and 11, children develop numerous skills and abilities at school, at home and among their peers. According to Erickson's theory, the sense of self is significantly enriched with a realistic increase in the child's competence in various areas. Comparison of oneself with peers is becoming more and more important. During this period, negative assessment of oneself in comparison with others is especially harmful.

5. Identity or mixing of roles. Before adolescence, children learn a number of different roles - a student or friend, an older brother or sister, a student of a sports or music school, etc. In adolescence and adolescence, it is important to understand these different roles and integrate them into one holistic identity. Boys and girls look for core values ​​and attitudes that encompass all of these roles. If they fail to integrate a core identity or resolve a serious conflict between two important roles with opposing value systems, the result is what Erickson calls identity diffusion.

The fifth stage in personality development is characterized by the deepest life crisis. Childhood is coming to an end. The completion of this large stage of the life path is characterized by the formation of the first integral form of ego-identity. Three lines of development lead to this crisis: this is rapid physical growth and puberty ("physiological revolution"); concern about “how I look in the eyes of others”, “what I am”; the need to find their professional vocation that meets the acquired skills, individual abilities and the requirements of society. In the adolescent identity crisis, all the critical moments of development that have been passed are re-emerged. The teenager now has to solve all the old problems consciously and with an inner conviction that it is precisely such a choice that is significant for him and for society. Then social trust in the world, independence, initiative, mastered skills will create a new integrity of the personality.

6. Closeness or isolation. In late adolescence and early adulthood, the central developmental contradiction is the conflict between intimacy and isolation. In Erickson's description, intimacy includes more than sexual intimacy. It is the ability to give a part of yourself to another person of any gender, without fear of losing your own identity. Success in establishing this kind of close relationship depends on how the five previous conflicts have been resolved.

The interval between adolescence and adulthood, when a young person seeks (by trial and error) to find his place in society, E. Erickson called a "mental moratorium." The severity of this crisis depends both on the degree of resolution of earlier crises (trust, independence, activity, etc.), and on the entire spiritual atmosphere of society. An unresolved crisis leads to a state of acute diffusion of identity and constitutes the basis of the special pathology of adolescence. Identity pathology syndrome, according to E. Erickson: regression to the infantile level and the desire to delay the acquisition of adult status as long as possible; vague but persistent state of anxiety; feelings of isolation and emptiness; constant stay in a state of something that can change your life; fear of personal communication and inability to emotionally affect people of the opposite sex; hostility and contempt for all recognized public roles.

7. Generativeness or stagnation. In adulthood, after previous conflicts are partially resolved, men and women can pay more attention and help other people. Parents sometimes find themselves helping their children. Some people can devote their energies to solving social problems without conflict. But failure in resolving previous conflicts often leads to excessive self-absorption: excessive concern for one's health, the desire to certainly satisfy one's psychological needs, preserve one's peace, etc.

8. Ego integrity or despair. In the last stages of life, people usually review the life they have lived and re-evaluate it. If a person, looking back at his life, feels satisfaction, because it was filled with meaning and active participation in events, then he comes to the conclusion that he did not live in vain and fully realized what was released to him by fate. Then he accepts his life as a whole, as it is. But if life seems to him a waste of energy and a series of missed opportunities, he has a feeling of despair. It is obvious that this or that resolution of this last conflict in a person's life depends on the cumulative experience accumulated in the course of resolving all previous conflicts.

E. Erickson's concept is called the epigenetic concept of a person's life path. As you know, the epigenetic principle is used in the study of embryonic development. According to this principle, everything that grows has a common plan. Based on this general plan, the individual parts develop. Moreover, each of them has the most favorable period for preferential development. This happens until all the parts, having developed, form a functional whole. Epigenetic concepts in biology emphasize the role of external factors in the emergence of new forms and structures and thus oppose preformist teachings. From the point of view of E. Erickson, the sequence of stages is the result of biological maturation, but the content of development is determined by what society expects from a person to which he belongs. According to E. Erickson, any person can go through all these stages, no matter what culture he belongs to, it all depends on how long his life is.

The meaning of E. Erickson's concept lies in the fact that he was the first to characterize the stages of the entire life cycle and introduced later ages into the area of ​​interests of developmental psychology. He created a psychoanalytic concept of the relationship between the self and society and formulated a number of concepts of "group identity", "ego-identity", "mental moratorium" important for practical psychology.

Erickson's epigenetic theory is an eight-step concept that describes how a person develops and changes throughout life. This is a set of views that explain the nature of the formation of an individual from the moment of his conception to old age. She influenced the understanding of how children develop in childhood and later life.

As each person progresses in the social environment, from infancy to death, he is faced with various problems that can be overcome or can lead to difficulties. Although each stage is based on the experience of earlier stages, Erickson did not believe that mastering each stage was necessary in order to move on to the next. Like other theorists of similar ideas, the scientist believed that these steps occurred in a predetermined order. This action became known as the epigenetic principle.

Similar principles

Erickson's epigenetic theory shares some similarities with Freud's work on the psychosexual stage, but with some key differences. His teacher focused on the influence of Id (It). Freud believed that personality was largely formed by the time the child was five years old, while Erickson's personality covers the entire life span.

Another important difference is that while Freud emphasized the importance of childhood experiences and unconscious desires, his follower paid more attention to the role of social and cultural influences.

Analysis of parts of the theory

There are three key components of Erickson's epigenetic theory:

1. Ego identity. An ever-changing sense of self that arises from social interactions and experiences.
2. The power of the ego. It develops when people successfully cope with each stage of development.
3. Conflict. At each stage of formation, people are faced with some type of disagreement, which serves as a turning point in the process of successive progress.

Stage 1: trust versus distrust

The world is safe and predictable, dangerous and chaotic. Erickson's epigenetic theory indicates that the first stage of psychosocial development focused on answering these important questions.

The baby enters the world completely helpless and dependent on the caregivers. Erickson believed that during these first two critical years of life, it is important that the baby learns that parents (guardians) can be trusted to meet all needs. When a child is cared for and his or her needs are adequately met, he develops a feeling that the world can be trusted.

What happens if a toddler is neglected or his or her needs are not met with any real consistency. In this scenario, he may develop a sense of distrust of the world. It can feel like an unpredictable place, and the people who are supposed to love and care for the child cannot be reliable.

Some important things to remember about the trust and distrust stage:

1. If this stage is completed successfully, the child will appear with the virtue of hope.
2. Even when problems arise, a person with this quality will feel that he can turn to loved ones for support and care.
3. Those who fail to acquire this virtue will experience fear. When a crisis occurs, they may feel hopeless, anxious, and insecure.

Stage 2: autonomy versus shame and doubt

According to the following statement in E. Erickson's epigenetic theory, as babies enter childhood, they become more and more independent. They not only begin to walk on their own, but also master the processes of performing a number of actions. Children often want to make more choices about things that affect their lives, prefer certain products and types of clothing.

These actions not only play an important role in becoming a more independent person, they also help determine whether individuals develop a sense of autonomy or doubt about their abilities. Those who successfully complete this stage of psychosocial formation will show willpower or a feeling that they can take meaningful actions that will affect what happens to them.

Children who develop this autonomy will feel confident and comfortable within themselves. Caregivers can help toddlers succeed at this stage by encouraging choice, allowing them to make decisions, and supporting this increased independence.

What actions can lead to failure at this stage is an interesting question. Parents who are overly critical, who do not allow their children to make choices, or who are overly controlling can contribute to shame and doubt. Individuals, as a rule, come out of this stage without self-esteem and self-confidence, they can become overly dependent on others.

Some important things to remember about the stages of autonomy and shame and doubt:

1. This period helps set the course for further development.
2. Children who do well during this time of growing up will have a greater sense of their own independence.
3. Those who struggle harder may feel ashamed of their diligence and ability.

Stage 3: Initiative Against Guilt

The third stage of E. Erickson's epigenetic theory is associated with the development of a sense of initiative in children. From this point onwards, peers become more important as small individuals begin to interact more with them in their neighborhood or classroom. Children begin to pretend more that they play games and communicate, often inventing fun and planning activities with their own kind.

At this stage of Erickson's epigenetic theory of development, it is important for a person to make judgments and plan their actions. Children also begin to assert more power and control over the world around them. During this period, parents and guardians should encourage them to research and make appropriate decisions.

Important points about initiative against guilt:

1. Children who do well in this stage take the initiative, while those who do not may feel guilty.
2. The virtue at the center of this rung is the goal, or the feeling that they have control and authority over certain things in the world.

Stage 4: environment versus inferiority

During school years until adolescence, children enter the psychosocial stage, which Erickson, in the epigenetic theory of development, calls "environment versus inferiority." During this time, they focus on developing a sense of competence. It is not surprising that the school plays an important role at this stage of development.

As they grow up, children acquire the ability to solve more and more complex problems. They are also interested in becoming skilled and experienced in a variety of endeavors, and they develop aptitude for learning new skills and solving problems. Ideally, children will receive support and praise for completing activities such as drawing, reading, and writing. By receiving this positive attention and reinforcement, growing individuals begin to build the confidence they need to succeed.

So what happens when children do not receive praise and attention from others for learning something new is an obvious question. Erickson, in the epigenetic theory of personality, believed that the inability to master this stage of development would ultimately lead to a feeling of inferiority and lack of confidence in one's own abilities. The main virtue that arises from the successful completion of this psychosocial stage is known as competence.

Basics of psychosocial development by industry:

1. Supporting and encouraging children helps them learn new skills while gaining a sense of competence.
2. Children who struggle at this stage may have problems with self-confidence as they get older.

Stage 5: Identity and Role Confusion

Anyone with a vivid memory of the tumultuous teenage years can probably immediately grasp the stage of Erickson's epigenetic theory of personality versus role and current events. At this stage, adolescents begin to explore the main question: "Who am I?" They focus on exploring how they feel, figuring out what they believe in, who they are and who they want to become.

In the epigenetic theory of development, Erickson expressed his opinion that the formation of personal identity is one of the most important stages of life. Progress in sense of self serves as a kind of compass that helps guide each person throughout his or her life. What does it take to develop a good personality is a question that worries many. It takes an ability to explore, which needs to be fueled by support and love. Children often go through different phases and explore different ways of expressing themselves.

Important in the stage of identity and confusion:

1. Those who are allowed to undergo this personal exploration and successfully master this stage appear with a strong sense of independence, personal involvement and a sense of self.
2. Those who are unable to complete this stage of formation often enter adulthood, confused about who they really are and what they want from themselves.

The main virtue that emerges after successfully completing this stage is known as loyalty.

Stage 6: intimacy versus isolation

Love and romance are among the main concerns of many young people, so it is not surprising that the sixth stage of E. Erickson's epigenetic theory of personality is focused on this topic. This period starts from about 18 and 19 years old and lasts up to 40 years. The central theme of this stage focuses on forming loving, lasting, and supportive relationships with others. Erickson believed that the sense of self-reliance that was established during the confusion of identity and role was vital to the ability to build strong and loving relationships.

Success during this developmental period leads to strong bonds with others, while failure can lead to feelings of isolation and loneliness.

The main virtue at this stage in E. Erickson's epigenetic theory of personality is love.

Stage 7: performance versus stagnation

The later years of adulthood are marked by the need to create something that will continue after the person leaves. In fact, people begin to feel the need to leave some kind of lasting mark on the world. This may include raising children, caring for others, or having some kind of positive impact on society. Careers, family, church groups, social organizations, and other things can foster a sense of accomplishment and pride.

Important points to remember about the epigenetic focus of Erickson's theory:

1. Those who master this developmental stage present themselves with the feeling that they have made a significant and valuable influence on the world around them and develop the core virtue that Erickson called caring.
2. People who fail to do this effectively may feel unengaged, unproductive, and even cut off from the world.

Stage 8: honesty versus despair

The final stage of E. Erickson's epigenetic theory of personality development can be briefly described in several key points. It lasts from about 65 to the end of a person's life. This may be his last stage, but still important. It is at this time that people begin to reflect on how they went through their life path, most of them ask themselves: "Have I lived a good life?" Individuals who recall important events with pride and dignity will feel satisfied, while those who look back with regret will experience bitterness or even despair.

Highlights in psychosocial development in a spirit of integrity and despair:

1. People who have successfully passed the last stage of life show themselves with a sense of wisdom and understand that they have lived a worthy and meaningful life, even though they will have to face death.
2. Those who have wasted years without meaning will experience sadness, anger, and regret.

Description of the value

Erickson's psychosocial theory is widely and highly regarded. As with any concept, it has critics, but overall it is considered fundamentally significant. Erickson was a psychoanalyst as well as a humanist. Thus, his theory is useful far beyond psychoanalysis - it is essential for any study related to personal awareness and development - of oneself or others.

If we look briefly at Erickson's epigenetic theory of personality development, we can find a noticeable, but not significant, Freudian element. Freud's fans will find this influence useful. People who disagree with him, and especially his psychosexual theory, may ignore the Freudian aspect and still find Erickson's ideas the best. His totality of views stands apart and does not depend on the concepts of his teacher and is valued for its reliability and relevance.

In addition to Freudian psychoanalysis, Erickson developed his own theory mainly from his extensive practical fieldwork, first with Native American communities and then also from his work on clinical therapy associated with leading psychiatric centers and universities. He carried out his work actively and scrupulously from the late 1940s to the 1990s.

Development of basic provisions

If we consider briefly the epigenetic theory of development of E. Erickson, we can highlight the key points that influenced the further formation of this doctrine. The concept emphatically incorporated cultural and social dimensions into Freud's biological and sexually oriented idea.

Erickson was able to do this because of his strong interest and compassion for people, especially young people, and also because his research was carried out in societies far from the more mysterious world of the psychoanalyst couch, which was essentially Freud's approach.

This helps Erickson's eight-step concept become an extremely powerful model. It is very accessible and, obviously, relevant to modern life from several points of view, for understanding and explaining how personality and behavior develop in people. Thus, Erickson's principles are of great importance in teaching, raising children, self-awareness, managing and resolving conflicts, and in general, for understanding oneself and others.

Basics for the emergence of a future model

Both Erickson and his wife Joan, who collaborated as psychoanalysts and writers, were passionately interested in the development of childhood and its impact on adult society. His work is as relevant as when he first laid out his original theory, in fact given the current pressures on society, family, relationships, and the pursuit of personal becoming and fulfillment. His ideas are probably more relevant than ever.

Studying briefly the epigenetic theory of E. Erickson, one can note the scientist's statements that people experience eight stages of psychosocial crisis, which significantly affect the development and personality of each person. Joan Erickson described the ninth stage after Eric's death, but the eight-stage model is most often referred to and considered as the standard. (Joan Erickson's work on Stage 9 appears in her 1996 revision, Completed Life Cycle: An Overview.) Her work is not regarded as canonical in the study of problems with the development of man and his personality.

The appearance of the term

Eric Erickson's epigenetic theory refers to "psychosocial crisis" (or psychosocial crises, which are plural). This term is a continuation of Sigmund Freud's use of the word crisis, which is an internal emotional conflict. You can describe this kind of disagreement as an internal struggle or challenge that a person must negotiate and deal with in order to grow and develop.

Erickson's "psychosocial" term comes from two original words, namely "psychological" (or root, "psycho", referring to the mind, brain, personality.) And "social" (external relations and environment). Occasionally you can see the concept expanded to biopsychosocial, in which "bio" refers to life as biological.

Creating stages

Considering briefly Erickson's epigenetic theory, it is possible to determine the transformation of the structure of his scientific work to assess the personality. Successfully getting through each crisis involves achieving a healthy balance or balance between two opposing dispositions.

For example, a healthy approach in the first stage of formation (trust versus distrust) can be characterized as experiencing and growing through the crisis of “Trust” (people, life and future development), as well as the passage and development of the appropriate ability for “Distrust”, where appropriate, so that not be hopelessly unrealistic or gullible.

Or to experience and grow in the second stage (autonomy versus shame and doubt), in order to be, in fact, "Autonomous" (to be your own person, not a mindless or quivering follower), but have sufficient capacity for "Shame and Doubt" to gain free-thinking and independence, as well as ethics, attentiveness and responsibility.

Erickson called these successful balanced results "Core Virtues" or "Core Benefits." He identified one particular word that represents their power acquired at each stage, which is commonly found in psychoanalyst diagrams and written theory, as well as other explanations of his work.

Erickson also identified a second supportive word, “strength,” at each stage, which, along with the core virtue, emphasized healthy outcomes at each stage and helped convey simple meaning in summaries and diagrams. Examples of core strengths and supportive strong words are “Hope and Striving” (from the first stage trust versus distrust) and “Willpower and self-control” (from the second stage autonomy versus shame and doubt).

The scientist used the word “achievement” in the context of successful results because it meant getting something clear and consistent. Psychosocial development is not complete and irreversible: any previous crisis can effectively return to any, albeit in a different guise, with successful or unsuccessful results. Perhaps this helps explain how successful ones can fall from grace and how hopeless losers can ultimately achieve great goals. No one should be complacent and everyone has hope.

System development

Later in his life, the scientist sought to warn against the interpretation of his work in the "scale of achievement" in which the stages of the crisis are the only safe achievement or the goal of the extreme "positive" option, provided once and for all. This would exclude a number of possible mistakes with the personality assessment.

E. Erickson in the epigenetic theory with age periods noted that at no stage can goodness be achieved, which is impervious to new conflicts, and that it is dangerous and inappropriate to believe in it.

The stages of the crisis are not clearly defined steps. Elements tend to overlap and blend from one stage to the next and back. It is a broad framework and concept, not a mathematical formula that accurately reproduces all people and situations.

Erickson, in the epigenetic theory of personality development, sought to indicate that the transition between stages is overlapped. Crisis times are connected to each other like intertwined fingers, not like a row of neatly folded boxes. People do not wake up suddenly one morning and enter a new stage of life. Changes do not take place in regulated, clear steps. They are graded, blended and organic. In this respect, the sense of the model is similar to other flexible human development frameworks (for example, Elisabeth Kubler-Ross's The Cycle of Sorrow and Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs).

When a person unsuccessfully goes through a stage of psychosocial crisis, he develops a tendency towards one or another of the opposing forces (either syntonic or dystonic, in Erickson's language), which then becomes a behavioral tendency or even a mental problem. Roughly speaking, you can call it a "baggage" of knowledge.

Erickson emphasized the importance of both "reciprocity" and "procreation" in his theory. The conditions are related. Reciprocity reflects the influence of generations on each other, especially in families between parents, children and grandchildren. Each potentially influences the experience of others, going through different stages of the crisis. Generativeness, actually called the location within one of the crisis stages (generativity versus stagnation, stage seven), reflects a significant relationship between adults and the best interests of individuals - their own children and, in some way, everyone else, and even the next generation.

Influence of pedigree and family

Erickson's epigenetic theory with ages notes that generations influence each other. It is obvious that the parent shapes the child's psychosocial development by his example, but, in turn, his personal growth depends on the experience of communication with the child and the pressure created. The same can be said for grandparents. Again, this helps explain why, as parents (or teachers, or siblings, or grandparents), people struggle to cope well with the young person in order to solve their emotional problems.

The psychosocial stages of Erickson's epigenetic theory clearly delineate the onset of new periods. However, depending on the individual himself, their duration may vary. In a sense, development really does peak in the seventh stage, since the eighth is more about assessment and how the person has used life. The prospect of giving and making positive changes for future generations echoes the scientist's humanitarian philosophy, and it is this, perhaps more than anything else, that has allowed him to develop such a powerful concept.

Summarizing

E. Erickson's epigenetic theory of personality development marked a significant difference from many earlier ideas in that it was focused on the stage-by-stage development that accompanies a person throughout his life. Many psychologists today favor concepts that are less focused on a set of predetermined rungs, and recognize that individual differences and experiences often mean that development can differ markedly from one person to the next.

Some criticism of Erickson's theory is that it says little about the root causes of each formation crisis. It also tends to be somewhat vague about the differences between events, which mark the difference between success and failure at each stage. In addition, the theory lacks any objective way of determining whether a person has passed a particular stage of development.

Personal development is a topic that interests both the psychologist, as a researcher of human life, and the person himself, as a user of psychological knowledge. How and what determines the transformation of an infant into a teenager, a teenager into an adult? And after growing up - what? Are there further stages, are there any peaks of personality development?

One of the answers to these questions is given by the epigenetic theory of personality development Eric Erikson- German, born in Frankfurt am Main and most of his life worked in Boston and Harvard.

Eric Erickson has always considered himself a psychoanalyst. It is all the more interesting how he was forced - and managed - to modernize psychoanalysis to meet the demands of contemporary psychotherapeutic work topics.

Psychotherapists know that clients' requests have their own fluctuations, similar to changes in passion for a particular fashion or musical direction. In the 50s, the topic of the loss of the meaning of life was topical; in the last few decades, the typical topic is “I don’t know what I want”. While Eric Erickson was working and creating (these are the thirties and fifties of the twentieth century), in the decades of the most difficult, primarily social choices, one of the most important requests was the request for “Who am I? Is this where my life is directed, am I not lost on the way? " This theme, which E. Erickson called the theme of ego identity, became the central point of his work.

The topic of ego identity and psychoanalysis

In the concept of psychoanalysis, I and society, Id and Super Ego, are presented as hostile, antagonistic principles to each other. Freud presents the relationship "child - society" as antagonistic, hostile, the history of which is a tragic confrontation between the individual and society, the struggle between two worlds - the world of childhood and the world of adults. The super-ego is a representative of the requirements of society, and the child's self is actually antisocial drives: biological needs for survival, sexual drives and the drive for death. How, then, does the psychoanalyst answer the question of the client who asks "Who am I?" “Is your true self a libido and a death drive? Your real path is just an eternal conflict with society, and that's all? "

This answer, apparently, did not suit either Erickson's clients or himself. In this situation, E. Erickson decided to consider the relationship between the individual and society as a relationship of cooperation, ensuring the harmonious development of the individual. He began to distinguish between rituals and ritualisms. Ritualisms are interventions into the personality that are antagonistic to the personality, and rituals are friendly influences of society. Ritual actions have a common meaning, understandable and shared by all participants. For example, a graduation party, when the presentation of a certificate of maturity "confers" on a young man or woman new rights and responsibilities of an adult. Such rituals give a person a sense of security, status and open up new opportunities for a person.

Moreover, if Freud assigned a decisive role to child sexuality, Erickson put sexuality on a par with other drives and interests of the child.

The main provisions of the theory of Eric Erickson

Summarizing 15 years of practical and theoretical work, Eric Erickson put forward three new positions that have become three important contributions to the study of the human "I":

1. Along with the phases of psychosexual development described by Freud (oral, anal, phallic and genital), during which the direction of attraction changes (from autoeroticism to attraction to an external object), there are also psychological stages of development of the “I”, during which the individual establishes basic guidelines in relation to himself and his social environment.
2. The formation of a personality does not end in adolescence, but extends over the entire life cycle.
3. Each stage has its own parameters of development, capable of taking on positive and negative values.

The main stages of personality development according to Eric Erickson

1. Trust and distrust

The first stage of human development corresponds to the oral phase of classical psychoanalysis and usually covers the first year of life. During this period, Erickson believes, the parameter of social interaction develops, the positive pole of which is trust, and the negative pole is distrust.

The degree of trust that a child penetrates to the world around him, to other people and to himself, to a large extent depends on the care shown to him. A baby who gets everything he wants, whose needs are quickly satisfied, who never feels sick for a long time, who is kicked and caressed, played and talked to, feels that the world, in general, is a cozy place, and people— the creatures are sympathetic and helpful. If the child does not receive proper care, does not meet loving care, then mistrust develops in him - fear and suspicion in relation to the world in general, to people in particular, and this mistrust he carries with him to other stages of his development.

It must be emphasized, however, that the question of which beginning will prevail is not decided once and for all in the first year of life, but arises anew at each subsequent stage of development. This is both hopeful and threatening. A child who comes to school with a sense of alertness may gradually become imbued with trust in some teacher who does not allow injustice to children. In doing so, he can overcome the initial distrust. But on the other hand, a child who has developed a gullible approach to life in infancy may become mistrustful of it at subsequent stages of development, if, say, in the event of a divorce of parents, an environment is created in the family filled with mutual accusations and scandals.

A favorable solution to this conflict is hope.

2. Self-reliance (autonomy) and indecision (shame and doubt)

The second stage covers the second and third years of life, coinciding with the anal phase of Freudianism. During this period, Erickson believes, the child develops independence based on the development of his motor and mental abilities. At this stage, the child learns various movements, learns not only to walk, but also to climb, open and close, push and pull, hold, release and throw. Toddlers enjoy and are proud of their new abilities and strive to do everything themselves: unfold the candies, get vitamins from the bottle, flush the toilet, etc. If the parents allow the child to do what he is capable of, and do not rush him, the child develops a feeling that he owns his muscles, his motives, himself and, to a large extent, his environment - that is, he has an independent -nost.

But if the educators are impatient and hasten to do for the child what he himself is capable of, he develops shyness and indecision. Of course, there are no parents who under no circumstances rush the child, but the child's psyche is not so unstable to react to rare events. Only if, in an effort to protect the child from efforts, the parents show constant zeal, unreasonably and relentlessly scolding him for "accidents", be it a wet bed, dirty pants, a broken cup or spilled milk, does the child feel ashamed before other people and lack of confidence in their ability to manage themselves and the environment.

If the child leaves this stage with a large share of uncertainty, then this will adversely affect the independence of both the adolescent and the adult in the future. Conversely, a child who has endured much more independence from this stage than shame and indecision will be well prepared for the development of independence in the future. And again, the relationship between independence, on the one hand, and bashfulness and uncertainty, on the other, established at this stage, can be changed in one direction or another by subsequent events.

The favorable solution to this conflict is will.

3. Entrepreneurship and guilt (in another translation - inadequacy).

The third stage usually occurs between four and five years of age. The preschooler has already acquired many physical skills, he knows how to ride a tricycle, and run, and cut with a knife, and throw stones. He begins to invent activities for himself, and not just respond to the actions of other children or imitate them. His ingenuity manifests itself both in speech and in the ability to fantasize. The social dimension of this stage, Erickson says, develops between entrepreneurship at one pole and guilt at the other. On how at this stage the parents react to the child's ventures, which of these qualities will outweigh the child's character. Children who have been given the initiative in the choice of motor activity, who run, wrestle, tinker, ride a bicycle, sled, ice skate at will, develop and consolidate their entrepreneurial spirit. It is strengthened by the willingness of the parents to answer the child's questions (intellectual enterprise) and not to interfere with his fantasy and play. But if the parents show the child that his motor activity is harmful and undesirable, that his questions are intrusive, and his games are stupid, he begins to feel guilty and carries this guilt away to later stages of life.

Favorable resolution of this conflict is the goal.

4. Skill and inferiority. (Creativity and inferiority complex)

The fourth stage is the age from six to eleven years old, the years of elementary school. Classical psychoanalysis calls them the latent phase. During this period, the son's love for his mother and jealousy for his father (for girls, on the contrary) is still in a latent state. During this period, the child develops the ability for deduction, for organized games and regulated activities. Only now, for example, are children learning how to play with pebbles and other games where you have to follow the sequence. Erickson says that the psychosocial parameter of this stage is characterized by skill on the one hand and a sense of inferiority on the other.

During this period, the child's interest in how things are arranged, how they can be mastered, adapted to something, sharpens. This age is understandable and close to Robin-zone Crusoe; In particular, the enthusiasm with which Robinson describes his activities in great detail responds to the child's awakening interest in work skills. When children are encouraged to tinker with anything, build huts and aircraft models, cook, cook, and do business, when they are allowed to complete the work they have begun, praise and reward for the results, then the child develops skill and ability for technical creativity. On the contrary, parents who see in the work activity of children as one "pampering" and "patch-cotnu", contribute to the development of their sense of incomplete value.

At this age, however, the child's environment is no longer limited to the home. Along with the family, other social institutions are beginning to play an important role in its age crises.